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124-618: Denver Zoo was started with the donation of an orphaned American black bear . With the construction of Bear Mountain, it became the first zoo in the United States to use naturalistic zoo enclosures rather than cages with bars. It expanded on this concept with Primate Panorama, featuring huge mesh tents and open areas for apes and monkeys, and with Predator Ridge, which has three separate areas through which animals are rotated so that their overlapping scents provide environmental enrichment . Toyota Elephant Passage, which opened on June 1, 2012,

248-452: A boulder field that was surmounted by large projecting rocks on either side, his thoughts drifted to a memory of something he had once seen while on tour in Sicily : an ancient Greek open-air theater with stone seating . He began to envision something similar, yet unique, for this location. Whereas Cranmer dreamed of clearing a starry-skied stage, Stapleton saw the boulders strewn there as

372-561: A $ 50 million 10-acre (4.0 ha) exhibit. At its opening, it was the largest bull elephant habitat in the world, designed to house up to 12 elephants, 8 of them bulls. This arrangement allows the zoo to conduct behavioral research related to the recent discovery that bull elephants (originally thought to be solitary) form loose bachelor herds in the wild when not breeding with matriarchal herds. The exhibit houses Asian elephants and other animals such as greater one-horned rhinoceros and Malayan tapirs , which rotate among different habitats in

496-595: A Klan organization. This galvanized the anti-Stapleton forces and they succeeded in forcing a recall election of Stapleton in August 1924. According to Goldberg's description of the recall election, "[t]he Klan dominated the Stapleton campaign, contributing more than $ 15,000 and scores of election workers." "On July 14, 1924, Mayor Stapleton addressed a Klan gathering on South Table Mountain and reaffirmed his commitment: 'I have little to say, except that I will work with

620-467: A Klansman as chief of police. An anti-Stapleton backlash developed due to the Klan's infiltration of Denver government. The anti-Stapleton coalition began the process of petitioning for a recall election. Stapleton knew that to survive the recall he would need Klan support. He capitulated to the Klan demand that he appoint a Klansman as police chief, with the result that the police department became in effect

744-766: A bear weighing 120 pounds (54 kg) was observed turning flat rocks weighing 310 to 325 pounds (141 to 147 kg) by flipping them over with a single foreleg. They move in a rhythmic, sure-footed way and can run at speeds of 25 to 30 miles per hour (40 to 48 km/h). American black bears have good eyesight and have been proven experimentally to be able to learn visual color discrimination tasks faster than chimpanzees and just as fast as domestic dogs . They are also capable of rapidly learning to distinguish different shapes such as small triangles, circles and squares. Adults typically range from 120 to 200 cm (47 to 79 in) in head-and-body length, and 70 to 105 cm (28 to 41 in) in shoulder height. Although they are

868-401: A common ancestor 5.05 million years ago (mya). American and Asian black bears are considered sister taxa and are more closely related to each other than to the other modern species of bears. According to recent studies, the sun bear is also a relatively recent split from this lineage. A small primitive bear called Ursus abstrusus is the oldest known North American fossil member of

992-536: A coral reef with clownfish , lionfish , spotted garden eels and more. Around the corner, a gallery of North American snakes is located across from a pair of pools showcasing an alligator snapping turtle as well as other North American reptiles and fish. Further on, the Siamese crocodile also enjoys a large pool near a Matamata turtle display and the Discovery Room, which features other small species like

1116-497: A factor in his loss in the 1931 mayoral election to George D. Begole . The airport was later renamed Stapleton International Airport on August 25, 1944, in his honor. Today, the airport no longer exists, replaced by a neighborhood, which was named Stapleton. After two previous attempts, the name of the neighborhood was changed to Central Park amid increasing political and racial pressure on August 1, 2020, due to Stapleton's adherence to white supremacy and controversial membership in

1240-507: A few breeding herds of Mongolian wild horses in North American zoos. Tropical Discovery was opened in 1993 as the zoo's herpetarium and aquarium. The building explores several tropical environments and displays mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians and insects from these areas. The trip begins with a view into a South American river with different species of river fishes then continues to a cave featuring several bat species including

