151-937: Montagnard ( / ˌ m ɒ n . t ə n ˈ j ɑːr d / ) is an umbrella term for the various indigenous peoples of the Central Highlands of Vietnam . The French term Montagnard ( [mɔ̃.ta.ɲaʁ] ) signifies a mountain dweller, and is a carryover from the French colonial period in Vietnam. In Vietnamese , they are known by the term người Thượng ( lit. ' highlanders ' ), although this term can also be applied to other minority ethnic groups in Vietnam . In modern Vietnam, both terms are archaic, and indigenous ethnic groups are referred to as đồng bào ( lit. ' compatriots ' ) or người dân tộc thiểu số ( lit. ' minority people ' ). Earlier they were referred to pejoratively as
302-704: A Di -ruled state that had briefly unified northern China. In the aftermath of that battle, the Former Qin state splintered, and Jin armies recaptured the lands south of the Yellow River . The Eastern Jin was eventually usurped by General Liu Yu in 420 replaced with the Liu Song dynasty . The Eastern Jin dynasty is considered the second of the Six Dynasties . During the Three Kingdoms period,
453-973: A Congress of the Southern National Minorities was held in Pleiku under the auspices of the Viet Minh . Ho Chi Minh , in his letter addressing the Congress, recognized the multinational nature of his proposed Vietnamese state which would be a country of the Kinh majority and 'national' minorities alike. As the struggle broke out between the French and the Viet Minh, the Montagnards were split. Later communist Vietnamese historiography would glorify resistance from Montagnard populations including
604-508: A Son Phòng (mountain defense) program was laid out to prevent Hre tribal revolt as well as to collect taxes from friendly Montagnard tribes. The Son Phong program was dismantled by the French in 1898, as it had become outdated and corrupted. Contacts between the Montagnards and Westerners started in the sixteenth century with Portuguese missionaries, followed by Dutch traders and French missionaries. European Jesuits such as Christoforo Borri reported tribes known as kemois (barbarians) dwelling in
755-463: A bitter blow from which they never quite recovered. There was also conflict between the various northern immigrant clans. This led to a virtual balance of power, which somewhat benefited the emperor's rule. Special "commanderies of immigrants" and "white registers" were created for the massive amounts of northern Han Chinese who moved south during the Eastern Jin. The southern Chinese aristocracy
906-643: A colony in New Mexico. However, the heartland of the Spanish colonies remained New Spain (including Mexico and most of Central America) and Peru (including most of South America). In the 17th century, French, English and Dutch trading posts multiplied in northern America to exploit whaling, fishing and fur trading. French settlements progressed up the St Lawrence river to the Great Lakes and down
1057-551: A context which constantly seemed to question the legitimacy of their actions. Despite previous promises, the Vietnamese Communist leaders did not care about the Montagnards after the war. Vietnamese colonization of the Highlands resumed. Montagnard lands were seized and given to coffee and aluminum companies. The anticommunist wing of FULRO decided to continue their insurgency against now-unified Vietnam. Purges from
1208-532: A definition of Indigenous peoples stating that, "such a definition is not necessary for purposes of protecting their human rights." In determining coverage of Indigenous peoples, the commission uses the criteria developed in documents such as ILO Convention No. 169 and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The commission states that self-identification as indigenous
1359-491: A deliberate strategy in defending their claims against European rivals. Although the establishment of colonies throughout the world by various European powers aimed to expand those powers' wealth and influence, settler populations in some localities became anxious to assert their own autonomy. For example, settler independence movements in thirteen of the British American colonies were successful by 1783, following
1510-549: A dominant cultural model. Estimates of the population of Indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 600 million. There are some 5,000 distinct Indigenous peoples spread across every inhabited climate zone and inhabited continent of the world. Most Indigenous peoples are in a minority in the state or traditional territory they inhabit and have experienced domination by other groups, especially non-Indigenous peoples. Although many Indigenous peoples have experienced colonization by settlers from European nations, Indigenous identity
1661-518: A genetic survey conducted in 2019 by Macholdt et al., two largest Montagnards groups, the Jarai , Rade , are genetically distinct from the mainstream Vietnamese ethnic groups. According to mitochondrial analyses on Jarai and Rade individuals, their paternal ancestors were a dark-skinned and woolly hair people related to Andamanese peoples , and their maternal ancestry mainly descended from a group of Polynesians who arrived much later. This study underlines
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#17327809696141812-637: A heavily outnumbered Eastern Jin force inflicted a devastating defeat on the state of Former Qin at the Battle of Fei River . After this battle, the Former Qin—which had recently unified northern China—began to collapse, and the Jin dynasty recovered the lands south of the Yellow River . Some of these lands were later lost, but the Jin regained them once more when Liu Yu defeated the northern states in his northern expeditions of 409–416. Despite successes against
1963-636: A higher proportion than that of the Viets , and the North Vietnamese were seen by some Montagnards as propounding a heavily centralized state that would not value Montagnard Degar local priorities or religious practices. Below is a list of officially recognized ethnic groups in Vietnam that are indigenous to the Central Highlands and nearby areas, with a total population of approximately 2.25 million. They speak Austroasiatic languages of
2114-621: A movement known as BAJARAKA (the name is made up of the first letters of prominent tribes; similar to the later Nicaraguan Misurasata ) to unite the tribes against the Vietnamese. There was a related, well-organized political and (occasionally) military force within the Montagnard communities known by the French acronym, FULRO, or United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races . FULRO's objectives were autonomy and civil rights for
2265-625: A particular place – indeed how we/they came to be a place. Our/their relationships to land comprise our/their epistemologies, ontologies, and cosmologies". Indigenous peoples such as the Maasai and the Māori have oral traditional histories involving migration to their current location from somewhere else. Anthropologist Manvir Singh states that the term may lack coherence, pointing to inconsistencies in which ethnic groups are called Indigenous or not, and notes several scholars who suggest that it instead acts as
2416-459: A peak in the 1930s when French state officials openly tried to convert the Montagnards to Buddhism . Several plans were proposed to colonize the highlands. Some believed that the Montagnards should be Christianized but their original culture also should be respected and preserved. Other Social-Darwinists pushed as far as proposing the colonization should be done with a large number of Vietnamese settlers, mainly Catholic, that would eventually outnumber
2567-517: A python who was believed to be an incarnation of the Python God called Dam Klan. Sam Bram distributed magic water (Jarai: la Iun) to his followers, and preached about how the expulsion of white people and Vietnamese from the highlands would fulfill a Biblical prophecy . The new faith spread quickly to Kontum, Quảng Nam , Quảng Ngãi, and to Rhade recruits of the French garrison of Buôn Ma Thuột . Followers of Sam Bram then attacked French patrols in
2718-615: A regular basis. Missionary activities succeeded in converting the Bahnar tribes to Catholicism, but found difficulty with other tribes such as the Sedang , the Jarai , and the Mnong who refused to accept French colonial rule and industrial encroachment of their village lands. Resistance from the Sedang and Mnong would last as late as 1914. That said, there was more rivalry than cooperation between
