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64-732: The Dendi (or Dandi , Dendiganda ) was a former province of the Songhai Empire . It survived the fall of the Empire as a kingdom until 1901, when it was conquered by France and incorporated into French West Africa . Its centers today are the cities of Gaya in Niger , Kamba in Nigeria and Malanville in Benin . Under the Songhai empire, Dendi had been the easternmost province, governed by

128-414: A camel cavalry . They trained herds of long-horned bulls in the imperial stables to charge at the enemy in battle. Vultures were also used to harass opposing camps. The emperor was the strategist and commander-in-chief of the military, and the balama acted as minister of defence and army general. The janky was the army corps general, and the wonky were lieutenants in charge of a garrison. The head of

192-612: A 500-mile corridor upstream to Djenné or downstream to Gao. The Julla (merchants) would form partnerships, and the state would protect the merchants and port cities along Niger. Askia Muhammad I implemented a universal system of weights and measures throughout the empire. The Songhai economy was based on a clan system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided one's occupation. The most common occupations were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. The lower castes mainly consisted of immigrants, who, at times, were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At

256-685: A Dendi has several, each has her own house in the family compound. The economy of the Dendi is very diverse and includes trading, a occupation they have done for many centuries. However, most Dendi also practice subsistence farming. Common crops grown by the Dendi in Niger include millet, maize, plantains, and manioc. In Benin they grow rice, cowpeas, groundnuts, cassava, carrots, tomatoes, peppers, cabbage, millet and several types of squash. The Dendi have also cattle, camels, sheep, goats, and chickens. The Dendi of Niger drink milk of cows and goats. Only men work

320-601: A Portuguese invasion at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir , but were left on the verge of economic depletion and bankruptcy, as they needed to pay for the defences used to hold off the siege. This led Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur of the Saadi dynasty in 1591 to dispatch an invasion force south under the eunuch Judar Pasha . The Moroccan invasion of Songhai was mainly to seize and revive the trans-Saharan trade in salt, gold and slaves for their developing sugar industry. During Askia's reign,

384-452: A force made up primarily of freemen and captives. Swords, arrows and copper or leather shields made up the arsenal of the Songhai infantry. At the Battle of Tondibi , the Songhai army consisted of 30,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. Dendi people The Dendi and the Songhai descended from the ancient kingdom of Za , whose presence has been recorded since the eighth century between the towns of Kukiya and Gao in modern Mali . In 1010,

448-488: A pardon or offer refuge. The Assara-munitions , or "enforcers", worked like a police commissioner whose sole duty was to execute sentencing. Jurists were mainly composed of representatives of the academic community; professors were often noted as taking administrative positions within the Empire, and many aspired to be qadis . The upper classes in society converted to Islam, while the lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to

512-465: A period of stability and a string of military successes during the reign of Askia Daoud . Askia Ishaq II , the last ruler of the Songhai Empire, ascended to power in a long dynastic struggle following the death of Daoud. In 1590, Al-Mansur took advantage of the recent civil conflict in the empire and sent an army under the command of Judar Pasha to conquer the Songhai and gain control of

576-587: A policy against the scholars of Timbuktu, especially those of the Sankore region who were associated with the Tuareg. With his control of critical trade routes and cities such as Timbuktu, Sonni Ali increased the wealth of the Songhai Empire, which at its height would surpass the wealth of Mali. Sonni Ali was succeeded by Askia the Great . He organized the territories his predecessor conquered and extended his power to

640-465: A trial were announced by the "town crier", and punishment for most trivial crimes usually consisted of confiscation of merchandise or even imprisonment since various prisons existed throughout the Empire. Qadis worked locally in important trading towns like Timbuktu and Djenné. The king appointed the Qadi and dealt with common-law misdemeanours according to Sharia law. The Qadi also had the power to grant

704-606: The Mali Empire 's attention. Mali conquered the city, profited from Gao's trade, and collected taxes from its kings until about the 1430s. Conflict in the Malian homeland made it impossible to maintain control of Gao. Ibn Battuta visited Gao in 1353 when the town was still a part of the Mali Empire. He arrived by boat from Timbuktu on his return journey from visiting the capital of the empire, writing: Then I travelled to

