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82-467: As is typical of diglossic situations, Katharevousa and Demotic complemented and influenced each other. Over time, Demotic became standardized. In 1976, it was made the official language of Greece. It continued to evolve and is now called Standard Modern Greek . The term "demotic Greek" (with a minuscule d) also refers to any variety of the Greek language which has evolved naturally from Ancient Greek and

164-467: A Neogrammarian , mistrusting the possibility of exceptions in linguistic evolution. Moreover, Psycharis also advocated spelling reform, which would have meant abolishing most of the six different ways to write the vowel /i/ and all instances of double consonants. Therefore, he wrote his own name as Γιάνης , instead of Γιάννης . As written and spoken Demotic became standardized over the next few decades, many compromises were made with Katharevousa (as

246-556: A preterite . Ancient Greek grammar had the aorist form, and the grammars of other Indo-European languages and languages influenced by the Indo-European grammatical tradition, such as Middle Persian , Sanskrit , Armenian , the South Slavic languages , Georgian , Pontic Greek , and Pashto , also have forms referred to as aorist. The word comes from Ancient Greek ἀόριστος ( aóristos ' indefinite ' ), as

328-521: A European language serves as the official, prestige language, and local languages are used in everyday life outside formal situations. For example, Wolof is the everyday lingua franca in Senegal , French being spoken only in very formal situations, and English is spoken in formal situations in Nigeria , but native languages like Hausa , Igbo , and Yoruba are spoken in ordinary conversation. However,

410-461: A European language that serves as an official language can also act as a lingua franca , being spoken in informal situations between speakers of two or more different languages to facilitate communication. Diglossia can exist between two dialects of a European language as well. For example, in Côte d'Ivoire , Standard French is the prestige language used in business, politics, etc. while Ivorian French

492-778: A broader sense, the Greek term Δημοτική ( Dimotikí ) can also describe any naturally evolved colloquial language of the Greeks, not just that of the period of diglossia. The following examples are intended to demonstrate Katharevousa features in Modern Greek. They were not present in traditional Demotic and only entered the modern language through Katharevousa (sometimes as neologisms ), where they are used mostly in writing (for instance, in newspapers), but also orally, especially words and fixed expressions are both understood and actively used also by non-educated speakers. In some cases,

574-568: A revival among younger speakers in Serbia, as its forms are simpler and shorter to type out than the perfect. In Bulgarian, which has produced a new regular formation, the aorist is used in indirect and in presumptive quotations. Bulgarian has separate inflections for aorist (past imperfective) and general perfective. The aorist may be used with the imperfective to produce a compound perfective–imperfective aspect . The aorist in Macedonian

656-438: A single language community . In addition to the community's everyday or vernacular language variety (labeled "L" or "low" variety), a second, highly codified lect (labeled "H" or "high") is used in certain situations such as literature , formal education , or other specific settings, but not used normally for ordinary conversation. The H variety may have no native speakers within the community. In cases of three dialects,

738-565: A tense that described an action that happened "immediately before the moment of speech" despite the fact that aorist never carried such a meaning inherently among native speakers. In an effort to reinforce the use of the unified and standardized language in public discourse and education, the usage of the aorist gradually became prescriptively stigmatized by the communist regime and filtered from official use in PR Serbia and PR Montenegro . Belić's redefinition and use of aorist in fiction writing

820-788: A wedding ceremony between two young urban Baoulé people with poor knowledge of the Baoulé language (spoken in Côte d'Ivoire) would require the presence of elder family members as interpreters to conduct the ceremony in that language. Local languages, if used as prestige languages, are also used in writing materials in a more formal type of vocabulary. There are also European languages in Africa, particularly North Africa , without official status that are used as prestige language: for example, in Morocco , while Modern Standard Arabic and recently Tamazight are

902-523: Is also used for events that took place before the story itself (past-within-past). The aorist indicative is also used to express things that happen in general, without asserting a time (the " gnomic aorist"). It can also be used of present and future events; the aorist also has several specialized senses meaning present action. Non-indicative forms of the aorist (subjunctives, optatives, imperatives, infinitives) are usually purely aspectual, with certain exceptions including indirect speech constructions and