1364-624: A forest canopy of hardwoods such as beech , maple , birch and coniferous species. Corn crops and oak-hickory mast are also common sources of food in some sections of the northeast; small, thick swampy areas provide excellent refuge cover largely in stands of white cedar . Along the Pacific coast, redwood , Sitka spruce and hemlocks predominate as overstory cover. Within these northern forest types are early successional areas important for American black bears, such as fields of brush, wet and dry meadows , high tidelands , riparian areas and

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1488-571: A large saltwater pool and state-of-the-art filtration system to reduce water usage. An expanded underwater viewing window, docks and rocky islands for sunbathing will give guests opportunities to connect with the residents. The original aviary , the oldest aviary at the zoo, currently houses Andean condors . Lorikeet Adventure , the Nurture Trail , and the Avian Propagation Center all opened in 2006. Lorikeet Adventure

1612-741: A law degree. Early in the 1890s, Stapleton went to live in Denver, and in 1899, he was admitted to the Colorado Bar. On June 21, 1917, Stapleton married Mabel Freeland, with whom he had 2 children, Lois Jane and Benjamin, Junior. Stapleton enlisted for service in the Spanish–American War . He served with the First Colorado Regiment, Company 1, Colorado Volunteers Infantry in the Philippine Islands , rising to

1736-407: A motor-like humming sound when comfortable or nursing. American black bears often mark trees using their teeth and claws as a form of communication with other bears, a behavior common to many species of bears. Sows usually produce their first litter at the age of 3 to 5 years, with those living in more developed areas tending to get pregnant at younger ages. The breeding period usually occurs in

1860-688: A nearly invisible wire mesh. Visitors can walk around inside with the birds, which include unique and endangered species like (depending on the season) Egyptian vultures and waldrapp ibises as well as a wide array of waterfowl. Predator Ridge , completed in 2004 and the first exhibit most visitors encounter, is a large exhibit representing the African savanna . It has the ability to rotate multiple groups of Southern African lions and spotted hyenas , whose overlapping scents provide environmental enrichment . Other small African animals like dwarf crocodiles and leopard tortoises are exhibited in and around

1984-440: A notable pheasant collection and rhesus macaques as the exceptions) and some of the most popular animals at the park were large herds of bison and elk . In 1905, a population of red squirrels was added to the zoo's collection; this population grew rapidly and decimated the bird population at Duck Lake. A plan to shoot the squirrels was scrapped when citizens protested. Instead, as many squirrels as could be caught were sent to

2108-1275: A reduced heart rate and basal metabolic rate. The metabolic rate of a hibernating bear will remain at a reduced level for up to 21 days after hibernation. After emerging from their winter dens in spring, they wander their home ranges for two weeks so that their metabolism accustoms itself to the activity. In mountainous areas, they seek southerly slopes at lower elevations for forage and move to northerly and easterly slopes at higher elevations as summer progresses. The time that American black bears emerge from hibernation varies. Factors affecting this include temperature, flooding, and hunger. In southern areas, they may wake up in midwinter. Further north, they may not be seen until late March, April, or even early May. Altitude also has an effect. Bears at lower altitudes tend to emerge earlier. Mature males tend to come out earliest, followed by immature males and females, and lastly mothers with cubs. Mothers with yearling cubs are seen before those with newborns. Generally, American black bears are largely crepuscular in foraging activity, though they may actively feed at any time. Up to 85% of their diet consists of vegetation, though they tend to dig less than brown bears, eating far fewer roots , bulbs , corms and tubers than

2232-506: A study of American black bears in Nevada found that the amount of annual mortality of a population of bears in wilderness areas was 0%, whereas in developed areas in the state this figure rose to 83%. Survival in subadults is generally less assured. In Alaska, only 14–17% of subadult males and 30–48% of subadult females were found in a study to survive to adulthood. Across the range, the estimated number of cubs who survive past their first year

2356-400: A variety of antelope species including eastern bongo , addax , lesser kudu and southern gerenuk , as well as Cape buffalo . Some of these yards are mixed-species exhibits and include bird species like Abyssinian ground hornbills , west African crowned cranes and ostriches . There is also a yard for African wild dogs and another for Chacoan peccaries . Toyota Elephant Passage is

