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75-604: The Defense Production Act (DPA) of 1950 ( Pub. L.   81–774 ) is a United States federal law enacted on September 8, 1950, in response to the start of the Korean War . It was part of a broad civil defense and war mobilization effort in the context of the Cold War . Its implementing regulations, the Defense Priorities and Allocation System (DPAS), are located at 15 CFR §§700 to 700.93. Since 1950,

150-673: A slip law and in the United States Statutes at Large after receiving the act. Thereafter, the changes are published in the United States Code . Through the process of judicial review , an act of Congress that violates the Constitution may be declared unconstitutional by the courts. A judicial declaration that an act of Congress is unconstitutional does not remove the act from the Statutes at Large or

225-670: A 2-year tariff exemption, ending in June 2024, on solar panels from Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. The technology included in Biden's invocation included solar energy; transformers and electric grid components; heat pumps; insulation; and electrolyzers, fuel cells, and platinum group metals. According to a 2023 assessment performed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Rhodium Group on behalf of

300-619: A majority, then be either signed into law by the president of the United States , be left unsigned for ten days (excluding Sundays) while Congress remains in session, or, if vetoed by the president, receive a congressional override from 2 ⁄ 3 of both houses. In the United States, acts of Congress are designated as either public laws , relating to the general public, or private laws , relating to specific institutions or individuals. Since 1957, all Acts of Congress have been designated as "Public Law X–Y" or "Private Law X–Y", where X

375-442: A wage increase. ODM had announced earlier in the year that there would be no increase in the price of steel. The steelmakers refused to engage in good-faith collective bargaining until ODM guaranteed that they would receive an increase in the price of steel, and their bargaining tactics were designed to force ODM to change its policy. The union authorized a strike to begin on January 1, 1952. But after President Truman pleaded with

450-518: Is DO , and below that are unrated contracts. Under section 721 of the Act, an inter-agency committee known as the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS) is authorized to investigate and review transactions involving foreign investment and/or real estate transactions by foreign persons and/or entities in the United States. Civil penalties may result in up to $ 250,000 per violation or

525-580: Is made by the third method, the presiding officer of the house that last reconsidered the act promulgates it. Under the United States Constitution , if the president does not return a bill or resolution to Congress with objections before the time limit expires, then the bill automatically becomes an act; however, if the Congress is adjourned at the end of this period, then the bill dies and cannot be reconsidered (see pocket veto ). If

600-410: Is sometimes used in informal speech to indicate something for which getting permission is burdensome. For example, "It takes an act of Congress to get a building permit in this town." An act adopted by simple majorities in both houses of Congress is promulgated , or given the force of law, in one of the following ways: The president promulgates acts of Congress made by the first two methods. If an act

675-739: Is the main producer of fire hoses for the United States Fire Service. Biden’s use of the DPA restarted NewView Oklahoma’s production, which had halted during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result of invoking the DPA, over 21,000 new fire hoses were able to be manufactured and delivered to the frontlines in California. In December 2021, President Biden invoked the Defense Production Act to scale production and provide

750-454: Is the number of the Congress and Y refers to the sequential order of the bill (when it was enacted). For example, P. L. 111–5 ( American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ) was the fifth enacted public law of the 111th United States Congress . Public laws are also often abbreviated as Pub. L. No. X–Y. When the legislation of those two kinds are proposed, it is called public bill and private bill respectively. The word "act", as used in

825-500: The COVID-19 outbreak in the United States, President Donald Trump invoked the Defense Production Act (DPA) through an executive order that defined ventilators and personal protective equipment as "essential to the national defense.” Trump named Director of Trade and Manufacturing Policy Peter Navarro as the policy coordinator for using the DPA in response to the COVID-19 crisis, and designated Health and Human Services Secretary Alex Azar

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900-649: The Economic Stabilization Agency , which coordinated and supervised wage and price controls. In all, 19 mobilization agencies were eventually created within ODM to control every aspect of the American economy. Truman named Charles E. Wilson , president of General Electric and a government mobilization chief in World War II, to head the ODM. Wilson became one of the most powerful people in

975-555: The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) over which system would be adopted. Although ODM had determined that research on color TV occupied the time of critically needed scientists and technicians, the research also had defense applications and could therefore proceed. However, production of the CBS color TV sets was not essential, and was banned. The ban on mass production of the CBS color television set led