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768-683: The Neolithic coming from East Africa to mix with the Sorko fishing population and local Niger-Congo agriculturalists of the Niger River. At its peak, Timbuktu became a thriving cultural and commercial centre. Arab, Italian, and Jewish merchants all gathered for trade. A revival of Islamic scholarship took place at the university in Timbuktu. Overland trade in the Sahel and river trade along

832-499: The Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu. He was interested in astronomy, which led to increased astronomers and observatories in the capital. Askia initiated multiple military campaigns, including declaring Jihad against the neighbouring Mossi. He did not force them to convert to Islam after subduing them. His army consisted of war canoes, a cavalry, protective armour, iron-tipped weapons, and an organized militia. He centralized

896-448: The trans-Saharan trade routes. The Songhai Empire collapsed after the defeat at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. The Songhai Empire has been variously translated in texts as Zagha, Zaghai, Zaghaya, Sughai, Zaghay, Zaggan, Izghan, Zaghawa, Zuwagha, Zawagha, Zauge, Azuagha, Azwagha, Sungee, Sanghee, Songhai, Songhay, Sughai, Zanghi, Zingani, Zanj, Zahn, Zaan, Zarai, Dyagha, and possibly Znaga. In ancient times somewhere surmised between

960-514: The 1460s, Sonni Sulayman Dama attacked Méma , the Mali province west of Timbuktu. After the death of Sulayman Dama, Sonni Ali reigned from 1464 to 1492. Unlike the previous Songhai kings, Ali sought to honour the traditional religion of his people, taught to him by his mother of the Dendi people . This earned him the reputation of a tyrant by Islamic Scholars. In the late 1460s, he conquered many of

1024-480: The 1591 Battle of Tondibi , Songhai forces, despite vastly superior numbers, were routed by a cattle stampede triggered by the Saadi's gunpowder weapons. Judar proceeded to sack Gao, Timbuktu and Djenné, destroying the Songhai as a regional power. Governing so vast an empire proved too much for the Saadi dynasty . They soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms. After

1088-509: The 9th and 3rd centuries BCE, several different groups of people collectively formed the Songhai identity, centered around the developing hub of ancient Kukiya . Among the first people to settle in the region of Gao were the Sorko people, who established small settlements on the banks of Niger. The Sorko fashioned boats and canoes from the wood of the cailcedrat tree , fished and hunted from their ships, and provided water-borne transport for goods and people. Another group of people that moved into

1152-538: The Arabs came to the territory. They converted the people to Islam, which was then mixed with their indigenous religion (based on the belief of the holy rivers, soil and hunting). The Songhay Empire collapsed at the end of the sixteenth century, when Morocco conquered the territory. The houses of many Dendis can be characterized by rectangular forms and mud fabrication, as well as corrugated tin roofs. The Dendi people are patrilineal because they believe all men share

1216-424: The Empire saw increased centralization. He encouraged learning in Timbuktu by rewarding its professors with larger pensions as an incentive. He also established an order of precedence and protocol and was noted as a nobleman who gave back generously to people experiencing poverty. Under his policies, Muhammad brought much stability to Songhai, and great attestations of this registered organization are still preserved in

1280-411: The Great, instituted political and economic reforms throughout the empire. A series of plots and coups by Askia's successors forced the empire into a period of decline and instability. Askia's relatives attempted to govern the kingdom, but political chaos and several civil wars within the empire ensured the empire's continued decline, particularly during the rule of Askia Ishaq I . The empire experienced

1344-528: The Islamic historian Al-Sa'di expresses this sentiment in describing his incursion on Timbuktu: Sunni Ali entered Timbuktu, committed gross iniquity, burned and destroyed the town, and brutally tortured many people there. When Akilu heard of the coming of Sonni Ali, he brought a thousand camels to carry the fuqaha of Sankore and went with them to Walata ..... The Godless tyrant slaughtered those who remained in Timbuktu and humiliated them. Sonni Ali created