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984-471: Is an important concept in the field of sociolinguistics . At the social level, each of the two dialects has certain spheres of social interaction assigned to it and in the assigned spheres it is the only socially acceptable dialect (with minor exceptions). At the grammatical level, differences may involve pronunciation, inflection , and/or syntax (sentence structure). Differences can range from minor (although conspicuous) to extreme. In many cases of diglossia,

1066-455: Is called the "past definite complete tense" ( минато определено свршено време ) and refers to a completed action in the past tense. It most often corresponds to the simple past tense in English: I read the book, I wrote the letter, I ate my supper , etc. In contemporary standard Macedonian, the aorist is formed almost exclusively from perfective verbs. The formation of the aorist for most verbs

1148-624: Is code switching and overlap in all diglossic societies, even German-speaking Switzerland. Examples where the High/Low dichotomy is justified in terms of social prestige include Italian dialects and languages as (L) and Standard Italian as (H) in Italy and German dialects and Standard German in Germany . In Italy and Germany, those speakers who still speak non-standard dialects typically use those dialects in informal situations, especially in

1230-450: Is commonly used in enquiries about someone's wishes, as in Bir şey yemek ister misiniz? ("Would you like to eat something?"). That makes a question like Domuz eti yer misiniz? ambiguous, as the listener may interpret it as an informational question ("Are you someone who eats pork"?) or as an offer ("Would you [like to] eat pork?"). In J. R. R. Tolkien 's constructed language Quenya ,

1312-485: Is fundamentally a continuation of earlier Demotic, it also contains—especially in its written form and formal registers —numerous words, grammatical forms, and phonetical features that did not exist in the most "pure" and consistent forms of Demotic during the period of diglossia in Greece. Due to these admixtures, it could even be described as a product of a "merger" between earlier Demotic and Katharevousa. Furthermore, in

1394-435: Is in a similar situation with Portuguese. Most Asian countries instead have re-established a local prestige language (such as Hindi or Indonesian) and have at least partially phased out the colonial language, commonly English or Russian but also Dutch, French, and Portuguese in a few places, except for international, business, scientific, or interethnic communication; the colonial languages have also usually left many loanwards in

1476-466: Is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation. Here, diglossia is seen as a kind of bilingualism in a society in which one of the languages has high prestige (henceforth referred to as "H"), and another of the languages has low prestige ("L"). In Ferguson's definition, the high and low variants are always closely related. Ferguson gives

1558-501: Is not complex, but there are numerous small subcategories that must be learned. All verbs in the aorist (except сум ) take the same endings, but there are complexities in the aorist stem vowel and possible consonant alternations. All verbs (except сум ) take the following endings in the aorist: (The sign ∅ indicates a zero ending: nothing is added after the stem vowel.) In the Indo-European languages Greek and Sanskrit ,

1640-533: Is now recognized as a standard language in Haiti; Swiss German dialects are hardly low-prestige languages in Switzerland (see Chambers, Sociolinguistic Theory); and after the end of the Greek military regime in 1974, Dimotiki was made into Greece's sole standard language in 1976, and nowadays, Katharevousa is (with a few exceptions) no longer used. Harold Schiffman wrote about Swiss German in 2010, "It seems to be

1722-680: Is part of the standardized varieties of Serbo-Croatian but is no longer part of standard Slovene . In both languages, the aorist appears mostly in older literature, scripture, religious services and legislation and so carries an archaic tone. In Serbo-Croatian, aorist finds natural use only in certain locales while it is completely supplanted by the perfect in others. As such, its use in formal settings can be construed as either pretentious and bombastic or conversely as rustic and unsophisticated, depending on locale. Its disuse does not cause ambiguity, as Slavic verbs have distinct grammatical aspects to convey related yet distinct meaning. The prevalence of