2869-536: A relabeling of discredited and colonial ideas about "primitive" people. Singh states that some Indigenous people argue that the term and identity has resulted in pressure to appear "primordial" and "unchanging", and erases complex and modern identities. Other views It is sometimes argued that all Africans are Indigenous to Africa, all Asians are Indigenous to parts of Asia, or that there can be no Indigenous peoples in countries which did not experience large-scale Western settler colonialism. Many countries have avoided
3020-555: A source of poverty, writing that "the Moi are always hungry." He wrote that he wondered if a French decree of 1875 that prohibited agricultural practices of the rây (shifting cultivation) on the Montagnards was strictly enforced, that the Montagnard might starve and go extinct. Nouet believed that a Vietnamese migration into the Central Highlands would set up a social Darwinist "survival of the fittest" scenario that would be good for both groups. French missionaries converted some Montagnards to
3171-488: A state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model. No definition of Indigenous peoples has been adopted by a United Nations agency. The Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues states, "in the case of the concept of 'indigenous peoples', the prevailing view today is that no formal universal definition of
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#17327809696143322-419: A visionary who had understood the locals. The result was the French administration presenting itself to the Montagnards as a friendly, if stern, father figure that protected them from the Kinh people, justifying the French administration as preserving Montagnard autonomy. The French military also sought to be ready to use the Highlands should a war with Japan come and they need to retreat inland. In April 1946,
3473-539: Is a fundamental criterion. The World Bank states, "Indigenous Peoples are distinct social and cultural groups that share collective ancestral ties to the lands and natural resources where they live, occupy or from which they have been displaced." Amnesty International does not provide a definition of Indigenous peoples but states that they can be identified according to certain characteristics: Academics and other scholars have developed various definitions of Indigenous peoples. In 1986–87, José Martínez Cobo, developed
3624-482: Is approximately four million, of whom about one million are Montagnards. The 30 or so Montagnard tribes in the Central Highlands comprise more than nineteen different ethnic groups who speak languages drawn primarily from the Malayo-Polynesian , Tai , and Austroasiatic language families. The main tribes, in order of population, are the Jarai , Rade , Bahnar , Koho , Mnong , and Stieng . According to
3775-466: Is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples in the United Nations or international law. Various national and international organizations, non-government organizations, governments, Indigenous groups and scholars have developed definitions or have declined to provide a definition. As a reference to a group of people, the term "indigenous" was first used by Europeans to differentiate
3926-428: Is not determined by Western colonization. The rights of Indigenous peoples are outlined in national legislation, treaties and international law. The 1989 International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples protects Indigenous peoples from discrimination and specifies their rights to development, customary laws, lands, territories and resources, employment, education and health. In 2007,
4077-850: Is not exactly known. Then the lodged Huaide County was also established in Jiankang, around 320. According to the Book of Song : 晉永嘉大亂，幽、冀、青、並、兗州及徐州之淮北流民，相率過淮，亦有過江在晉陵郡界者……又徙流民之在淮南者于晉陵諸縣，其徙過江南及留在江北者，並立僑郡縣以司牧之。徐、兗二州或治江北，江北又僑立幽、冀、青、並四州……(After Disaster of Yongjia, the refugees from You, Ji, Qing, Bing, Yan and Xu provinces came across the Huai River, some even came across the Yangtze River and stayed in Jinling Commandery... The lodged administrative divisions were established to govern them. The seats of Xu and Yan provinces perhaps were moved to
4228-507: Is objected by scholars such as Oscar Salemink, who describes a similar pattern of Evangelization of indigenous peoples around the world, especially in the Global South , regardless of whatever political regimes, but in Vietnam the rhetorics of anti-communist vindications blame it on the communist ideology. University of London Professor Seb Rumsby further argues that Kinh chauvinism conjoint with Western media narrative accidentally push
4379-736: Is rarely used in Europe, where very few indigenous groups are recognized, with the exception of groups such as the Sámi . Jin dynasty (266%E2%80%93420) The Jin dynasty or Jin Empire , sometimes distinguished as the Sima Jin or the Two Jins , was an imperial dynasty in China that existed from 266 to 420. It was founded by Sima Yan , eldest son of Sima Zhao , who had previously been declared
4530-442: Is well known for the quality of its greenish celadon porcelain wares, which immediately followed the development of proto-celadon . Jar designs often incorporated animal, as well as Buddhist, figures. Examples of Yue ware are also known from the Jin dynasty. After the fall of Chang'an and the execution of Emperor Min of Jin , Sima Rui, posthumously known as Emperor Yuan , was enthroned as Jin emperor in 318. He reestablished
4681-560: The Book of Jin : 今九域同規，大化方始，臣等以為宜皆蕩除末法，一擬古制， 以土斷 ，定自公卿以下，皆以所居為正，無復懸客遠屬異土者。 然承魏氏凋弊之跡，人物播越，仕無常朝，人無定處，郎吏蓄於軍府，豪右聚於都邑，事體駁錯，與古不同。謂九品既除，宜先開移徙，聽相並就。且明貢舉之法，不濫於境外，則冠帶之倫將不分而自均，即 土斷 之實行矣。 Hence, it was perhaps initially proposed by these two people, but was only seriously implemented during the Eastern Jin and the Southern dynasties. Taoism was polarized in the Jin dynasty. The Jin emperors repressed Taoists harshly, but also tried to exploit it, given
Montagnard (Vietnam) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4832-814: The American Revolutionary War . This resulted in the establishment of the United States of America as an entity separate from the British Empire . The United States continued and expanded European colonial doctrine through adopting a version of the discovery doctrine as law in 1823 with the US Supreme Court case Johnson v. McIntosh . Statements at the Johnson court case illuminated the United States' support for
4983-539: The Catholic Church in the nineteenth century, but American missionaries converted more to Protestantism in the 1920s and 1930s. Of the approximately one million Montagnards, close to half are Protestant, and around 200,000 are Roman Catholic. This made Vietnam's Communist Party suspicious of the Montagnards, particularly during the Vietnam War, since it was thought that they would be more inclined to help
5134-507: The Ho Chi Minh trail , where they would play crucial roles such as recruiting Montagnard tribesmen into Vietcong guerrillas and spreading Marxist works and propaganda in indigenous languages to villages. It was estimated by the CIA that in 1961 roughly half of the highlander population of the Central Highlands were NLF sympathizers, if not outright supporters. In 1958, the Montagnard launched
5285-578: The Katu , H're , Bahnar , and Cor tribes that aided the Viet Minh. Still, Kontum was a French stronghold, and the French rapidly reconquered the Central Highlands from 1945 to 1946. While the French had control of the Central Highlands and established the Montagnard autonomous region, their control was limited outside the major cities as time went on. Montagnard recruits to the French forces sometimes deserted in disgust at poor treatment from French officers, who would use their services for hard labor. In 1950
5436-517: The Katuic and Bahnaric branches, as well as Chamic languages (which belong to the Austronesian language family ). Population statistics are from the 2009 Vietnam Population Census. Listed by province , from north to south as well as west to east: In 1962, the population of the Montagnard people in the Central Highlands was estimated to number as many as one million. Today, the population
5587-591: The Michigan State University Vietnam Advisory Group (MSUG), in a letter to Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington DC in 1956, expressed that: "This request may seem surprising, but the fact is that Viet-Nam has an Indian problem of its own, resembling in certain respects that of our own." Meanwhile, the North Vietnamese were sending back trained Montagnard communist cadres back to the Central Highlands through