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1408-550: The Niger were the primary sources of Songhai wealth. Trade along the West African coast was only possible in the late 1400s. Several dikes were constructed during the reign of Sonni Ali, which enhanced the irrigation and agricultural yield of the empire. Overland trade was influenced by four factors: camels, Berber tribe members, Islam, and the structure of the empire. Gold was readily available in West Africa, but salt

1472-515: The Songhai Empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty ( c.  1464 –1493), but it was later replaced by the Askia dynasty (1493–1591). During the second half of the 13th century, Gao and the surrounding region had grown into an important trading centre and attracted the interest of the expanding Mali Empire . Mali conquered Gao near the end of the 13th century. Gao remained under Malian command until

1536-595: The Songhai Empire's neighbouring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. During his campaigns for expansion, Ali conquered several territories, repelling attacks from the Mossi to the south and conquering the Dogon people to the north. He annexed Timbuktu in 1468 after the leaders of the town asked him to help overthrow the Tuaregs, who had taken the city following the decline of Mali. When he attempted to conquer

1600-448: The Songhai and again Nuh resorted to guerilla warfare. This situation lasted until 1599, when Nuh's followers became tired of the war and deposed him in favor of his brother Harun . In 1609, the city of Djenné revolted against the Saadi pashas with the support of the Songhai. The Saadi were eventually able to regain the city, but with a lack of support from their homeland, they soon abandoned

1664-553: The Songhai military consisted of full-time soldiers, but the king never modernized his army. On the other hand, the invading Moroccan army included thousands of arquebusiers and eight English cannons. Judar Pasha was a Spaniard by birth but had been captured as an infant and educated at the Saadi court. After a march across the Sahara desert, Judar's forces captured, plundered, and razed the salt mines at Taghaza and moved on to Gao. When Emperor Askia Ishaq II (r. 1588–1591) met Judar at

1728-426: The administration of the empire and established a bureaucracy responsible for tax collection and the administration of justice. He demanded the building of canals to enhance agriculture, eventually increasing trade. He introduced a system of weights and measures and appointed an inspector for each of Songhai's major trading centres. During his reign, Islam became more entrenched, trans-Saharan trade flourished, and

1792-537: The area to live off of Niger's resources were the Gao people. The Gao were hunters and specialized in hunting river animals such as crocodiles and hippopotamus. The other group known to have inhabited the area were the Do people, farmers who raised crops in the fertile lands bordering the river. Before the 10th century, these early settlers were subjugated by more powerful, horse-riding Songhai speakers, who established control over

1856-427: The area, leaving it to Tuareg and Fulbe nomads. In 1612, Askia al-Amin came to power. His short reign of six years was followed by the rule of Askiya Dawud. Dawud killed many people during his reign including relatives and members of the military. His brother, Isma'il, fled to Timbuktu and sought Saadi support to overthrow al-Amin. Isma'il returned to Songhai and deposed his brother in 1639. Upon attempting to send

1920-451: The area. All these groups gradually began to speak the same language, and they and their country eventually became known as the Songhai. The earliest dynasty of kings is obscure, and most information about it comes from an ancient cemetery near a village called Saney , close to Gao. Inscriptions on a few of the tombstones in the cemetery indicate that this dynasty ruled in the late 11th and early 12th centuries and that its rulers were given

1984-405: The camel cavalry, called gu , was led by the guy , or cavalry chief. The cavalry mainly consisted of Berbers recruited from the northern provinces. The Songhai included three military provinces, and an army was stationed in each. It was divided into several garrisons, the kurmina , led by the balama , the central province by the emperor himself and the dendi by the dendi fari . The army of

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2048-428: The central government. The hi koy was the fleet commander who performed roles likened to a home affairs minister . Fari Mondzo was the minister of agriculture who administered the state's agricultural estates. The Kalisa farm has been described by historians such as Ki-Zerbo to be the finance minister who supervised the empire's treasury. Korey Farma was also the "minister in charge of White foreigners." The tax

2112-496: The closest military province was mobilized with that of the emperor. Those remaining on the spot ensured order in the three provinces; the emperor was obliged to be in front of the armed during a war of conquest. The Jinakoy ruled secondary provinces and their lieutenants in the regions of the provinces. According to Potholm, the Songhai army was dominated by heavy cavalry of "mounted knights outfitted in chain mail and helmets", similar to medieval European armies. The infantry included