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1804-399: Is popularly spoken. Demotic Greek differs in a few ways from Ancient Greek and from subsequent learned forms of Greek. Syntactically, it favors parataxis over subordination . It also heavily employs redundancy , such as μικρό κοριτσάκι ( small little-girl ) and ξανακοιμήθηκε πάλι ( he-went-back-to-sleep again ). Demotic also employs the diminutive with great frequency, to

1886-703: Is reflected in contemporary standard Greek ) despite the loud objections of Psycharis and the radical "psycharist" ( ψυχαρικοί ) camp within the proponents of Demotic's use. Eventually these ideas of radical demoticism were largely marginalized and when a standardized Demotic was made the official language of the Greek state in 1976, the legislation stated that it would be used "without dialectal and extremist forms"—an explicit rejection of Psycharis' ideals. Ὡς Νεοελληνικὴ γλῶσσα νοεῖται ἡ διαμορφωθεῖσα εἰς πανελλήνιον ἐκφραστικὸν ὄργανον ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἑλληνικοῦ Λαοῦ καὶ τῶν δοκίμων συγγραφέων τοῦ Ἔθνους Δημοτική, συντεταγμένη, ἄνευ ἰδιωματισμῶν καὶ ἀκροτήτων. "Modern Greek language means

1968-550: Is spoken in informal situations, and Spanish is also spoken in informal situations. In Asia, the Philippines is the biggest example of such colonial exoglossia, with English since the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spanish before then (with a historic presence in place names, personal names, and loanwords in the local languages) and local Austronesian Philippine languages used for everyday situations; Timor-Leste

2050-632: Is the daily language in the street, on the markets, and in informal situations in general; in Mozambique , European Portuguese is used in formal situations, while Mozambican Portuguese is the spoken language in informal situations; and British English is used in formal situations in Nigeria, while Nigerian English is the spoken language in informal situations. In the countryside, local African dialects prevail. However, in traditional events, local languages can be used as prestige dialects: for example,

2132-561: Is the original mother tongue is almost always of low prestige . Its spheres of use involve informal, interpersonal communication : conversation in the home, among friends, in marketplaces. In some diglossias, this vernacular dialect is virtually unwritten. Those who try to use it in literature may be severely criticized or even persecuted. The other dialect is held in high esteem and is devoted to written communication and formal spoken communication, such as university instruction, primary education, sermons, and speeches by government officials. It

2214-941: Is used alongside the standard registers of Hindi (H) and Urdu (H); Hochdeutsch (H) is used alongside German dialects (L); the Arab world , where Modern Standard Arabic (H) is used alongside other varieties of Arabic (L); and China, where Standard Chinese (H) is used as the official, literary standard and local varieties of Chinese (L) are used in everyday communication). Other examples include literary Katharevousa (H) versus spoken Demotic Greek (L); literary Tamil (H) versus colloquial spoken Tamil (L); Indonesian , with its bahasa baku (H) and bahasa gaul (L) forms; Standard American English (H) versus African-American Vernacular English or Hawaiian Pidgin (L); and literary (H) versus spoken (L) Welsh . The Greek word διγλωσσία ( diglossía ), from δί- ( dí- , "two") and γλώσσα ( glóssa , "language"), meant bilingualism ; it

2296-500: Is used without the article to express an indefinite duration of time, or contracted with the definite article for definiteness (especially with regard to place where or motion toward). Using one noun with an unmarked accusative article-noun phrase followed by σε contracted with the definite article of a second noun distinguishes between definite direct and indirect objects, whether real or figurative, e.g. « βάζω το χέρι μου στο ευαγγέλιο » or «... στη φωτιά » (lit. I put my hand upon

2378-421: Is usually not possible to acquire proficiency in the formal, "high" dialect without formal study of it. Thus in those diglossic societies which are also characterized by extreme inequality of social classes , most people are not proficient in speaking the high dialect, and if the high dialect is grammatically different enough, as in the case of Arabic diglossia, these uneducated classes cannot understand most of

2460-490: The habitual aspect in Turkish . In Proto-Indo-European , the aorist appears to have originated as a series of verb forms expressing manner of action . Proto-Indo-European had a three-way aspectual opposition, traditionally called "present", "aorist", and "perfect", which are thought to have been, respectively, imperfective , perfective , and stative (resultant state) aspects. By the time of Classical Greek, this system