1050-834: The National Security Council (NSC) and the Central Intelligence Agency , merged the Departments of War (Army and Air Force) and Navy into the Department of Defense (DOD), and established the nation's first mobilization agency, the National Security Resources Board (NSRB). The Act restricted DOD to the employment of military power and placed mobilization responsibilities with the NSRB. By 1950, however,

1125-546: The United States Department of Agriculture were authorized to use Department of Defense aircraft to import formula to the United States from overseas as long as the formula met US health and safety standards. On June 6, 2022, President Biden invoked the Defense Production Act to accelerate domestic production of green energy technology. The administration responded to growing energy costs related to Russia's invasion of Ukraine . The invocation came along with

1200-634: The closed shop . Because of perceived favoritism toward the union, Congress stripped the Wage Stabilization Board of most of its powers in late 1952. Henry H. Fowler was sworn in as director of ODM on September 8, 1952. Fowler led both ODM and its sub-agency, the National Production Authority , during his tenure as director of ODM. The Korean War ended less than a year later, on July 27, 1953. Although ODM relaxed most production, wage and price controls by

1275-455: The president to identify specific goods as "critical and strategic" and to require private businesses to accept and prioritize contracts for these materials. Title III authorizes the president to establish mechanisms (such as regulations, orders or agencies) to allocate materials, services and facilities to promote national defense. Title VII authorizes the president to control the civilian economy so that scarce and critical materials necessary to

1350-534: The 1980s, the Department of Defense (DOD) began using the contracting and spending provisions of the Defense Production Act to provide seed money to develop new technologies. The DOD has since used the Act to help develop a number of new technologies and materials, including silicon carbide ceramics, indium phosphide and gallium arsenide semiconductors , microwave power tubes, radiation-hardened microelectronics , superconducting wire, metal composites and

1425-503: The Act has been reauthorized over 50 times. It has been periodically amended and remains in force. The Defense Production Act (DPA) has undergone several amendments since it was first passed in 1950. These amendments have entailed alterations to its definition of “national defense.” Four of the major amendments are described below: Through continued reauthorization, the DPA has been permitted to enhance provision of civil transportation; energy; and food, health, and industrial resources, in

1500-553: The Biden Administration as necessary for promoting the national defense. The Administration’s primary strategy for combating climate change involves reliance on critical minerals to create large-scale batteries intended to electrify transportation and energy sources. The Biden Administration’s energy transition agenda, facilitated by the DPA, has also created conflict amongst environmentalists. Some are in favor of capitalizing on minerals like lithium to quickly electrify

1575-425: The DPA again to supply equipment to Merck facilities needed to safely manufacture Johnson & Johnson vaccines . California experienced a severe wildfire season in 2021. In September of that year, President Biden invoked the Defense Production Act to increase the national production of fire hoses. NewView Oklahoma, a manufacturing company which provides accessible employment to visually impaired and blind workers,

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1650-657: The DPA and the IRA was intended to advance the Justice40 Initiative, which aims to ensure that forty percent of the benefits (economic and otherwise) to come from federal investing in measures to halt climate change will be reaped by disadvantaged and marginalized communities. According to the DoE, heat pumps “efficiently provide comfortable temperatures for heating and cooling homes and businesses in all climates” and can facilitate consumer savings. The invocation will result in

1725-481: The DPA for "essential medicines, medical countermeasures, and critical inputs." Act of Congress#Public law, private law, designation An act of Congress is a statute enacted by the United States Congress . Acts may apply only to individual entities (called private laws ), or to the general public ( public laws ). For a bill to become an act, the text must pass through both houses with

1800-552: The DPA. At the beginning of April 2020, Trump expanded his use of the DPA to require a total of six private companies, now including General Electric and Medtronic, to secure supplies to manufacture ventilators. On April 28, 2020, Trump invoked the DPA with regards to the food supply chain, giving the United States Department of Agriculture as well as Agriculture Secretary Sonny Perdue the authority to require meat and poultry plants to maintain production. This order

1875-419: The Defense Production Act to accelerate and assure the production capacity of "printed circuit boards and advanced packaging, their components, and the manufacturing systems that produce such systems and components." On October 30, 2023, President Biden invoked the Defense Production Act to "require that developers of the most powerful AI systems share their safety test results and other critical information with