2176-445: The country, living in most villages. The ceremonies of spirit possession are celebrated and have their own characteristics according to the place. This type of ceremony, in some places, can be celebrated weekly or more often. The main Dendi religious ceremonies are the "genji bi hori" (a festival celebrated to deliver offerings to the "black spirits" that control the plague ) and yenaandi (rain dance). Both ceremonies are celebrated in

2240-540: The empire in poor financial condition, but the kingdom itself passed intact to Musa II . Mari Djata, Musa's kankoro-sigui , put down a Tuareg rebellion in Takedda and attempted to quell the Songhai rebellion in Gao. While he succeeded in Takedda, he did not re-subjugate Gao. Another round of dynastic instability in the 1380s and 90s likely allowed the Songhai to formalize their independence under Sunni Muhammad Dao. In

2304-462: The empire's defeat, the nobles moved south to an area known today as Songhai in current Niger , where the Sonni dynasty had already settled. They formed smaller kingdoms such as Wanzarbe , Ayerou , Gothèye , Dargol , Téra , Sikié , Kokorou , Gorouol , Karma , Namaro and further south, the Dendi which rose to prominence shortly after. The original Songhai Empire only included the area from

2368-696: The fields. In Benin, the women are dedicated to fruit production, tending gardens with mango, guava, citrus, papayas, bananas and dates and meal preparation. In Niger, the women grow vegetables and herbs in their gardens. Almost all the Dendi are Muslim . Some communities have imams who teach Islamic philosophy and some Islamic rituals are practiced frequently. The Dendi community features multiple Islamic sects including Ibadhi , Ahmadi , Alevi , Yazidi , Druze and Khariji . However, certain ancestral Dendi cultural traits, such as magic, spirit possession , ancestor worship and witchcraft , are also important. Thus, magician-healers and witches are present throughout

2432-453: The foreign army back, he was deposed and replaced by a ruler that the pashas felt would be easier to deal with. This ruler was eventually removed by the Songhai people. The Dendi Kingdom lasted for the next two and a half centuries, witnessing increasingly unstable reigns, coups and counter-coups. When France entered the region, the empire was defensively unprepared. In 1901, the French deposed

2496-472: The king. Timbuktu was the educational capital. Sonni Ali established a system of government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia Muhammad, which appointed governors and mayors to preside over local tributary states around the Niger Valley. These local chiefs were still granted authority over their respective domains if they did not undermine Songhai policy. Departmental positions existed in

2560-571: The last askia of Dendi, ending Songhai's control of either Mali or Niger until independence. Askia Rulers of Dendi (18th century – early 20th century) The main ethnic groups in Dendi are the Tyenga , Zarma , Songhai proper , Hausa people , Bariba and the Fulbe . In the pre-colonial era, the Songhai, who migrated from the fallen Songhai empire, held political rule while the Tyenga, who had been

2624-541: The late 14th century. As the Mali Empire started disintegrating, the Songhai reasserted control of Gao. Songhai rulers subsequently took advantage of the weakened Mali Empire to expand Songhai rule. Under the rule of Sonni Ali, the Songhai surpassed the Malian Empire in area, wealth, and power, absorbing vast regions of the Mali Empire. His son and successor, Sonni Bāru , was overthrown by Muhammad Ture , one of his father's generals. Ture, more commonly known as Askia

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2688-407: The mid-1950s. Merchants who moved from other regions made this region in the border triangle an important trading center in the second half of the 20th century where agricultural products such as rice, millet and corn from other regions are traded. Songhai Empire The Songhai Empire was a state located in the western part of the Sahel during the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it

2752-407: The mounted archers was called the tongue farma . The hike was second in the chain of command of the empire and served as its interior minister . He was assisted by two vice-admirals at the ports of Kabara and Ayourou and commanded over a thousand captains, ensuring the rapid movement of troops along the Niger River. The infantry was led by a general called the nyay hurry (war elephant), and