5738-452: The People's Army of Vietnam in 1976 and 1979 revealed that there were some Montagnards in its senior positions. FULRO continued the fight against the united Vietnamese government; the insurgency lasted into the mid-1980s. Due to antireligious campaign of the Vietnamese communist government in 1970s, many Montagnard traditional animist religions were condemned as superstitious and excluded, as
5889-659: The Sima clan—with its most accomplished individual being Sima Yi —rose to prominence within the kingdom of Cao Wei that dominated northern China. Sima Yi was the regent of Cao Wei, and in 249 he instigated a coup d'état known as the Incident at Gaoping Tombs , the Sima clan began to surpass the Cao clan's power in the kingdom. After Sima Yi's death in 251, Sima Yi's eldest son Sima Shi succeeded his father as regent of Cao Wei, maintaining
6040-617: The United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) was on 9 August 1982 and this date is now celebrated as the International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples . In the 21st century, the concept of Indigenous peoples is understood in a wider context than only the colonial experience. The focus has been on self-identification as indigenous peoples, cultural difference from other groups in
6191-740: The mọi . Sometimes the term Degar is used for the group as well. Most of those living in the United States refer to themselves as Montagnards, while those living in Vietnam refer to themselves by their individual ethnic group. The Montagnards are most covered in English-language scholarship for their participation in the Vietnam War , where they were heavily recruited by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and its American and Australian allies. The Montagnards tended to be Christian at
Montagnard (Vietnam) - Misplaced Pages Continue
6342-409: The qiaoren : the qiaozhou ( 僑州 , 'province'), qiaojun ( 僑郡 , 'commandery'), and qiaoxian ( 僑縣 , the lodged county), these lodged administrative divisions were merely nominal without possessing actual domain, or rather, they were local government in exile; what could scarcely be denied was their significance in Jin's legitimacy for the northern territory as somewhat an announcement. Furthermore, it
6493-531: The "valiant, loyal Montagnard people who had been decades-long fighting against Vietnamese communists", captivating the colonial nostalgia of former US Special Forces personnel for an imagined past. It is estimated that over 200,000 Montagnards died and 85% of their villages were destroyed or abandoned during the Indochina Wars . Most Montagnards lost their lands due to the legacy of former South Vietnam's president Ngô Đình Diệm . The indigenous peoples of
6644-599: The 'superstition', 'ignorance and backwardness' of the indigenous villagers. Chief American advisor Wolf Ladejinsky who was the architect of Diem's policies applauded the South Vietnamese development program as having progressively transformed the wilderness. Meanwhile, in North Vietnam , Ho Chi Minh established Ethnic Autonomous Region in 1956 in accordance to the Bill no. 268/SL January 7, 1956, hinting that
6795-519: The 10th century, however, the majority of the population of north Africa spoke Arabic and practiced Islam. From 1402, the Guanche of the Canary Islands resisted Spanish attempts at colonization. The islands finally came under Spanish control in 1496. Mohamed Adhikari has called the conquest of the islands a genocide . Early 15th-century Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa
6946-572: The 17th and 18th centuries, had extensive contact with Europeans when the continent was progressively colonized by the British from 1788. During colonization, the Aboriginal people experienced depopulation from disease and settler violence, dispossession of their land, and severe disruption of their traditional cultures. By 1850, indigenous peoples were a minority in Australia. From the 15th to
7097-636: The 19th centuries, European powers used a number of rationales for the colonization of newly encountered lands populated by indigenous peoples. These included a duty to spread the Gospel to non-Christians, to bring civilization to barbarian peoples, a natural law right to explore and trade freely with other peoples, and a right to settle and cultivate uninhabited or uncultivated land which they considered terra nullius ("no one's land"). Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt and Tracey Lindberg argue that European powers rationalized their colonization of
7248-575: The 21st Act (Dụ số 21, enacted March 11, 1955), Diem abolished the Montagnard Autonomous Region. The Montagnards, Chinese, Khmer, and Cham were declared ethnic minorities. Implementing the Act disguised as Development and Land Reform Program, Diem confiscated all traditional indigenous Montagnard lands and distributed them to Kinh settlers from North Vietnam. More than one million Kinh migrants, mostly Catholic, were welcomed to settle in
7399-447: The 21st century, Indigenous groups and advocates for Indigenous peoples have highlighted numerous apparent violations of the rights of Indigenous peoples. Indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena , meaning "sprung from the land, native". The Latin indigena is based on the Old Latin indu "in, within" + gignere "to beget, produce". Indu is an extended form of the Proto-Indo-European en or "in". There
7550-411: The 4th century CE the King of Lâm Ấp, Fan Wen , went to subdue and incorporated the tribes of Daqijie, Xiaoqijie, Ship, Xulang, Qudu, Ganlu, and Fudan in the Central Highlands into Champa's territory. The Old Book of Tang notes that the people of Champa have "black skin, eyes deep in the orbit, short stature, broad nose, and frizzy hair." Surrounded by Indianized and Sinicized states from all sides,
7701-431: The Aztec Empire and its fall. The Cempoalans, Tlaxcalans and other allies of the Spanish were given some autonomy, but the Spanish were de facto rulers of Mexico. Smallpox devastated the indigenous population and aided the Spanish conquest. In 1530, the Spanish sailed south from Panama to the lands of the Inca Empire in the west of South America. The Inca, weakened by a smallpox epidemic and civil war, were defeated by
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#17327809696147852-411: The BAJARAKA sent two representatives, Y-Ju and Y Nam, to the US Embassy in Saigon, where they attempted to reach and inform the United Nations Secretary-General and other world leaders about the unequal Development Act of the Diem regime, which they described as racist and neocolonial. An declaration regarding the Montagnards was released in the first meeting of the NLF (Viet Cong) in 1960. It calls for
8003-406: The Bahamas and Cuba, leading to a severe decline in the Indigenous populations from disease, malnutrition, settler violence and cultural disruption. In the 1520s, the peoples of Mesoamerica encountered the Spanish who entered their lands in search of gold and other resources. Some indigenous peoples chose to ally with the Spanish to end Aztec rule. The Spanish incursions led to the conquest of
8154-430: The Catholic Church and the French colonial administration. The missionary enclave in Kontum often acted with hostility to French government officials in preserving their and the associated converts' privileges, while the French government accused the Catholic missionaries of displacement of non-Christian villages, owning slaves, murders, and dispossession of lands. Disputes between missionaries and colonial officials reached
8305-418: The Central Highlands and overwhelmed indigenous highlanders. The Vietnamese population of the region went from 500,000 to 1975, to 4 million today, outnumbering native ethnic groups three-to-one. They were called di dân tự do (spontaneous migration) and were tentatively given tolerance from Vietnamese authorities. The original peoples of the Central Highlands experienced ruin during and after the Vietnam War; in
8456-625: The Central Highlands have deep knowledge of the local ecology and previously had life tied with forest, now strangled in impoverished separate hamlets. Uncontrolled Kinh migration from the lowland, deforestation , plantations, US bombings, defoliantation and prolonged warfare had clearing off many natural forests, pushing many rare species to extinction. Forest cover area percentage in the region had dropped significantly from 55% in 1960, to 17% in 1980. After Vietnam's Đổi Mới in 1986, due to ever-greater global capitalist demands of coffee and valuable metals, larger waves of Vietnamese migration arrived in