2480-827: A variety of mast-producing hardwood species. The spruce-fir forest dominates much of the range of the American black bear in the Rockies . Important non-forested areas here are wet meadows, riparian areas, avalanche chutes, roadsides, burns, sidehill parks and subalpine ridgetops . In areas where human development is relatively low, such as stretches of Canada and Alaska, American black bears tend to be found more regularly in lowland regions. In parts of northeastern Canada, especially Labrador , American black bears have adapted exclusively to semi-open areas that are more typical habitat in North America for brown bears (likely due to

2604-492: A walk-through red-necked wallaby and red kangaroo yard, a two-story habitat for Huon tree kangaroos and a habitat for Southern cassowaries . Down Under opened in May of 2024. Harmony Hill provides a habitat for grizzly bears modeled after the fictional Harmony Hill State Park. Another nearby habitat is designed to resemble a backyard in order to illustrate and provide solutions for human-wildlife conflict. The second habitat

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2728-430: Is 43 ft (13 m) tall and 185 ft (56 m) long, and cost $ 50,000 to build ($ 1,012,832 in 2023 dollars ). It was built of dyed and textured concrete forms cast from Dinosaur Mountain just outside Morrison, Colorado . Hidden moats replaced cage bars, and native plants and an artificial stream enhanced the natural look. The two main exhibits originally housed polar bears and grizzly bears . The south tip of

2852-419: Is 60%. With the exception of the rare confrontation with an adult brown bear or a gray wolf pack, adult black bears are not usually subject to natural predation. However, as evidenced by scats with fur inside of them and the recently discovered carcass of an adult sow with puncture marks in the skull, black bears may occasionally fall prey to jaguars in the southern parts of their range. In such scenarios,

2976-499: Is a large, open-air mesh tent where visitors can mingle with and feed a variety of lorikeet species. The Nurture Trail is a short trail through a forested glade home to two exhibits for breeding pairs of large birds like red-crowned cranes . The trail then goes past smaller outdoor enclosures attached to the Avian Propagation Center which is one of the largest and most complex buildings devoted to breeding birds in

3100-467: Is commemorated at Denver Zoo by a bronze sculpture located across from the main polar bear viewing area. On February 24, 2007, a jaguar mauled zookeeper Ashlee Pfaff inside the animal's enclosure. The jaguar was shot and killed by the zoo's emergency response team while rescuing Pfaff, who later died of her injuries at a local hospital. This event occurred despite zoo policy prohibiting direct contact between keepers and big cats . An investigation by

3224-413: Is considered a historic structure and repurposing of some kind is likely. Humboldt penguins can also be found in this area and are located just north of Bear Mountain. Down Under is a new exhibit exploring Australia. Water-wise landscaping resembles the animals' native ecosystems and woven throughout the exhibit are original multimedia artworks telling the story of First Nations peoples. It features

3348-652: Is divided into five areas for rotating the various species. Denver Zoo is accredited by the (American) Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) and American Humane and is also a member of the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA). The zoo achieved ISO 14001 certification in 2009, was given the first AZA Green Award in 2011, and was named the "Greenest Zoo in the Country" at the World Renewable Energy Forum in 2012. In 2015, it

3472-575: Is home to two rescued leucistic raccoons . Harmony Hill opened in 2019, making use of the former polar bear exhibit which opened as part of Northern Shores in 1987. The Rhino and Hippo Building opened in 1959 as the Pachyderm Habitat. It is currently home to Black rhinoceros and river hippopotamus . The Asian elephants and Malayan tapirs were moved to Toyota Elephant Passage prior to its opening in June 2012. Cinereous vultures now reside in

3596-735: Is record of a golden eagle snatching a yearling cub. Once out of hibernation, mother bears may be able to fight off most potential predators. Even cougars will be displaced by an angry mother bear if they are discovered stalking the cubs. Flooding of dens after birth may also occasionally kill newborn cubs. However, in current times, bear fatalities are mainly attributable to human activities. Seasonally, thousands of black bears are hunted legally across North America to control their numbers, while some are illegally poached or trapped unregulated. Auto collisions also may claim many black bears annually. American black bears were once not considered true or "deep" hibernators , but because of discoveries about