2816-538: The older residents, mainly derived their power from their practice of Bori (a pre-Islamic traditional cult). These two ethnic groups, the Songhai and the Tyenga, mixed to form a new distinct ethnic group, the Dendi people . They speak the Dendi Songhai dialect. Like Birni-N'Konni and Dogondoutchi , Dendi was a center of the Bori obsession cult, which almost completely disappeared as a result of Islamization by

2880-412: The pasha, Mahmud ibn Zarqun , attempted to conquer the remaining smaller Songhai kingdoms Which was now centred in south-western Niger. Askia Nuh resisted the invasion by a costly warfare lasting two years. In 1594 Mahmud was forced to discontinue the war and retreated, just to be killed in the same year by Dogon , with whom Nuh was probably allied. The new pasha called Mansur continued the war against

2944-456: The prestigious Dendi-fari ("governor of the eastern front"). Some members of the Askia dynasty and their followers fled here after being defeated by the invading Saadi dynasty of Morocco at the Battle of Tondibi and at another battle seven months later. There, they resisted Moroccan Invaders and maintained the tradition of the Songhai with the same Askia rulers and their newly established capital at Lulami . The first ruler, Askia Ishaq II

3008-679: The region of Timbuktu to the east of Gao. Provinces were created after a military expansion under Sonni Ali and Askiya, whose territory was divided into three military zones: The Songhai Empire at its zenith extended over the current territories of Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, most other Guinean Coast countries and Algeria. Its influence stretched as far as Cameroon over a vast contiguous ethnolinguistic , cultural, and political space of Mandé peoples , Gur , Dogon, Berbers, Arab , Fula , Wolof , Hausa , Soninke people , Akan people , and Yoruba people . An elite of Songhai horsemen led this population from nomadic Nilo-Saharan riders of

3072-402: The rest on gifts for the people of Mecca to display his empire's wealth. Historians from Cairo said his pilgrimage consisted of "an escort of 500 cavalry and 1000 infantry, and with him he carried 300,000 pieces of gold". Islam was so important to him that, upon his return, he established more learning centres throughout his empire and recruited Muslim scholars from Egypt and Morocco to teach at

3136-422: The river. As trade in the region increased, the Songhai chiefs took control of the profitable trade around what would later become Gao. Trade goods included gold, salt, slaves, kola nuts , leather, dates , and ivory . By the 10th century, the Songhai chiefs had established Gao as a small kingdom, taking control of the people living along the trade routes. Around 1300, Gao had become prosperous enough to attract

3200-429: The salt mines of Taghaza were brought within the empire's boundaries. In 1528, Askia's children revolted against him, declaring his son Askia Musa king. Following Musa's overthrow in 1531, the Songhai Empire went into decline. Following the death of Emperor Askia Daoud in 1583, a war of succession weakened the Songhai Empire and split it into two feuding factions. During this period, Moroccan armies annihilated

3264-481: The same male ancestor. Dendi society is split into social groups, including a noble caste. Among Dendi nobles the first male child born in a marriage is urged to marry the daughter of his paternal uncle, to maintain the purity of the line of the father. Men marry in their thirties, while girls do so in their teens. Dendis accept divorce. All children belong to the husband's lineage. Most men have one wife due to financial reasons, although Islam allows up to four wives. If

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3328-453: The south and the east. Under his rule, the Songhai military possessed a full-time corps of warriors. Askia is said to have cynical attitudes towards kingdoms lacking professional fighting forces. Al-Sa'di, the chronicler who wrote the Tarikh al-Sudan , compared Askiya's army to that of his predecessor: "he distinguished between the civilian and the army unlike Sunni Ali [1464–92] when everyone

3392-579: The title of Malik (Arabic for "King"). Other tombstones mention a second dynasty whose rulers bore the title zuwa . Only myth and legend describe the origins of the zuwa . The Tarikh al-Sudan ( History of Sudan ), written in Arabic around 1655, provides an early history of the Songhai as handed down through oral tradition. It reports that the founder of the Za dynasty was called Za Alayaman (also spelt Dialliaman), who originally came from Yemen and settled in