8607-417: The Central Highlands. The Montagnards were expelled from their ancestral homelands or forced-relocated into confined strategic hamlets . Diem continued this Development Act by forcing the Montagnards to learn Vietnamese, banning Montagnard languages in public schools, compelling the Montagnards to dress like Vietnamese, and forcing them to abandon their culture. He believed that these policies would overcoming
8758-402: The Eastern Jin throughout its 104-year existence. The local aristocrat clans of the south were often at odds with the immigrants from the north. As such, tensions increased, and rivalry between the immigrants and southern locals loomed large in the domestic politics of the Jin. Two of the most prominent local clans, the Zhou ( 周 ) clan of Yixing and the Shen ( 沈 ) clan of Wuxing , were dealt
8909-399: The French government established the Central Highlands as the Pays Montagnard du Sud (PMS) under the authority of Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại , whom the French had installed as nominal chief of state in 1949 as an alternative to Ho Chi Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam . While the French colonials were carrying out divide-and-rule strategy to exploit Montagnards and other tribes against
9060-502: The French. The indigenous inhabitants of the Hawaiian Islands first encountered Europeans in 1778 when Cook explored the region. Following increasing contact with European missionaries, traders and scientific expeditions, the indigenous population fell before their lands were annexed by the United States in 1893. The Māori of New Zealand also had sporadic encounters with Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries. Following encounters with Cook's exploration parties in 1769–70, New Zealand
9211-431: The Highlands unlike the Chams, and there were no attempts to colonize the Highlands. But in 1802, the emperor of Vietnam, Gia Long , planned to pacify the Montagnard tribes. Several tribes and chiefdoms accepted tributary status under nominal Vietnamese overlord. Vietnamese privileged traders known as các lái were prominently active in the highland commodities trade involving Western merchants. Under Emperor Tu Duc , in 1863
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#17327809696149362-399: The Ho Chi Minh trail. The Montagnards also cooperated with the Australians in addition to the Americans; the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV) gained the support of many Montagnards by spending prolonged periods in different villages in the region, embracing their culture and gaining over a thousand recruits for the ARVN by 1964. In 1967, the Viet Cong killed 252 Montagnards in
9513-399: The Indigenous peoples of the Americas from enslaved Africans. The first known use was by Sir Thomas Browne in 1646, who wrote "and although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes serving under the Spaniard , yet were they all transported from Africa , since the discovery of Columbus ; and are not indigenous or proper natives of America ." In the 1970s, the term
9664-514: The Indochinese context. This denial of coevalness construed Montagnards as in need of US protection, despite the American reputation of racism and discrimination against Native Americans and Afro-Americans (who in the US context only found 'refuge' in ‘Indian reservations’ and ‘Negro ghettos’, respectively). Simultaneously, this discourse denied agency to the Montagnards: they were the victims of history, they could only react to outside developments without being capable of change themselves. The plain fact
9815-416: The Jin dynasty conquered Eastern Wu in 280 and united China proper, thus ending the Three Kingdoms period. The period of unity was relatively short-lived, as the Jin state was soon weakened by corruption, political turmoil, and internal conflicts. Emperor Wu's son Zhong, posthumously known as Emperor Hui , was developmentally disabled . Emperor Wu died in 290, and in 291 conflict over his succession caused
9966-400: The Jin dynasty with its capital in Jiankang (modern Nanjing ), inaugurating the Eastern Jin (317–420). The Eastern Jin dynasty remained in near-constant conflict with its northern neighbors for most of its existence, and it launched several invasions of the north with the aim of recovering its lost territories. In 383, the Eastern Jin inflicted a devastating defeat on the Former Qin ,
10117-449: The Jin government at Jiankang (present-day Nanjing ), which became the dynasty's new capital. This marked the start of the Eastern Jin period. One of Sima Rui's titles was the prince of Langya , so the recently established northern states , who denied the legitimacy of his succession, occasionally referred to his empire as "Langya". The Eastern Jin period witnessed the pinnacle of menfa ( 門閥 'gentry clan') politics. The authority of
10268-430: The Jin refugees Sima Fei [ zh ] ( 司馬朏 ) and Sima Chuzhi [ zh ] ( 司馬楚之 ). They both married Xianbei princesses. Sima Fei's wife was named Huayang ( 華 陽 公主 ), who was a daughter of Emperor Xiaowen ; Sima Chuzhi's son was Sima Jinlong , who married a Northern Liang princess who was a daughter of the Lushuihu king Juqu Mujian . More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of
10419-437: The King of Jin. There are two main divisions in the history of the dynasty. The Western Jin (266–316) was established as the successor to Cao Wei after Sima Yan usurped the throne from Cao Huan . The capital of the Western Jin was initially in Luoyang , though it later moved to Chang'an (modern Xi'an ). In 280, after conquering Eastern Wu , the Western Jin ended the Three Kingdoms period and reunited China proper for
10570-498: The Mississippi to Louisiana. English and Dutch settlements multiplied down the Atlantic coast from modern Massachusetts to Georgia. Native peoples formed alliances with the Europeans in order to promote trade, preserve their autonomy, and gain allies in conflicts with other native peoples. However, horses and new weapons made inter-tribal conflicts more deadly and the native population was devastated by introduced diseases. Native peoples also experienced losses from violent conflict with
10721-433: The Montagnard lands by looking into Vietnamese annals and asserted historic Vietnamese suzerainty over the Jarai chiefdoms of p’tau apui and p’tau ia in 1889. The Jarai resisted and defeated the French in 1894, but later were subdued when the French came back in 1897 with more soldiers. In the next two decades, the French government made heavy efforts to secure the highlands and trust from the indigenous peoples. Despite that,
10872-459: The Montagnard tribes fiercely fought back. From 1901 to 1914, four high-ranking French military officers were killed by the Montagnard warriors armed with bows and sticks. Kontum became a major settlement for Franco–Vietnamese Catholics by 1885. Direct rule over the Highlands began in 1898. The region was administered from a French center in Kontum, and tax collection among the Montagnards began on
11023-485: The Montagnard tribes however have preserved their distinct cultures dating back to the prehistoric era , thanks to the high mountains. The Montagnard region was known by the Vietnamese as Rung Moi (Forest of the Savages). The Montagnards have a history of tensions with the Vietnamese majority since the 19th century. While the Vietnamese or Kinh majority have a common language and culture and have developed and maintained
11174-641: The Montagnard tribes. The BAJARAKA staged a mass protest in August 1958 but was put down by South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem 's law enforcement forces, who implicitly perpetuated the oppressive assimilation policies on the disadvantaged indigenous communities in South Vietnam like the Chams, the Montagnards, and the Khmer Krom. Diem labeled the protest as 'pro-communist sympathizers.' On July 31, 1958,
11325-405: The Montagnards prior to the Montagnard revolt eight years later was a result of the French violent overreaction backlash during the economic crisis of 1929. In June 1937, Montagnard villages from many different tribes led by Sam Bram, a prominent Jarai chief in the vicinity of Cheo Reo, began to form an esoteric Christian religious movement. The chief announced that his daughter had given birth to
11476-507: The Montagnards when the south is liberated. In 1961, Montagnard members of the Vietcong, led by Y Bih Aleo , a former BAJARAKA leader, formed the NLF's Montagnard Autonomy Movement. As the Vietnam War began to loom on the horizon, both South Vietnamese and American policymakers sought to begin training troops from minority groups in the Vietnamese populace. The U.S. Mission to Saigon sponsored