3720-508: Is stated that the bears had been seen in the zoological gardens to couple freely, but previously to 1848 most had rarely conceived. In the reports published since this date three species have produced young (hybrids in one case), ... A bear shot in autumn 1986 in Michigan was thought by some to be an American black bear/grizzly bear hybrid, because of its unusually large size and its proportionately larger brain case and skull. DNA testing

3844-589: The Denver Mountain Parks . The zoo was a motley menagerie until 1906, when Mayor Robert W. Speer declared that the zoo's "[p]rison bars can be done away with" in favor of "concrete rocks, waterfalls, trees, etc." Speer hired the city's landscape architect, Saco R. DeBoer, to draw up the plans for his renovation and appointed Victor H. Borcherdt as zoo director. Borcherdt designed the Bear Mountain exhibit, which opened in 1918. This structure

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3968-609: The Driftless Area of southeastern Minnesota , northeastern Iowa , and southwestern Wisconsin are common. In 2019, biologists with the Iowa Department of Natural Resources confirmed documentation of an American black bear living year-round in woodlands near the town of Decorah in northeastern Iowa, believed to be the first instance of a resident black bear in Iowa since the 1880s. Surveys taken from 35 states in

4092-565: The Southeastern United States . American black bears in the southern Appalachian Mountains survive in predominantly oak-hickory and mixed mesophytic forests. In the coastal areas of the southeast (such as Florida , the Carolinas and Louisiana ), bears inhabit a mixture of flatwoods , bays and swampy hardwood sites. In the northeastern part of the range (the United States and Canada), prime habitat consists of

4216-1077: The West Coast , although they typically follow Bergmann's rule , and bears from the northwest are often slightly heavier than the bears from the southeast. Adult males typically weigh between 57–250 kg (126–551 lb), while females weigh 33% less at 41–170 kg (90–375 lb). In California, studies indicate that the average mass is 86 kg (190 lb) in adult males and 58 kg (128 lb) in adult females. Adults in Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge in east-central Alaska were found to average 87.3 kg (192 lb) in males and 63.4 kg (140 lb) in females, whereas on Kuiu Island in southeastern Alaska (where nutritious salmon are readily available) adults averaged 115 kg (254 lb). In Great Smoky Mountains National Park , adult males averaged 112 kg (247 lb) and adult females averaged 47 kg (104 lb) per one study. In one of

4340-557: The Works Progress Administration . It was rehabilitated in 1950. In 2023, the island's brown capuchins were moved to the Emerald Forest building and the island is now home to cinereous vultures . Monkey House , facing Monkey Island, was the original primate exhibit in the zoo. In recent years, it served as a winter residence for the capuchins but as of 2023 it is no longer in use. The brick building

4464-486: The black bear , is a species of medium-sized bear endemic to North America . It is the continent's smallest and most widely distributed bear species. It is an omnivore , with a diet varying greatly depending on season and location. It typically lives in largely forested areas but will leave forests in search of food and is sometimes attracted to human communities due to the immediate availability of food. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists

4588-642: The frilled lizard . Dragons of Komodo , inside Tropical Discovery, was the largest Komodo dragon exhibit of its kind when it opened in 1999 and is still one of the largest Komodo dragon exhibits in the country. In addition to Komodo dragons, it is home to other island reptiles like rhinoceros iguanas and giant New Caledonia geckos . Stingray Cove is a seasonal, interactive exhibit featuring an 18,000 gallon shaded open-air aquarium housing cownose rays , white-spotted and brown-banded bamboo sharks , southern stingrays , shovelnose guitarfish and bonnethead sharks . Guests are able to gently touch, feel, and feed

4712-494: The short-tailed bat , Jamaican fruit bat and vampire bat , as well as blind cave fish . A snake exhibit hidden inside a Mayan temple features venomous species from around the world including the king cobra , neotropical rattlesnakes and Gila monsters . Animals seen in the Rainforest area include the capybara , Linne's two-toed sloth , archerfish and an array of poison dart frogs . Further on, visitors are immersed in