3456-543: The top were noblemen and descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were prisoners of war and enslaved people who mainly worked in agriculture. The Songhai used slaves more consistently than their predecessors, the Ghana and Mali empires. James Olson described the Songhai labour system as resembling trade unions , with the kingdom possessing craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans. Criminal justice in Songhai

3520-592: The town of Kukiya . What happened to the Zuwa rulers is yet to be recorded. The Sanhaja tribes were among the early people of the Niger Bend region. These tribes rode out of the Sahara Desert and established trading settlements near the Niger. As time passed, North African traders crossed the Sahara and joined the Tuaregs in their settlements. Both groups conducted business with the people living near

3584-537: The town of Kawkaw, which is a great town on the Nīl [Niger], one of the finest, biggest, and most fertile cities of the Sūdān. There is much rice there, milk, chickens, fish, and the cucumber, which has no like. Its people conduct their buying and selling with cowries, like the people of Mālī. Following the death of Mansa Sulayman in 1360, disputes over who should succeed him weakened the Mali Empire. The reign of Mari Djata II left

3648-415: The trading town of Djenné , the townspeople resisted his efforts. After a seven-year siege, he was able to starve them into surrender, incorporating the town into his empire in 1473. The invasion of Sonni Ali and his forces negatively impacted Timbuktu. Many Muslim accounts described him as a tyrant, including the Tarikh al-fattash , which Mahmud Kati wrote. According to The Cambridge History of Africa ,

3712-480: The works of Maghreb writers such as Leo Africanus , among others. The Sonni dynasty practised Islam while maintaining many aspects of the original Songhai traditions, unlike their successors, the Askiya dynasty . Askia Mohammed I oversaw a complete Islamic revival and made a pilgrimage to Mecca. The Songhai armed forces included a navy led by a hikoy (admiral), a cavalry of mounted archers , an infantry , and

3776-531: Was a soldier." He opened religious schools, constructed mosques , and opened his court to scholars and poets from throughout the Muslim world. His children went to an Islamic school, and he enforced Islamic practices but did not force religion on his people. Askia completed one of the Five Pillars of Islam by taking a hajj to Mecca, bringing a large amount of gold. He donated some of it to charity and spent

3840-595: Was based mainly, if not entirely, on Islamic principles, especially during the rule of Askia Muhammad. The local qadis were, in addition to this, responsible for maintaining order by following Sharia law under Islamic domination, according to the Qur'an . An additional qadi was noted as a necessity to settle minor disputes between immigrant merchants. Kings usually did not judge a defendant; however, under exceptional circumstances, such as acts of treason, they felt obligated to do so and thus exerted their authority. Results of

3904-540: Was deposed by his brother Muhammad Gao , who was in turn murdered on the order of the Moroccan pasha . The Moroccans then appointed Sulayman as puppet king ruling the Niger between Djenné and Gao . South of Tillaberi the Songhai resistance against Morocco continued under Askia Nuh , a son of Askia Dawud . He established his capital at Lulami . After the Moroccans had Askia Sulayman appointed as their puppet

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3968-438: Was imposed on peripheral chiefdoms and provinces to ensure Songhai's dominance; in return, these provinces were given almost complete autonomy. Songhai rulers only intervened in the affairs of these neighbouring states when a situation became volatile, usually an isolated incident. Each town was represented by government officials, holding positions and responsibilities similar to today's central bureaucrats. Under Askia Muhammad,

4032-587: Was not, so the gold-salt trade was the backbone of overland trade routes in the Sahel. Ivory, ostrich feathers, and slaves were sent north in exchange for salt, horses, camels, cloth, and art. While many trade routes were used, the Songhai heavily used the way through the Fezzan via Bilma , Agades , and Gao. The Niger River was essential to trade for the empire. Goods were offloaded from camels onto either donkeys or boats at Timbuktu. From there, they were moved along

4096-539: Was one of the largest African empires in history. The state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its largest ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai people . Sonni Ali established Gao as the empire's capital, although a Songhai state had existed in and around Gao since the 11th century. Other important cities in the kingdom were Timbuktu and Djenné , where urban-centred trade flourished; they were conquered in 1468 and 1475, respectively. Initially,

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