2542-438: The public speeches that they might hear on television and radio. The high prestige dialect (or language) tends to be the more formalised, and its forms and vocabulary often 'filter down' into the vernacular though often in a changed form. In many diglossic areas, there is controversy and polarization of opinions of native speakers regarding the relationship between the two dialects and their respective statuses . In cases that

Demotic Greek - Misplaced Pages Continue

2624-523: The unmarked (default) form of the Greek verb, such implications are often left to context. Thus, within New Testament hermeneutics , it is considered an exegetical fallacy to attach undue significance to uses of the aorist. Although one may draw specific implications from an author's use of the imperfective or perfect, no such conclusions can, in general, be drawn from the use of the aorist, which may refer to an action "without specifying whether

2706-420: The "high" dialect is objectively not intelligible to those exposed only to the vernacular , some people insist that the two dialects are nevertheless a common language. The pioneering scholar of diglossia, Charles A. Ferguson , observed that native speakers proficient in the high prestige dialect will commonly try to avoid using the vernacular dialect with foreigners and may even deny its existence even though

2788-499: The (H) language, and was still used for this purpose until the fourth century AD, more than sixteen centuries after it had ceased to exist in everyday speech. Another historical example is Latin, Classical Latin being the (H) and Vulgar Latin the (L); the latter, which is almost completely unattested in text, is the tongue from which the Romance languages descended. The (L) variants are not just simplifications or "corruptions" of

2870-528: The (H) variant exoglossia and the (L) variant endoglossia . In some cases (especially with creole languages ), the nature of the connection between (H) and (L) is not one of diglossia but a continuum ; for example, Jamaican Creole as (L) and Standard English as (H) in Jamaica. Similar is the case in the Scottish Lowlands , with Scots as (L) and Scottish English as (H). (H) is usually

2952-495: The (H) variants. In phonology, for example, (L) dialects are as likely to have phonemes absent from the (H) as vice versa. Some Swiss German dialects have three phonemes, /e/ , /ɛ/ and /æ/ , in the phonetic space where Standard German has only two phonemes, /ɛ(ː)/ ( Berlin 'Berlin', Bären 'bears') and /eː/ ( Beeren 'berries'). Jamaican Creole has fewer vowel phonemes than standard English, but it has additional palatal /kʲ/ and /ɡʲ/ phonemes. Especially in endoglossia

3034-514: The (L) form may also be called " basilect ", the (H) form " acrolect ", and an intermediate form " mesolect ". Ferguson's classic examples include Standard German/Swiss German, Standard Arabic / Arabic vernaculars , French / Creole in Haiti , and Katharevousa / Dimotiki in Greece , though the "low prestige" nature of most of these examples has changed since Ferguson's article was published. Creole

3116-785: The Demotic form is used for literal or practical meanings, while the Katharevousa is used for figurative or specialized meanings: e.g. φτερό for the wing or feather of a bird, but πτέρυξ for the wing of a building or airplane or arm of an organisation. Special dative forms: Modern Greek features many letter combinations that were avoided in traditional Demotic: Native Greek speakers, depending upon their level of education, may often make mistakes in these "educated" aspects of their language; one can often see mistakes like προήχθη instead of προήχθην ( I've been promoted ), λόγου του ότι/λόγο το ότι instead of λόγω του ότι ( due to

3198-560: The Demotic shaped into a pan-Hellenic instrument of expression by the Greek People and the esteemed writers of the Nation, coherent, without peculiar and extreme forms." Diglossia In linguistics , diglossia ( / d aɪ ˈ ɡ l ɒ s i ə / dy- GLOSS -ee-ə , US also / d aɪ ˈ ɡ l ɔː s i ə / dy- GLAW -see-ə ) is where two dialects or languages are used (in fairly strict compartmentalization) by

3280-508: The English equivalent diglossia in 1959 in the title of an article. His conceptualization of diglossia describes a society with more than one prevalent language or the high variety, which pertains to the language used in literature, newspapers, and other social institutions. The article has been cited over 4,000 times. The term is particularly embraced among sociolinguists and a number of these proposed different interpretations or varieties of