4836-634: The American black bear as a least-concern species because of its widespread distribution and a large population, estimated to be twice that of all other bear species combined. Along with the brown bear ( Ursus arctos ), it is one of only two modern bear species not considered by the IUCN to be globally threatened with extinction. The American black bear is not closely related to the brown bear or polar bear , though all three species are found in North America ; genetic studies reveal that they split from

4960-532: The American black bears remained arboreal omnivores, like their Asian ancestors. The American black bear's generalist behavior allowed it to exploit a wider variety of foods and has been given as a reason why, of these three genera, it alone survived climate and vegetative changes through the last Ice Age while the other, more specialized North American predators became extinct. However, both Arctodus and Tremarctos had survived several other, previous ice ages . After these prehistoric ursids became extinct during

5084-609: The Asian black bear 4.08 mya. The earliest American black bear fossils, which were located in Port Kennedy, Pennsylvania , greatly resemble the Asian species, though later specimens grew to sizes comparable to grizzly bears . From the Holocene to the present, American black bears seem to have shrunk in size, but this has been disputed because of problems with dating these fossil specimens. The American black bear lived during

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5208-661: The Denver Zoo Conservation Alliance. Primate Panorama spreads over 7 acres (2.8 ha) and primarily houses apes and other larger primates . Tree-dwelling apes and monkeys live in open-air wire mesh tents that soar four stories high and cover more than an acre of ground. Inside these tents, primates like Wolf's guenons , black-and-white colobus , red-crowned mangabeys , siamangs and black-handed spider monkeys can play and climb on twisting vines. Western lowland gorillas roam freely, climbing ropes and taking afternoon hammock naps in one of

5332-533: The Huachipa Zoo and later became the first zoo outside South America to breed the rare amphibians. Some have moved to other institutions in hopes of building a healthy captive population that can be released back into the lake. Although not as large in scope as Toyota Elephant Passage, the zoo added several interactive and immersive exhibits in the late 2010's and early 20's. These included The Edge in 2017, Harmony Hill in 2019 and Down Under in 2024. In 2024,

5456-459: The Indian rhino and Asian elephant in North America. The exhibit opened with two female elephants (Mimi and Dolly) and two bull elephants (Bodhi and Groucho). The zoo made history in 2013 by transporting Billy, a bull elephant from Belgium 's Antwerp Zoo , via plane to the new exhibit. This marked the first time in over 30 years an Asian elephant had been imported into the United States and one of

5580-519: The June–July period, though it can extend to August in the species' northern range. The breeding period lasts for two to three months. Both sexes are promiscuous. Males try to mate with several females, but large, dominant ones may violently claim a female if another mature male comes near. Copulation can last 20–30 minutes. Sows tend to be short-tempered with their mates after copulating. The fertilized eggs undergo delayed development and do not implant in

5704-490: The Klan and for the Klan in the coming election, heart and soul. And if I am reelected, I shall give the Klan the kind of administration it wants.'" The anti-Stapleton coalition had run a poor candidate against Stapleton in the recall election (Dewey Bailey, the incumbent mayor Stapleton defeated in 1923), and Stapleton won the recall election by a landslide. On the night of the election, Denver Klansmen burned crosses on South Table Mountain to signify their victory. Cracks in

5828-590: The Klan's stranglehold on Denver began appearing early in 1925. Stapleton ordered the Good Friday vice raids on April 10, 1925, bypassing the Klan police chief he had appointed under pressure from KKK leaders. The raid rounded up over 200 bootleggers, prostitutes, and gamblers and exposed a dozen Klan members who had been serving in the police force, who were ultimately dismissed. On June 30, 1925, Colorado Klansmen voted to banish Stapleton, Senator Rice Means , Secretary of State Carl S. Milliken and six other members of

5952-482: The Ku Klux Klan. In 1935, Stapleton appointed George Cranmer, a wealthy former stockbroker , as manager of Improvements and Parks. Cranmer had luckily pulled his assets out of the stock market a year before the crash of 1929. The two, as it turned out, had completely different visions for what to do with a particularly striking locale at Red Rocks Park. Some time before his appointment, while Cranmer pondered