11627-597: The Montagnards, the mountain people of Vietnam, who were darker complexioned... The Vietnamese treated them like white people in the South treated African Americans." A The New York Times account in 1973 reported that land disputes between the Montagnards and the Vietnamese were deadly and reminiscent "of the American Indian situation." In October 1974, with guides from FULRO, the Montagnards staged an armed rebellion following cases of murders and mass arrests made by
11778-494: The Montagnards. The French position of power also allowed them to decide which aspects of Montagnard culture should be preserved, and which ones changed; they were happy to celebrate harmless traditions such as ritual buffalo sacrifice, but continued discouraging shifting cultivation or the remnants of the Dieu Python movement. Leopold Sabatier, who had been driven out by rivals in the 1920s, was rehabilitated in French eyes as
11929-446: The Montagnards. Major contacts occurred in the next decades, with a stream of outsiders, mostly Vietnamese Catholics, coming to Kon Tum to escape violence by members of the neo- Confucian extremist Văn Thân movement . France conquered Cochinchina in 1862 and conquered Tonkin and Annam in 1883 . At that time, the Montagnard lands remained largely unexplored. The French government began to search for backup evidence for their claim over
12080-648: The New World by the discovery doctrine , which they trace back to papal decrees authorizing Spain and Portugal to conquer newly discovered non-Christian lands and convert their populations to Christianity. Kent McNeil, however, states, "While Spain and Portugal favoured discovery and papal grants because it was generally in their interests to do so, France and Britain relied more on symbolic acts, colonial charters, and occupation." Benton and Strauman argue that European powers often adopted multiple, sometimes contradictory, legal rationales for their acquisition of territory as
12231-562: The New World. In 1488, Portuguese ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope and by the 17th century, Portugal had established seaborn trading routes and fortified coastal trading posts from West Africa to India and Southern China, and a settler colony in Brazil. In 1532, the first African slaves were transported directly to the Americas. The trade in slaves expanded sharply in the 17th century, with
12382-604: The North Vietnamese government recognized indigenous rights and land acknowledgements, though this did not last long. About 6,000 Rhade communists went north and trained by the North Vietnamese. US advisors, such as Price Gittinger of the US Operation Mission (USOM) Agricultural Division, and Gerald Hickey , alarmed Diem that his Development Act would drive the Montagnard tribes to look for communists' support, further hurting efforts to contain communism in South Vietnam. Wesley R. Fishel , chief executive advisor of
12533-613: The Northern Wei were married to southern Han Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Much later, Sima Guang (1019–1086), who served as chancellor for the Song and created the comprehensive history Zizhi Tongjian , claimed descent from the Jin dynasty (specifically, Sima Fu , brother of Sima Yi ). The uprising of
12684-561: The Sima clan's tight grip on the Cao Wei political scene. After Sima Shi's death in 255, Sima Shi's younger brother Sima Zhao became the regent of Cao Wei. Sima Zhao further assisted his clans' interests by suppressing rebellions and dissent. In 263, he directed Cao Wei forces in conquering Shu Han and capturing Liu Shan (the son of Liu Bei ), marking the first demise of one of the Three Kingdoms. Sima Zhao's actions awarded him
12835-540: The South Vietnamese government. In 1975, thousands of Montagnards fled to Cambodia after the fall of Saigon to the North Vietnamese Army, fearing that the new government would launch reprisals against them because they had aided the U.S. Army. The U.S. military resettled some Montagnards in the United States, primarily in North Carolina , but these evacuees numbered less than 2,000. In addition,
12986-526: The Spanish at Cajamarca in 1532, and the emperor Atahualpa was captured and executed. The Spanish appointed a puppet emperor and captured the Inca capital of Cuzco with the support of a number of native peoples. The Spanish established a new capital in 1535 and defeated an Inca rebellion in 1537, thus consolidating the conquest of Peru. In the 1560s, the Spanish established colonies in Florida and in 1598 founded
13137-447: The United Nations (UN) adopted a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples including their rights to self-determination and to protect their cultures, identities, languages, ceremonies, and access to employment, health, education and natural resources. Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, cultural heritage, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend. In
13288-474: The Vietnamese authorities, who considered non-denominational indigenous Protestantism a continuation of FULRO . In comparison, ethnic Kinh-run churches in the Highlands belonged to the Evangelical Church of Vietnam receive full legal rights and protections from the authorities. Popular but simplistic media portrayal of the Vietnamese repression of Dega Church as "communist-Christianity confrontation"
13439-515: The Vietnamese government has steadily displaced thousands of villagers from Vietnam's central highlands, to use the fertile land for coffee plantations. Oscar Salemink outlines the conclusion on the dragging of indigenous peoples into the Vietnam War by the United States: The assumption that Montagnards were primitive underscored their inherent vulnerability and innocence with respect to modernity, implying that they were victimized by
13590-674: The Vietnamese government officially recognized six religions. Because of this, evangelical conversion among the Montagnard tribes during this period happened en masse. However, most of their churches are local non-denominational and non-registered from the state-recognized Evangelical Church of Vietnam (ECVN-S). Most considerably, indigenous ethnic minority Protestants prefer to have the Bible (NIV) translated to their indigenous languages, indigenous-run churches, indigenous pastors, sermons and meetings in indigenous customs inside tabernacles. However, these desires were met by suspicions and hostilities from
13741-564: The ancestors of the Greeks , or as an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks. The disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer , Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. Dionysius of Halicarnassus in his book, Roman Antiquities , gives a synoptic interpretation of the Pelasgians based on
13892-458: The area north of the Yangtze River, where the lodged You, Ji, Qing, Bing provinces were established.) The lodged Pei, Qinghe, Xiapi, Dongguang, Pingchang, Jiyin, Puyang, Guangping, Taishan, Jiyang, and Lu commanderies were established when Emperor Ming ruled. The rebellions and invasions occurring in Jianghuai area led to more refugees switching to settle in the south of the Yangtze River, where
14043-408: The area. As a result of these changes, Montagnard communities felt a need to strengthen some of their own social structures and develop a more formal shared identity. When the French withdrew from Vietnam and recognized Vietnamese sovereignty, Montagnard political independence was drastically diminished. The new President of South Vietnam Ngo Dinh Diem opposed Montagnard autonomy. After introducing
14194-445: The basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems. Martínez Cobo states that the following factors are relevant to historical continuity: occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them; common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands; cultural factors such as religion, tribalism, dress, etc.; language; residence in certain parts of
14345-492: The chaotic and bloody Sixteen Kingdoms era of Chinese history, in which states in the north rose and fell in rapid succession, constantly fighting both one another and the Jin. Han-Zhao , one of the northern states established during the disorder, sacked Luoyang in 311 , captured Chang'an in 316, and executed Emperor Min of Jin in 318, ending the Western Jin era. Sima Rui , who succeeded Emperor Min, then reestablished