3362-497: The Gospel or ...in the fire , i.e. I swear it's true , I'm sure of it ). By contrast, Katharevousa continued to employ the older εἰς in place of σε . The verb system inherited from Ancient Greek gradually evolved. The perfect, pluperfect, future perfect, and past conditional tenses were gradually replaced with conjugated forms of the verb έχω ( I have ). The future tense and the subjunctive and optative moods, and eventually

Demotic Greek - Misplaced Pages Continue

3444-462: The Greek State", scholars brought to life "Katharevousa" or "purist" language. Katharevousa did not constitute the natural development of the language of the people, the " Koine ", " Romeika ", Demotic Greek or "Dimotiki" as it is currently referred to. While Singapore has predominantly been an English speaking country, a more informal style of English has been developed and popularised within

3526-678: The Serbian linguist Aleksandar Belić was tasked by the authorities of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia with creating a formal grammar for the new Serbo-Croatian standard. He decided to curb the use of the aorist by noting that there were many speakers of the language "in Yugoslavia who rarely use aorist, or do not use it at all", alluding to primarily Croats , Slovenes , Bosniaks and Serbs of Croatia and Bosnia whose dialects had long since done away with aorist altogether; Belić redefined aorist as

3608-403: The action is unique, repeated, ingressive, instantaneous, past, or accomplished." In particular, the aorist does not imply a "once-for-all" action, as it has commonly been misinterpreted, although it frequently refers to a simple, non-repeated action. Although quite common in older Sanskrit, the aorist is comparatively infrequent in much of classical Sanskrit, occurring, for example, 66 times in

3690-438: The aorist stem is marked by several morphological devices (the aorist indicative also has the past-tense augment ἐ- e- , which contracts with the initial vowel ). Three aorist morphological devices stand out as most common: In Georgian and Svan , the aorist marks perfective aspect. In the indicative, it marks completed events. In other moods, it marks events that are yet to be completed. In Mingrelian and Laz ,

3772-468: The aorist ( Turkish : geniş zaman , literally "broad time") is a habitual aspect and is similar to the English present simple . For example, the statement Et yemem ("I do not eat meat") informs the listener that the speaker is a vegetarian and not merely that they happen not to be eating meat at that very moment. To convey the latter message, the present progressive Et yemiyorum ("I am not eating meat") would be appropriate. The Turkish aorist

3854-496: The aorist entirely. In the development of Latin, for example, the aorist merged with the perfect. The preterites (past perfectives) of the Romance languages, which are sometimes called "aorist", are an independent development. In Ancient Greek , the indicative aorist is one of the two main forms used in telling a story; it is used for undivided events, such as the individual steps in a continuous process (narrative aorist); it

3936-575: The aorist indicative and to some extent the participle is essentially a mixture of past tense and perfective aspect . Because the aorist was not maintained in either Latin or the Germanic languages, there have long been difficulties in translating the Greek New Testament into Western languages. The aorist has often been interpreted as making a strong statement about the aspect or even the time of an event, when, in fact, due to its being

4018-422: The aorist is basically a past tense and can be combined with both perfective and imperfective aspects as well as the imperative and the subjunctive moods. In Khinalug , the aorist is a perfective aspect, and the two terms ("aorist" and "perfective") are often used interchangeably. In Udi , the aorist is an imperfective aspect that is usually a past tense but can also replace the present tense. In Turkish ,

4100-516: The aorist tense contrasts with the imperfect in describing the past occurs in Xenophon 's Anabasis , when the Persian aristocrat Orontas is executed: "and those who had been previously in the habit of bowing ( προσεκύνουν prosekúnoun , imperfect) to him, bowed ( προσεκύνησαν prosekúnēsan , aorist) to him even then." Here the imperfect refers to a past habitual or repeated act, and