6076-516: The Pahali Ya Simba pavilion. A habitat for African penguins , featuring a 10,000 gallon pool with underwater viewing, was completed in 2021 and is located directly inside the front entrance. African hoofed mammals are generally housed in the center of the zoo's main circular path. Species in the hoofed mammal yards include Grevy's zebras , reticulated giraffes , okapis , yellow-backed duikers , red-flanked duikers , Somali wild asses ,

6200-594: The absence there of brown and polar bears, as well as other large carnivore species). The skulls of American black bears are broad, with narrow muzzles and large jaw hinges. In Virginia , the length of adult bear skulls was found to average 262 to 317 mm (10.3 to 12.5 in). Across its range, the greatest skull length for the species has been reportedly measured from 23.5 to 35 cm (9.3 to 13.8 in). Females tend to have slenderer and more pointed faces than males. Their claws are typically black or grayish-brown. The claws are short and rounded, being thick at

6324-610: The average of 65.2 kg (144 lb) in wild-land ones. In Waterton Lakes National Park , Alberta, adults averaged 125 to 128 kg (276 to 282 lb). The biggest wild American black bear ever recorded was a male from New Brunswick , shot in November 1972, that weighed 409 kg (902 lb) after it had been dressed, meaning it weighed an estimated 500 kg (1,100 lb) in life and measured 2.41 m (7 ft 11 in) long. Another notably outsized wild American black bear, weighing in at 408 kg (899 lb),

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6448-436: The base and tapering to a point. Claws from both hind and front legs are almost identical in length, though the foreclaws tend to be more sharply curved. The paws of the species are relatively large, with a rear foot length of 13.7 to 22.5 cm (5.4 to 8.9 in), which is proportionately larger than other medium-sized bear species, but much smaller than the paws of large adult brown, and especially polar bears. The soles of

6572-615: The bear evolved alongside larger, more aggressive bear species, such as the extinct giant short-faced bear and the grizzly bear, that monopolized more open habitats and the historic presence of larger predators, such as Smilodon and the American lion , that could have preyed on black bears. Although found in the largest numbers in wild, undisturbed areas and rural regions, American black bears can adapt to surviving in some numbers in peri-urban regions, as long as they contain easily accessible foods and some vegetative coverage. In most of

6696-400: The big cat would have the advantage if it ambushed the bear, killing it with a crushing bite to the back of the skull. Cubs tend to be more vulnerable to predation than adults, with known predators including bobcats , coyotes , cougars , gray wolves, brown bears and other bears of their own species. Many of these will stealthily snatch small cubs right from under the sleeping mother. There

6820-409: The building is an island exhibit that rotates several lemur species including ring-tailed lemurs and red-ruffed lemurs . The nearby Shamba offers a view of a Central West African village and is home to red river hogs and mandrills . An aviary further down the trail showcases rhinoceros hornbills . The Forest Aviary is a 7,500-square-foot (700 m) area richly landscaped and enclosed in

6944-759: The coastal islands and the adjacent mainland of southwestern British Columbia. Albino individuals have also been recorded. Black coats tend to predominate in humid areas such as Maine, New England, New York, Tennessee, Michigan and western Washington. Approximately 70% of all American black bears are black, though only 50% in the Rocky Mountains are black. Many in northwestern North America are cinnamon, blonde or light brown in color and thus may sometimes be mistaken for grizzly bears. Grizzly (and other types of brown) bears can be distinguished by their shoulder hump, larger size and broader, more concave skull. In his book The Great Bear Almanac , Gary Brown summarized

7068-415: The colon known as a fecal plug . Leptin is released into the bear's systems to suppress appetite. The retention of waste during hibernation (specifically in minerals such as calcium ) may play a role in the bear's resistance to atrophy. The body temperature does not drop significantly, like other mammalian hibernators (staying around 35 °C (95 °F)) and they remain somewhat alert and active. If