14496-685: The circumstances of the people would allow them to exercise. ... [This loss of native property and sovereignty rights was justified, the Court said, by] the character and religion of its inhabitants ... the superior genius of Europe ... [and] ample compensation to the [Indians] by bestowing on them civilization and Christianity, in exchange for unlimited independence. Estimates of the population of Indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 600 million. The United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million Indigenous people living in over 90 countries worldwide. This would equate to just fewer than 6% of
14647-737: The colonists and the progressive dispossession of their traditional lands. In 1492, the population of the Americas as a whole was about 50 to 100 million. By 1700, introduced diseases had reduced the native population by 90%. European migration and transfer of slaves from Africa reduced the native population to a minority. By 1800 the population of North America comprised about 5 million Europeans and their descendants, one million Africans and 600,000 indigenous Americans. Native populations also encountered new animals and plants introduced by Europeans. These included pigs, horses, mules, sheep and cattle; wheat, barley, rye, oats, grasses and grapevines. These exotic animals and plants radically transformed
14798-513: The communist Vietminh, the Vietminh in turn employed the same strategy and tactics just as the French to by allying with alienated tribal leaders and dissatisfied tribes against the French. By 1953 it appears clear that the Vietminh had surpassed French efforts and much of the mountain tribes were under Vietminh control. In the same year, the Vietminh held another congress with the attendance of 140 tribal chiefs from 20 different ethnicities across
14949-491: The context of modern warfare. This discursive victimization of the Montagnards (by the Vietnamese, not by the French or Americans – despite the indiscriminate bombing, defoliation and resettlement!) moved the Americans to protect the underdog in this centuries-old antagonism, and hence provided an extra argument for American intervention, similar to the way the French before them had posed as nation protectrice des minorités in
15100-678: The convention covers: peoples in independent countries who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, or a geographical region to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or colonisation or the establishment of present state boundaries and who, irrespective of their legal status, retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions. The convention also covers "tribal peoples" who are distinguished from Indigenous peoples and described as "tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of
15251-477: The country, in which they announced the establishment of ethnic autonomous regions for the "national minorities." By 1956, North Vietnam had created three ethnic autonomous regions. In the mid-1950s, the once-isolated Montagnards began experiencing more contact with outsiders after the Vietnamese government launched efforts to gain better control of the Central Highlands and, following the 1954 Geneva Conference , new ethnic minorities from North Vietnam moved into
15402-541: The country, or in certain regions of the world; and other relevant factors. In 2004, James Anaya , defined Indigenous peoples as "living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire and conquest". In 2012, Tuck and Yang propose a criterion based on accounts of origin: "Indigenous peoples are those who have creation stories, not colonization stories, about how we/they came to be in
15553-638: The devastating War of the Eight Princes . The dynasty was greatly weakened by this civil conflict, and it soon faced more upheaval when the Upheaval of the Five Barbarians began in 304. During this unrest, the Jin capital Luoyang was sacked by Han-Zhao ruler Liu Cong in 311, and Jin emperor Sima Chi, posthumously known as Emperor Huai , was captured and later executed. Emperor Huai's successor Sima Ye, posthumously known as Emperor Min ,
15704-530: The dominant social institutions of Vietnam, the Montagnard do not share that heritage. The Montagnards retain their tribal customs and ancestral land ownership. Unlike the Buddhist Vietnamese who are patriarchal, the Montagnards mainly practice traditional matrilineality , such as the Jarai and Rade, where head of the house is passed down from the mother to the oldest daughter, and women take charge of
15855-623: The emperors was limited, while national affairs were controlled by powerful immigrant elite clans like the Wang ( 王 ) clans of Langya and Taiyuan , the Xie ( 謝 ) clan of Chenliu , the Huan ( 桓 ) clan of Qiao Commandery , and the Yu ( 庾 ) clan of Yingchuan . Among the people, a common remark was that " Wang Dao and Sima Rui , they dominate the nation together" ( 王與馬，共天下 ). It was said that when Emperor Yuan
16006-516: The establishment of autonomous regions in minority areas and for the abolition of the "US-Diêm clique's present policy of ill-treatment and forced assimilation of the minority nationalities." Both the NLF and Hanoi actively recruited the Montagnards into their forces from 1960, with radio broadcasting propaganda in indigenous languages began as early as 1955. Some Montagnards leaders were invited to visit North Vietnam 's non-Kinh autonomous regions , along with promises of autonomy that would be granted for
16157-579: The exploitation of natural resources, spreading Christianity, and establishing strategic military bases, colonies and settlements. From 1492, the Arawak peoples of the Caribbean islands encountered Spanish colonizers initially led by Christopher Columbus . The Spanish enslaved some of the native population and forced others to work on farms and gold mines in a system of labor called encomienda . Spanish settlements spread from Hispaniola to Puerto Rico,
16308-575: The first time since the end of the Han dynasty . From 291 to 306, a series of civil wars known as the War of the Eight Princes were fought over control of the Jin state which weakened it considerably. In 304, the dynasty experienced a wave of rebellions by non- Han ethnicities termed the Five Barbarians , who went on to establish several short-lived dynastic states in northern China . This inaugurated
16459-438: The five barbarians led to one in eight northerners migrating to the south. These immigrants were called qiaoren ( 僑人 'lodged people'), accounting for one-sixth of the population of the south at the time. With consideration of the material loss refugees had experienced before arrival, they were exempt from the diao ( 調 ) tax, and other services. Those whose registers were bound in white paper were called baiji ( 白籍 ), while
16610-524: The following "working definition" : Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those that, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as
16761-623: The genetic diversity within the Central Highlands' native population, while further consolidating the Out of Africa migration of ancient peoples and refutes any challenge to the African origin of modern humans. Ancient Chinese chronicles like the Book of Jin recorded that the West of Linyi ( Champa ) were inhabited by numerous tribes who were described as "savages." According to the Jin dynasty annalists, in
16912-517: The heavily culturally Christian American forces. The Indochinese Communist Party began to grow concerned about Montagnard autonomy as early as its First National Party Congress held in Macau 1935. The Meeting's resolutions declared that all ethnic groups had the right "to choose between adhering to the Union of Indochinese Soviet Republics and proclaiming itself a separate state. The Soviet government of
17063-453: The highlands. The movement was quickly suppressed by the French military, although Dieu Python groups in the north of the highlands continued to resist French pacification until 1940 when tribal resistance eventually linked up with Vietnamese communists active in the region. At the end of the revolt in 1938, Sam Bram was sentenced to ten years in prison for "sorcery with the aim of fraud by abuse of influence". Other 14 people who got involved in
17214-408: The imperial hierarchy. As a result, popular Taoist religions were considered heterodoxy while the official schools of the court were supported, but the popular schools like Tianshi Taoism were still secretly held dear and promulgated amongst ordinary people. Disunity, disintegration, and chaos also made Buddhism more popular, in part due to the focus on addressing suffering. The Jin dynasty marked