1950-685: The Defense Production Act to classify two sets of products as "critical to national defense". The first referenced "items affecting aerospace structures and fibers, radiation-hardened microelectronics, radiation test and qualification facilities, and satellite components and assemblies". The second referenced "items affecting adenovirus vaccine production capability; high strength, inherently fire and ballistic resistant, co-polymer aramid fibers industrial capability; secure hybrid composite shipping container industrial capability; and three-dimensional ultra-high density microelectronics for information protection industrial capability". On March 18, 2020, in response to

2025-531: The Defense Production Act to force gas suppliers to continue to supply Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E), the largest California energy provider at the time, with gas regardless of loss as a result of suppliers shutting off gas supplies due to the PG&;E's non-payment during the 2000–01 California electricity crisis . The order was later rescinded under the George W. Bush administration, but it resulted in

2100-772: The FCC to choose the RCA system by default in 1953. That system was used in the US until June 12, 2009, when it was succeeded by the ATSC set of standards. In 1951 and 1952, ODM became embroiled in a steel strike which led to a landmark ruling by the United States Supreme Court . In October 1951, the United Steel Workers of America (USWA) began negotiating with U.S. Steel and five other major steelmakers for

2175-615: The IRA’s clean energy goals. The assessment also found that at its time of publication, 78% of the IRA-incentivized clean energy investments were intended for counties with below-average median household incomes. Their residents are intended to be earlier recipients of the five key energy technologies identified by the Biden Administration (solar; transformers and electric grid components; heat pumps; insulation; and electrolyzers, fuel cells, and platinum group metals). On November 17, 2023,

2250-461: The Korean War unraveled the administration's mobilization effort. A panicked public began hoarding and the administration accelerated its rearmament plans. Inflation jumped from 1.3 percent to 7.9 percent. By December, public support for the war had fallen significantly, both Truman and his intelligence experts expected World War III to break out by spring, and Senator Joseph McCarthy was using

2325-525: The NSRB was dormant and DOD had recaptured authority over military procurement . When North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950, President Harry S. Truman attempted to use the NSRB as the nation's mobilization agency. Truman quadrupled the defense budget to $ 50 billion, and the NSRB placed controls on prices, wages and raw materials. Inflation soared and shortages in food, consumer goods and housing appeared. By October 1950, inflation had abated and shortages were easing. The intervention of China in

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2400-487: The Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization. ODM radically changed the way the federal government approached defense procurement and mobilization. Much of the subsequent Cold War defense procurement apparatus was created by ODM, and still exists to this day. ODM also made long-lasting economic changes to America's industrial base, changes which led to unintended political and demographic consequences. ODM shifted most of

2475-737: The Office of Defense Mobilization. The Office of Defense Mobilization was established by Executive Order 10193 on December 16, 1950. The agency was led by a presidentially-appointed director, who was subject to confirmation by the Senate and who was a member of the NSC. ODM was part of the Executive Office of the President . ODM consisted of two main organizational components: The Defense Production Administration , which established production goals and supervised production operations; and

2550-427: The U.S. government" when "developing any foundation model that poses a serious risk to national security, national economic security, or national public health." On November 27, 2023, President Biden announced he would invoke the Defense Production Act "to enable investment in domestic manufacturing of essential medicines, medical countermeasures, and critical inputs that have been deemed by the President as essential to

2625-572: The US Department of Energy (DOE) announced $ 169 million funded by the IRA for nine projects at 15 sites to accelerate US-made electric heat pump manufacturing. On February 14, 2024, the DoE announced a further $ 63 million funded by the Inflation Reduction Act to accelerate the growth of domestic manufacturing of residential heat pumps, heat pump water heaters, and other heat pump systems and components. The joint invocation of

2700-482: The United States Code; rather, it prevents the act from being enforced. However, the act as published in annotated codes and legal databases is marked with annotations indicating that it is no longer good law. Office of Defense Mobilization President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's pre-war mobilization efforts had been resisted by Congress , and lacked coordination. One of the most important lessons

2775-614: The United States Department of the Treasury, which mapped American clean energy investments before and after the passing of the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) in August of 2022, these investments grew quickly in areas with a history of fossil fuel production. Communities in these areas have experienced prolonged and disproportionate exposure to pollutants generated by such processes, increasing their priority to benefit from

2850-516: The United States Geological Survey, these minerals are "called critical or strategic owing to concerns about risk of supply interruption and the cost of such a disruption”. The United States currently relies largely on foreign sources, such as China, Russia, South Africa, Brazil, and Canada, for the mining and processing of these metals. Establishing a domestic supply of strategic and critical minerals has been regarded by