4182-458: The aorist to a single one. There is disagreement as to which functions of the Greek aorist are inherent within it. Some of the disagreement applies to the history of the development of the various functions and forms. Most grammarians differentiate the aorist indicative from the non-indicative aorists. Many authors hold that the aorist tends to be about the past because it is perfective, and perfectives tend to describe completed actions; others that

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4264-533: The aorist varied widely by region prior to the grammatical changes during the communists ' rise to power in SFR Yugoslavia after World War II . Historically, in Croatia and Croatian dialects, the aorist was naturally displaced by the perfect in most dialects ( Chakavian , Kajkavian and Shtokavian ). In Serbia and Serbian dialects, the aorist was historically commonly used to describe the past. In 1933,

4346-513: The aorist was the unmarked (default) form of the verb, and thus did not have the implications of the imperfective aspect , which referred to an ongoing or repeated situation, or the perfect , which referred to a situation with a continuing relevance; instead it described an action "pure and simple". Because the aorist was the unmarked aspect in Ancient Greek, the term is sometimes applied to unmarked verb forms in other languages, such as

4428-460: The case that Swiss German was once consensually agreed to be in a diglossic hierarchy with Standard German, but that this consensus is now breaking." Code-switching is also commonplace, especially in the Arabic world; according to Andrew Freeman, this is "different from Ferguson's description of diglossia which states that the two forms are in complementary distribution." To a certain extent, there

4510-420: The category whereby, while the living language of the area evolves and changes as time passes by, there is an artificial retrospection to and imitation of earlier (more ancient) linguistic forms preserved in writing and considered to be scholarly and classic. One of the earliest recorded examples of diglossia was during the first century AD, when Hellenistic Alexandrian scholars decided that, in order to strengthen

4592-487: The concept. In his 1959 article, Charles A. Ferguson defines diglossia as follows: DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which

4674-437: The country, assisted by its demographic whom come from many different countries. The Singaporean government has long insisted for English to be the sole language used, both in formal settings and everyday lives. However, in practice, Singlish is used predominantly in casual contexts, with speakers switching to English in formal contexts. As an aspect of study of the relationships between codes and social structure , diglossia

4756-573: The example of standardized Arabic and says that, "very often, educated Arabs will maintain they never use L at all, in spite of the fact that direct observation shows that they use it constantly in ordinary conversation" Joshua Fishman expanded the definition of diglossia to include the use of unrelated languages as high and low varieties. For example, in Alsace the Alsatian language (Elsässisch) serves as (L) and French as (H). Heinz Kloss calls

4838-506: The exclusive use of the naturally grown colloquial language, but he actually opted for simplifying the morphology of Katharevousa forms prescription . For instance, Psycharis proposed changing the form of the neuter noun "light" το φως (gen. του φωτός ) into το φώτο (gen. του φώτου ). Such radical forms had occasional precedent in Renaissance attempts to write in Demotic, and reflected Psycharis' linguistic training as

4920-559: The fact that ), τον ενδιαφέρον άνθρωπο instead of τον ενδιαφέροντα άνθρωπο ( the interesting person ), οι ενδιαφέροντες γυναίκες instead of οι ενδιαφέρουσες γυναίκες ( the interesting women ), ο ψήφος instead of η ψήφος ( the vote ). One of the most radical proponents of a language that was to be cleansed of all "educated" elements was Giannis Psycharis , who lived in France and gained fame through his work My Voyage ( Το ταξίδι μου , 1888). Not only did Psycharis propagate

5002-444: The family. In German-speaking Switzerland , on the other hand, Swiss German dialects are to a certain extent even used in schools, and to a larger extent in churches. Ramseier calls German-speaking Switzerland's diglossia a "medial diglossia", whereas Felicity Rash prefers "functional diglossia". Paradoxically, Swiss German offers both the best example of diglossia (all speakers are native speakers of Swiss German and thus diglossic) and

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5084-633: The first book of the Rāmāyaṇa , 8 times in the Hitopadeśa , 6 times in the Bhagavad-Gītā , and 6 times in the story of Śakuntalā in the Mahābhārata . In the later language, the aorist indicative had the value of a preterite , while in the older language it was closer in sense to the perfect. The aorist was also used with the ancient injunctive mood , particularly in prohibitions. The Indo-European aorist