17365-470: The indigenous tribes and perform the tasks of "civilizing" them. Henri Maitre in his book Les Jungles Moï argued that the black Montagnards would be rapidly disappeared according to Social Darwinist theories which more advanced races like the Vietnamese and the French would gradually replace the Montagnards in their own ancestral lands. L. Nouet, a French civil official, observed the Montagnards' swidden slash-and-burn style of agriculture and considered it
17516-432: The involvement of the French, Dutch and English, before declining in the 19th century. At least 12 million slaves were transported from Africa. The slave trade increased inter-tribal warfare and stunted population growth and economic development in the west African interior. Indigenous encounters with Europeans increased during the age of discovery . The Europeans were motivated by a range of factors including trade,
17667-448: The leadership in tribal communities. There have been conflicts between the two groups over many issues, including land ownership, language and cultural preservation, access to education and resources, and political representation. The Vietnamese defeated the Chams in 1471 and occupied former Champa . As anticipated, Vietnamese rulers established numerous military colonies, đôn điên, for Kinh settlers. However, they did not venture deep into
17818-461: The local environment and disrupted traditional agriculture and hunting practices. The indigenous populations of the Pacific had increasing contact with Europeans in the 18th century as British, French and Spanish expeditions explored the region. The natives of Tahiti had encounters with the expeditions of Wallis (1766), Bougainville (1768), Cook (1769) and many others before being colonized by
17969-406: The lodged Huainan Commandery was established afterwards. However, carrying these out was more complex than the policy was formulated. Several actual counties were under the jurisdiction of the lodged commanderies. A few lodged administrative divisions are still retained in China nowadays. For instance, Dangtu County was originally located in the area of Bengbu , however, the lodged Dangtu County
18120-606: The marginalized indigenous Christians to uncritically take side with right-wing Christian conservative politics, which is the ultimate source of neocolonialism . The final end of FULRO insurgency against Vietnam came in 1992, with the surrender of 407 FULRO fighters to United Nations ' peacekeeping forces in Cambodia. They were interviewed by American journalist Nate Thayer . According to University of Texas Professor Frank Proschan , Nate Thayer successfully constructed an impression myth circulating around international media about
18271-573: The mountainous areas of Cochinchina not yet subjected to the king. A French missionary, Père Gagelin, made the first direct contact with the tribes in 1830. In 1841, the bishop of Quy Nhon diocese, Mgr. Cuénot, wrote a short description of the Cham, the Rhade, and the Jarai tribes. In 1848, Vietnamese priest Father Dô was sent to investigate the highland and sought to study the Bahnar language and culture of
18422-498: The movement were convicted 8 to 20 years in jail for "sorcery, secret meetings and conspiracy against the state security." The Dieu Python movement's appeal across several distinct tribes convinced the French colonial officials, among others, of an incipient pan-highland nationalism. The French began treating the people of the Pays Moïs as one ethnicity and worthy of separate status, and attempted to suppress ethnic rivalries within
18573-551: The national community and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations." The convention states that self-identification as indigenous or tribal is a fundamental criterion for determining the groups to which the convention applies. The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples does not define Indigenous peoples but affirms their right to self-determination including determining their own identity. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights does not provide
18724-523: The northern states like the Battle of Fei River, paranoia in the royal family and a constant disruptions to the throne often caused loss of support for northern campaigns. For example, lack of support by the Jin court was a major cause of Huan Wen's failure to recover the north in his expeditions. Additionally, internal military crises—including the rebellions of generals Wang Dun and Su Jun , but also lesser fangzhen ( 方鎮 'military command') revolts—plagued
18875-401: The others with registers bound in yellow paper were called huangji ( 黃籍 ). When the crisis had subsided, this preferential increasingly seemed a heavy burden on the people, arousing dissatisfaction in the natives. Hence, tu duan was an increasingly important issue for the Eastern Jin. The Eastern Jin court established three levels of administrative divisions which served as strongholds for
19026-443: The price of rubber fell, and tensions rose. There were some attacks by Montagnard tribesmen against rubber plantations and transport trucks. While these were fairly minor events, the administration responded with air attacks on insurgent villages. The French also began building new roads to make it easier to monitor the area. Neo-Marxist scholar Geoffrey Gunn suggests that a growing indigenous Christian-millennialist movement among
19177-469: The principles of the discovery doctrine: The United States ... [and] its civilized inhabitants now hold this country. They hold, and assert in themselves, the title by which it was acquired. They maintain, as all others have maintained, that discovery gave an exclusive right to extinguish the Indian title of occupancy, either by purchase or by conquest; and gave also a right to such a degree of sovereignty, as
19328-608: The ruler of the new Song dynasty (which is referred to as the Liu Song dynasty by historians in order to prevent confusion with the Song dynasty established in 960). Sima Dewen was then asphyxiated with a blanket in the following year. In the north, Northern Liang , the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms , was conquered by Northern Wei in 439, ushering in the Northern dynasties period. The Xianbei Northern Wei accepted
19479-695: The sources available to him then, concluding that Pelasgians were Greek. In European late antiquity, many Berbers , Copts and Nubians of north Africa converted to various forms of Christianity under Roman rule, although elements of traditional religious beliefs were retained. Following the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, many Berbers were enslaved or recruited into the army. The majority of Berbers, however, remained nomadic pastoralists who also engaged in trade as far as sub-Saharan Africa. Coptic Egyptians remained in possession of their lands and many preserved their language and Christian religion. By
19630-721: The south at different times resulted in distinct groups of aristocratic lineages. In 403, Huan Xuan , the son of esteemed general Huan Wen , usurped the Jin throne and declared the dynasty of Huan Chu . Huan Xuan was soon toppled by Liu Yu , who reinstated Jin rule by installing Sima Dezong on the throne, posthumously known as Emperor An . Meanwhile, the civilian administration suffered, as there were further revolts led by Sun En and Lu Xun, and Western Shu became an independent kingdom under Qiao Zong . In 419, Liu Yu had Sima Dezong strangled and replaced by his brother Sima Dewen, posthumously known as Emperor Gong . Finally, in 420, Sima Dewen abdicated in favour of Liu Yu, who declared himself
19781-627: The south, grew. The U.S. military, particularly the Special Forces, developed base camps in the area and recruited the Montagnard. The Montagnard were valued allies with their resolve, skills in tracking, and knowledge of the region; roughly 40,000 fought alongside American soldiers and became a major part of the U.S. military effort in the Highlands and I Corps, the northernmost region of South Vietnam. The central highlands were greatly affected by American aerial bombing and herbicides during targeting of North Vietnamese materiel transportation on
19932-809: The term Indigenous peoples or have denied that Indigenous peoples exist in their territory, and have classified minorities who identify as Indigenous in other ways, such as 'hill tribes' in Thailand, 'scheduled tribes' in India, 'national minorities' in China, 'cultural minorities' in the Philippines, 'isolated and alien peoples' in Indonesia, and various other terms. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge Indigenous people whom they referred to as " Pelasgians ". Ancient writers saw these people either as