2925-635: The authority to determine quantities of essential supplies. Trump received criticism for not taking advantage of the DPA’s capabilities sooner. Fifty-seven Democratic representatives in the House of Representatives sent a letter to Trump during the week prior, urging him to make use of the DPA for public health purposes, and Democratic Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi warned that “we must put more testing, more protective equipment, and more ventilators into

3000-424: The building of public schools to divert additional steel to national defense needs. On October 25, 1951, ODM ordered a halt to the mass production of color television sets by CBS . CBS had developed a color system which was partly mechanical and partly electronic in nature. RCA had already developed a purely electronic color television system , and was engaged in a long and bitter legal battle with CBS before

3075-509: The country. Truman sent messages to Congress on April 9 and again on April 21 announcing his action. The steel companies, led by Youngstown Sheet and Tube , filed suit in federal district court seeking a preliminary injunction preventing Sawyer from seizing the steel mills. The District Court for the District of Columbia refused to grant a preliminary injunction, and scheduled a trial to be held on April 25. Despite this initial setback,

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3150-494: The creation of new jobs, mostly in manufacturing, in disadvantaged communities across the eastern half of the United States. On March 11, 2023, President Biden invoked the Defense Production Act to accelerate the rebuilding and expansion of the domestic industrial base on hypersonic technologies, which includes "airbreathing engines, advanced avionics position navigation and guidance systems, and constituent materials for hypersonic systems." On March 27, 2023, President Biden invoked

3225-400: The dispersal of wartime manufacturing plants across the nation. The Defense Production Act played a vital role in the establishment of the domestic aluminum and titanium industries in the 1950s. Using the Act, Department of Defense provided capital and interest-free loans, and directed mining and manufacturing resources as well as skilled laborers to these two processing industries. The DPA

3300-406: The economy was no longer threatened with recession. Nevertheless, national production capacity continued to lag. In August 1951, additional controls were placed on the economy. Any manufacturer seeking raw materials had to first obtain a permit from ODM before purchasing such materials. ODM also began to control the use of steel for building and automobile production, even significantly restricting

3375-579: The expansion of blackouts in California for several months and PG&E's bankruptcy. In 2011, President Barack Obama invoked the Defense Production Act to force telecommunications companies, under criminal penalties, to provide detailed information to the Commerce Department's Bureau of Industry and Security on the use of foreign-manufactured hardware and software in the companies' networks, as part of efforts to combat Chinese cyberespionage . On June 13, 2017, President Donald Trump invoked

3450-610: The fall, many restrictions continued as the Cold War worsened. After the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as president in November 1952, Fowler resigned from ODM in early 1953. Eisenhower appointed Arthur Flemming ODM director. Flemming served for most of the Eisenhower administration, overseeing the conversion of the defense industry to civilian uses. Flemming resigned on February 6, 1957. Eisenhower appointed Gordon Gray director of ODM on March 14, 1957. Gray's tenure

3525-404: The federal government drew from World War II was that the nation needed a permanent, rationalized mobilization apparatus. The nature of nuclear war, in which mobilization would occur in weeks rather than months, made the establishment of a mobilization structure even more imperative. The National Security Act of 1947 established this new mobilization structure. It authorized the creation of

3600-511: The federal government, and the press began calling him "co-president". Wilson quickly took control of the economy. All raw materials were under the control of ODM, which rationed them to the civilian economy. Production quotas were set, and businesses ordered to supply the government with goods and services. Companies which failed to meet their production quotas were threatened with seizure by ODM. Companies found to be secretly diverting raw materials to civilian uses were severely punished through

3675-448: The hands of our front-line workers immediately.” On March 23, 2020, Trump issued an executive order classifying "health and medical resources necessary to respond to the spread of COVID-19" as subject to the authority granted by the DPA to prohibit hoarding and price gouging. Automotive manufacturers such as General Motors (GM) and Ford Motor Co. were identified as private companies capable of focusing on ventilator production in response to

3750-666: The military setbacks in Korea to attack the administration and push his own political agenda. Confronted with the failure of the NSRB, an economy on the verge of collapse, and a mobilization effort which was faltering and unable to meet the needs of accelerated production plans, President Truman declared a national emergency on December 16, 1950. Using the powers granted to him by the Defense Production Act (which had been enacted only in September 1950), Truman created