5166-416: The infinitive, were replaced by the modal/tense auxiliaries θα and να used with either the simplified or fused future/subjunctive forms. In contrast to this, Katharevousa employed older perfective forms and infinitives that had been mostly lost in the spoken language. However, Katharevousa did sometimes employ the same aorist or perfective forms as the spoken language, but preferred an archaizing form of

5248-656: The language in everyday use in Ancient Egypt during the Middle Kingdom (2000–1650 BC). By 1350 BC, in the New Kingdom (1550–1050 BC), the Egyptian language had evolved into Late Egyptian , which itself later evolved into Demotic (700 BC – AD 400). These two later forms served as (L) languages in their respective periods. But in both cases, Middle Egyptian remained the standard written, prestigious form,

5330-585: The link between the people and the glorious culture of the Greek "Golden Age" (5th c. BC), people should adopt the language of that era. The phenomenon, called " Atticism ", dominated the writings of part of the Hellenistic period , the Byzantine and Medieval era. Following the Greek War of Independence of 1821 and in order to "cover new and immediate needs" making their appearance with "the creation of

5412-742: The local languages. In Ghana , a dialect called " Student Pidgin " was traditionally used by men in all-male secondary schools, though an ever-increasing number of female students are now also using it due to social change. Gender-based oral speech variations are found in Arabic-speaking communities. Makkan males are found to adopt more formal linguistic variants in their WhatsApp messages than their female counterparts, who tend to use more informal "locally prestigious" linguistic variants. Among Garifuna (Karif) speakers in Central America , men and women often have different words for

5494-586: The only two official languages used in formal situations, with Moroccan Arabic and Amazigh dialects spoken in informal situations, while French and Spanish are also spoken in formal situations, making some Moroccans bilinguals or trilinguals in Modern Standard Arabic or Tamazight, French or Spanish, and Moroccan Arabic or Amazigh dialects. In Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic , the official languages are Modern Standard Arabic and Spanish, which are spoken in formal situations, while Hassaniya Arabic

5576-580: The point that many Demotic forms are in effect neuter diminutives of ancient words, especially irregular ones, e.g. νησί from νήσιον ( island ) from ancient νῆσος ( island ). Greek noun declensions underwent considerable alteration, with irregular and less productive forms being gradually regularized (e.g. ancient ἀνήρ being replaced by άντρας ( man )). Another feature is the merging of classical accusative and nominative forms: They are only distinguished in Demotic by their definite articles, which continued to be declined as in Ancient Greek. This

5658-458: The present indicative, e.g. κρύπτω for Demotic κρύβω ( I hide ), which both have the same aorist form έκρυψα . Demotic Greek also borrowed a significant number of words from other languages, including Italian and Turkish, something which Katharevousa avoided. Demotic is commonly used interchangeably with " Standard Modern Greek " ( Νέα Ελληνικά ). Nonetheless, these terms are not necessarily synonyms. While today's Standard Modern Greek

5740-471: The same concepts. In Ireland, deaf men and women studied in two separate schools throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Lack of contact between the two groups led to the development of gender-specific varieties of Irish Sign Language . Diglossia may have appeared in Arabic when Muslim-majority countries emerged in North Africa during the early history of Islam . Greek diglossia belongs to

5822-444: The term triglossia is used. When referring to two writing systems coexisting for a single language, the term digraphia is used. The high variety may be an older stage of the same language (as in medieval Europe , where Latin (H) remained in formal use even as colloquial speech (L) diverged), an unrelated language, or a distinct yet closely related present-day dialect (as in northern India and Pakistan , where Hindustani (L)

5904-458: The two dialects are so divergent that they are distinct languages as defined by linguists : they are not mutually intelligible . Thomas Ricento, an author on language policy and political theory believes that there is always a "socially constructed hierarchy, indexed from low to high." The hierarchy is generally imposed by leading political figures or popular media and is sometimes not the native language of that particular region. The dialect that