20083-483: The term is necessary, given that a single definition will inevitably be either over- or under-inclusive, making sense in some societies but not in others." However, a number of UN agencies have provided statements of coverage for particular international agreements concerning Indigenous peoples or "working definitions" for particular reports. The International Labour Organization's (ILO) Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (ILO Convention No. 169), states that
20234-666: The title of King of Jin, the last achievable rank beneath that of emperor. He was granted the title because his ancestral home was located in Wen County , on the territory of the Zhou -era state of Jin , which was centered on the Jin River in Shaanxi . Sima Zhao's ambitions for the throne were visible, but he died in 265 before any usurpation attempt could be made, passing the opportunity to his ambitious son Sima Yan . The Jin dynasty
20385-636: The total world population. This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples. As there is no universally accepted definition of Indigenous Peoples, their classification as such varies between countries and organizations. In the Americas, Australia and New Zealand, Indigenous status is often applied unproblematically to groups descended from the peoples who lived there prior to European settlement. However, In Asia and Africa, Indigenous status has sometimes been rejected by certain peoples, denied by governments or applied to peoples who may not be considered "Indigenous" in other contexts. The concept of indigenous peoples
20536-432: The training of the Montagnards in unconventional warfare by American Special Forces . These newly trained Montagnard were seen as a potential ally in the Central Highlands area to stop Viet Cong activity in the region and a means of preventing further spread of Viet Cong sympathy. Later, their participation would become much more important as the Ho Chi Minh trail , the North Vietnamese supply line for Viet Cong forces in
20687-468: The village of Đắk Sơn, home to 2,000 Highlanders, known as the Đắk Sơn massacre , in revenge for the Montagnards' support and allegiance with South Vietnam . A triangle relationship developed between Black American soldiers, white soldiers, Montagnards, and Vietnamese soldiers during the height of American ground intervention in Vietnam. Black veteran Wayne Smith recalled: "some Vietnamese, you know they had some prejudices... They were discriminating against
20838-616: The way it had been used near the end of the Han era in the Yellow Turban Rebellion . Amidst the political turmoil of the era, many successful merchants, small landowners, and other moderately comfortable people found great solace in Taoist teachings and a number of major clans and military officers also took up the faith. Ge Hong emphasized loyalty to the emperor as a Taoist virtue; he even taught that rebels could never be Taoist immortals, which made Taoism more palatable to
20989-655: The workers, peasants and soldiers of Indochina will in no way interfere or create obstacle..." The colonization of the Central Highlands became stalled in the 1930s due to a combination of many factors, including prolonged indigenous resistances of the Mnong led by N'Trang Lung and rubber uprisings; the Great Depression of 1929; decreasing global demand for rubber and coffee; and the mitigative policies applied by Leopold Sabatier , administrator of Đắk Lắk province from 1914 to 1926. Sabatier, an admirer of Rhade culture,
21140-409: The worst cases, they were driven from their land and became refugees. Indigenous peoples There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples , although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in a state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under
21291-489: Was also an action done to appease the refugees' homesickness, which was evoking their desire to reacquire what had been lost. During the rule of Emperor Yuan, Emperor Ming, and Emperor Cheng, the lodged administrative divisions were concentrated in the area south of the Huai River and the Lower Yangtze Plain. At first there was the lodged Langya Commandery within lodged Fei County in Jiankang, but when it began
21442-613: Was conveniently overlooked, that many Montagnards had decided to follow the Viêt Minh in the past, and the Viêt Công in the 1960s – with Montagnard revolts being the ultimate stimulus to establish the NLF; or that many simply did not follow the Americans, and thus made a clear choice. In this narrative, Americans could not only act and think of themselves as protective heroes – good guys in an essentially corrupt cultural environment – but they could stress their essential benevolence, too, in
21593-496: Was disgusted by abuses and forced assimilation imposed by missionaries upon the native Montagnards. Sabatier openly opposed against further expansion of French industrial businesses and Vietnamese migration into the Central Highlands, which he believed to be the main threat to traditional Montagnard society. As a result, by 1940 only 5,000 French and 35,000 Vietnamese lived in the region, mostly rubber contractors and Catholic settlers, compared to 750,000 indigenous Montagnards. In 1929,
21744-418: Was established in where it is now, and the latter replaced the former, inheriting its place name. The tu duan ( 土斷 ) is the abbreviation for yi tu duan ( 以土斷 , means classifying people according to their present habitation to register). It was a policy to ensure the ancient hukou system working since the Western Jin. These terms were first recorded in the biographies of Wei Guan and Li Chong included in
21895-478: Was formed from the offspring of these migrants. Particularly in the Jiangnan region, Celestial Masters and the nobility of northern China subdued the nobility of southern China during the Jin dynasty. Southern China overtook the north in population due to depopulation of the north and the migration of northern Chinese to southern China. Different waves of migration of aristocratic Chinese from northern China to
22046-596: Was founded by Sima Yan, who was known posthumously as Emperor Wu (the "Martial Emperor of Jin"). After succeeding his father as the King of Jin and regent of Cao Wei in 265, Sima Yan declared himself emperor of the Jin dynasty in February 266 and forced the final Wei ruler Cao Huan to abdicate. Emperor Wu permitted Cao Huan to live with honor as the Prince of Chenliu, and buried him with imperial ceremony. Under Emperor Wu,
22197-400: Was holding court, he even invited Wang Dao to sit by his side so they could jointly accept congratulations from ministers, but Wang Dao declined the offer. In order to recover the lands lost during the fall of the Western Jin, the Eastern Jin dynasty launched several military campaigns against the northern states, such as the expeditions led by Huan Wen from 354 to 369. Most notably, in 383,
22348-538: Was motivated by a quest for gold and crusading against Islam. Portugal's first attempt at colonization in what is now Senegal ended in failure. In the 1470s, the Portuguese established a fortified trading post on the West coast of Africa, south of the Akan goldfields. The Portuguese engaged in extensive trade of goods for gold and, in later years, slaves for their sugar plantations in the islands off West Africa and in
22499-600: Was then also captured and executed by Han-Zhao forces when they seized Chang'an (present-day Xi'an ) in 316. This event marked the end of the Western Jin. The surviving members of the Jin imperial family, as well as large numbers of Han Chinese from the North China Plain , subsequently fled to southern China. These refugees had a large impact on the lands they moved to—for example, they gave Quanzhou 's Jin River its name upon their settlement there. The Jin dynasty
22650-471: Was used as a way of linking the experiences, issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international borders. At this time 'indigenous people(s)' also began to be used to describe a legal category in Indigenous law created in international and national legislation. The use of the plural 'peoples' recognizes the cultural differences between various Indigenous peoples. The first meeting of
22801-509: Was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing, and trading ships. From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population. The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor. New Zealand became a British Crown colony in 1841. The Aboriginal inhabitants of Australia, after brief encounters with European explorers in
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