3825-585: The mining and processing of rare earth minerals . In June 1994, President Bill Clinton invoked the Defense Production Act to implement national security resource preparedness during disasters under the advisement of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) director. The order allows FEMA work with other federal departments to order producers and distributors to prioritize resources in preparation of and in times of disasters. In January 2001, President Bill Clinton invoked

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3900-407: The name of the national defense. Related proposed legislation, never enacted, would have amended the Defense Production Act during national emergencies. Upon implementation by Congress, Defense Resources Act amendments to the DPA authorized the president to execute mobilization measures including price controls. The Defense Production Act currently contains three major sections. Title I authorizes

3975-543: The nation's defense plants away from the Northeast and Midwest to the West, Southwest, and Southeast. This contributed to a 50-year industrial decline in the former two regions from which they have not yet recovered. Meanwhile, large numbers of workers moved South and West to seek employment with defense and defense-related firms. This contributed to realignment in the nation's political power structure. ODM also initiated

4050-404: The national defense effort are available for defense needs. The original act included four other sections that expired and were repealed under current law. These allowed the president to seize private property under Title II; fix wages and prices and implement rationing of goods under Title IV; use force to settle labor disputes under Title V; and control real estate credit under Title VI. Although

4125-403: The national defense." An initial investment of $ 35 million is identified by the Department of Health and Human Services for domestic production of materials utilized for sterile injectable medicines. In addition, the Department of Defense was instructed to issue a report on reducing reliance on foreign suppliers that are high-risk to pharmaceutical supply chain. On December 27, 2023, Biden invoked

4200-420: The needed parts and labor training to support Virginia -class attack submarines. In March 2022, President Biden invoked the Defense Production Act to increase the extraction of minerals deemed necessary for the clean energy transition in the United States, which include lithium, nickel, cobalt, graphite, and manganese used in large-capacity batteries for energy storage and electric vehicles . As defined by

4275-509: The other functions of the Act are administered by the Office of Strategic Industries and Economic Security (SIES) in the Bureau of Industry and Security in the Department of Commerce . The Defense Priorities and Allocations System institutes a rating system for contracts and purchase orders. The highest priority is DX , which must be approved by the Secretary of Defense. The next level down

4350-403: The president can no longer fix wages and prices of goods, the president can still order to prevent hoarding and selling of designated items "in excess of prevailing market prices" under Title I in section 102 of the Act. The president's designation of products under the jurisdiction of the DPA is the authority of the Act most often used by the Department of Defense (DOD) since the 1970s. Most of

4425-470: The president invoke the Taft-Hartley Act and force the steelworkers back to work. But Truman, needing labor's support in the 1952 presidential campaign, refused to do so. Wilson resigned as director of ODM on March 31, 1952, in protest against Truman's support of the union. Presidential aide John R. Steelman became Acting Director of ODM. Truman was unwilling to order Steelman to implement

4500-627: The president lacked the authority to seize the steel mills. The Court said the President had no authority under the Constitution to seize private property during national emergency. Absent a declaration of war, the President required Congressional authorization to seize the steel mills, and this the chief executive lacked. The government returned the mills to their owners hours later. The USWA struck on June 4. The strike lasted 51 days. The supply of steel shrank to almost nothing, armament deliveries dropped by 25 percent, and ammunition and airplane assembly plants shut down. Truman began preparations to draft

4575-445: The president rejects a bill or resolution while the Congress is in session, a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress is needed for reconsideration to be successful. Promulgation in the sense of publishing and proclaiming the law is accomplished by the president, or the relevant presiding officer in the case of an overridden veto, delivering the act to the archivist of the United States . The archivist provides for its publication as

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4650-472: The steelmakers were successful: The district court granted a permanent injunction on April 25. The government appealed to the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit . The Court of Appeals, sitting en banc , stayed the permanent injunction on May 2 pending resolution of the case by the U.S. Supreme Court. A meeting between USWA and the steelmakers on May 3 nearly led to a tentative agreement on

4725-472: The steelworkers into the military under Section 18 of the Selective Service Act of 1948 , and public opinion began to turn against the union. These factors led Murray to agree to negotiations with the steelmakers. The strike ended on July 24, 1952. The USWA achieved a 16-cent-an-hour wage increase, and an increase in fringe benefits of about 6-cents-an-hour. The union also achieved a form of