5986-676: The use of optative as part of the sequence of tenses in dependent clauses. There are aorist infinitives and imperatives that do not imply temporality at all. For example, the Lord's Prayer in Matthew 6:11 uses the aorist imperative in " Give ( δός dós ) us this day our daily bread", in contrast to the analogous passage in Luke 11:3, which uses the imperfective aspect, implying repetition, with " Give ( δίδου dídou , present imperative) us day by day our daily bread." An example of how

6068-497: The vernacular is the only socially appropriate one for themselves to use when speaking to their relatives and friends. Yet another common attitude is that the low dialect, which is everyone's native language , ought to be abandoned in favor of the high dialect, which presently is nobody's native language. Aorist Aorist ( / ˈ eɪ ə r ɪ s t / AY -ər-ist ; abbreviated AOR ) verb forms usually express perfective aspect and refer to past events , similar to

6150-514: The vowel - e ( ε ) to third-person verb forms: γράφουνε instead of γράφουν ( they write ). Word-final consonant clusters are also rare, again mainly occurring in learned discourse and via foreign loans: άνθραξ ( coal – scientific) and μποξ ( boxing – sport). The indirect object is usually expressed by prepending the word σε to the accusative (where Ancient Greek had εἰς for accusative of motion toward) or genitive (especially with regard to means or instrument). Bare σε

6232-639: The worst, because there is no clear-cut hierarchy. While Swiss Standard German is spoken in formal situations like in school, news broadcasts, and government speeches, Swiss Standard German is also spoken in informal situations only whenever a German Swiss is communicating with a German-speaking foreigner who it is assumed would not understand the respective dialect. Amongst themselves, the German-speaking Swiss use their respective Swiss German dialect, irrespective of social class, education or topic. In most African countries, as well as some Asian ones,

6314-407: The written language whereas (L) is the spoken language. In formal situations, (H) is used; in informal situations, (L) is used. Sometimes, (H) is used in informal situations and as spoken language when speakers of 2 different (L) languages and dialects or more communicate with each other (as a lingua franca ), but not the other way around. One of the earliest examples was that of Middle Egyptian ,

6396-590: Was especially common with nouns of the third declension, such as πατρίς ( hometown , fatherland ) which became nominative η πατρίδα , accusative την πατρίδα in Demotic. A result of this regularization of noun forms in Demotic is that most native words end in a vowel, s ( ς ), or n ( ν ). Thus, the set of possible word-final sounds is even more restricted than in Ancient Greek. Exceptions are foreign loans like μπαρ ( bar ), learned forms ύδωρ (from Ancient Greek ὕδωρ , water ), and exclamations like αχ! ( ach! , oh! ). Many dialects even append

6478-504: Was given its specialized meaning "two forms of the same language" by Emmanuel Rhoides in the prologue of his Parerga in 1885. The term was quickly adapted into French as diglossie by the Greek linguist and demoticist Ioannis Psycharis , with credit to Rhoides. The Arabist William Marçais used the term in 1930 to describe the linguistic situation in Arabic -speaking countries. The sociolinguist Charles A. Ferguson introduced

6560-611: Was inherited by the Slavic languages but has survived intact only in the South Slavic languages . It retains its function entirely in the Eastern South Slavic languages, Bulgarian and Macedonian . However, in Western South Slavic languages it has become, along with the imperfect and pluperfect , largely obsolete in daily parlance and mostly superseded by the perfect and circumlocution . The aorist

6642-474: Was maintained largely in independent instances of the non-indicative moods and in the nonfinite forms. But in the indicative, and in dependent clauses with the subjunctive and optative , the aspects took on temporal significance. In this manner, the aorist was often used as an unmarked past tense, and the perfect came to develop a resultative use, which is why the term perfect is used for this meaning in modern languages. Other Indo-European languages lost

6724-416: Was tolerated due to abundance of its use in older literature. Nevertheless, aorist is still widespread in rural parts of Serbia, especially among the older and less educated part of the population. In standardized forms, the aorist is used for witnessed actions from a specific time in the past, mostly with verbs of perfective aspect. In modern forms of communication, the aorist has experienced something of

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