4800-488: The term "act of Congress", is a common, not a proper noun . The capitalization of the word "act" (especially when used standing alone to refer to an act mentioned earlier by its full name) is deprecated by some dictionaries and usage authorities. However, the Bluebook requires "Act" to be capitalized when referring to a specific legislative act. The United States Code capitalizes "act". The term "act of Congress"

4875-564: The transaction within a 15-day presidential review period. The Defense Production Act was first used during the Korean War to establish a large defense mobilization infrastructure and bureaucracy. Under the authority of the Act, President Harry S. Truman eventually established the Office of Defense Mobilization , instituted wage and price controls , strictly regulated production in heavy industries such as steel and mining, prioritized and allocated industrial materials in short supply, and ordered

4950-452: The transportation industry, while others caution against mining due to the process’s long-term consequences for ecosystems. On May 18, 2022, President Biden invoked the Defense Production Act in response to the 2022 United States infant formula shortage , requiring manufacturers to prioritize fulfilling orders of formula ingredients to key suppliers before fulfilling other orders. The United States Department of Health and Human Services and

5025-547: The union for a delay, USWA president Philip Murray agreed to postpone the strike for 60 days. President Truman referred the wage dispute to ODM's Wage Stabilization Board (WSB). In March 1952, the WSB recommended a 16.5-cent-an-hour wage increase. The steelmakers lobbied Congress, DOD and defense manufacturers, opposing any wage increase unless there was an accompanying price increase. The pressure led Congress to threaten to overturn any WSB wage increase. Republicans demanded that

5100-466: The union's terms. But during the meeting, word arrived that the Supreme Court had granted certiorari and accepted the case. The steelmakers backed out of the agreement, hoping that the court would rule in their favor. The Supreme Court heard oral argument for two days, May 12 and May 13. Arguing the case for the government was Solicitor General Philip B. Perlman , and representing the union

5175-412: The value of the transaction, whichever is greater, on any persons and/or entities that willfully violated CFIUS regulations, and any mitigation orders, conditions, or agreements imposed by CFIUS. The CFIUS serves as an administrative body to refer and advise the president should the transaction need to be rejected or limited. The law only grants the president the authorization and decision to reject or limit

5250-435: The wage increase for fear it would ruin his wage policies, but he was also unwilling to rein in the union. With no wage increase forthcoming, the union gave notice on April 4, 1952, that it would strike at 12:01 a.m. on April 9. A few hours before the strike was to begin, Truman issued Executive Order 10340, which directed Secretary of Commerce Charles W. Sawyer to take possession of and operate steel mills throughout

5325-894: The withdrawal of lucrative government contracts, fines, and the imposition of government supervisors on-site at the workplace. Defense plants, concentrated at the time near existing manufacturing centers and where electrical power was plentiful, were dispersed across the Southeast and Deep South . The government restricted investment in new plant equipment so that only investments meeting national security needs were made. Additionally, ODM invested millions of dollars in new plant and equipment to rapidly expand production capacity. Strict price controls were placed on all goods and services, and wages were subject to federal government approval and control. Black marketeers were severely punished with fines and jail sentences. Wilson's austerity program worked: By 1951, inflation had fallen back to 1.9 percent, and

5400-581: Was Arthur Goldberg , general counsel for the USWA and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (and a future Supreme Court justice). Former Solicitor General John W. Davis argued the case for the steelmakers. On June 2, 1952, the Supreme Court handed down its decision. In Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer , 343 U.S. 579 (1952)—a landmark case on the scope of presidential powers—the Court ruled that

5475-430: Was also met with criticism over coronavirus safety concerns for workers at such plants. On December 8, 2020, Trump claimed that he would invoke the DPA to produce vaccine doses, but he did not do so before the end of his term. In January 2021, President Joe Biden invoked the DPA on his second day in office to increase production of supplies related to the pandemic, such as protective equipment. On March 2, Biden invoked

5550-438: Was also used in the 1950s to ensure that government-funded industries were geographically dispersed across the United States to prevent the industrial base from being destroyed by a single nuclear attack. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the DPA increasingly was used to diversify the US energy mix by funding the trans-Alaskan pipeline, the US synthetic fuels corporation, and research into liquefied natural gas . Beginning in

5625-517: Was short-lived, however. In early 1958, pursuant to the authority granted the chief executive under the "Reorganization Act of 1949" (5 U.S.C. 901), President Eisenhower issued Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1958. The Plan, to take effect on July 1, 1958, consolidated ODM with the Federal Civil Defense Administration . The successor agency was titled the Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization (ODCM) and then renamed

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