7192-741: The completion of the Denver Post Office building. As chronicled by Robert Alan Goldberg in his book Hooded Empire : The Ku Klux Klan in Colorado , Stapleton was the Klan candidate for mayor of Denver in 1923 and won the election with Klan support. When Stapleton declared his candidacy for mayor in March 1923, he was Klan member number 1,128 and a close friend of the Colorado Klan Grand Dragon, John Galen Locke . Rumors of Stapleton's Klan membership circulated during

7316-549: The contiguous United States, American black bears today are usually found in heavily vegetated mountainous areas, from 400 to 3,000 m (1,300 to 9,800 ft) in elevation. For American black bears living in the American Southwest and Mexico, habitat usually consists of stands of chaparral and pinyon juniper woods . In this region, bears occasionally move to more open areas to feed on prickly pear cactus . At least two distinct, prime habitat types are inhabited in

7440-482: The country. Depending on their needs, species in the public-facing enclosures often rotate but can include Victoria crowned pigeons , azure-winged magpies and one of the largest flocks of palm cockatoos in North America. Bear Mountain is an historic exhibit on the National Register of Historic Places and originally opened in 1918. It is one of the first natural-style zoo exhibits in North America and

7564-675: The creation of the Denver Civic Center and the Denver Municipal Airport , and the considerable expansion of Denver Mountain Parks system , including the Amphitheatre at Red Rocks Park . The construction of Denver Municipal Airport was begun in early 1929 and completed that same year. Its grand opening celebration took place over four days from October 17–20 – a week before the stock market crashed . It

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7688-521: The distribution of populations outside those areas has not been updated since 1959. Mexico is the only country where the species is classified as "endangered". Throughout their range, habitats preferred by American black bears have a few shared characteristics. They are often found in areas with relatively inaccessible terrain, thick understory vegetation and large quantities of edible material (especially masts ). The adaptation to woodlands and thick vegetation in this species may have originally been because

7812-520: The early 1990s indicated that American black bear populations were either stable or increasing, except in Idaho and New Mexico . The population in the United States was estimated to range between 339,000 and 465,000 in 2011, though this estimate does not include data from Alaska, Idaho , South Dakota , Texas or Wyoming , whose populations were not recorded in the survey. In California there were an estimated 25,000-35,000 black bears in 2017, making it

7936-672: The eight modern bear species are habitually arboreal (the most arboreal species, the American and Asian black bears and the sun bear, being fairly closely related). Their arboreal abilities tend to decline with age. They may be active at any time of the day or night, although they mainly forage by night. Bears living near human habitations tend to be more extensively nocturnal , while those living near brown bears tend to be more often diurnal . American black bears tend to be territorial and non- gregarious in nature. However, at abundant food sources (e.g. spawning salmon or garbage dumps), they may congregate and dominance hierarchies form, with

8060-574: The eventual building of the Red Rocks Amphitheatre . Other projects during Stapleton's tenure as mayor include Denver's water system and the Valley Highway project. Stapleton's career in politics ended when he lost his 1947 mayoral re-election bid to J. Quigg Newton . Stapleton died on May 23, 1950, at his home in Denver. He is the great-grandfather of Walker Stapleton , who was elected Colorado Treasurer in 2010, and

8184-491: The exhibit and its buildings have received LEED Platinum certification from the U.S. Green Building Council. The Edge is an exhibit modeled after the pine forests of Russia for the zoo's Amur tigers . Two yards with large pools and pathways that wander over visitors' heads provide enrichment and exercise for the tigers. It opened to the public in March 2017, replacing Wolf Pack Woods, which opened in 1988. Nearby, Asian hoofed mammal yards house Bactrian camels and one of only

8308-469: The exhibit starting in 1987 ($ 670,475 in 2023 dollars ). The exhibit reopened in 1989 with grizzly bears and Asiatic black bears occupying the northern two exhibits and coatis in the southern tip. In 1993, the zoo opened the $ 11.5 million Tropical Discovery exhibit. Designed by the Denver architectural firm Anderson Mason Dale, this indoor tropical garden topped by glass pyramids is the aquarium and herpetarium of Denver Zoo, and its opening doubled both

8432-429: The exhibit was designed to resemble Mesa Verde National Park . Originally it housed monkeys, but due to escape problems California sea lions were housed there instead. Between 1941 and 1961 it housed a female polar bear named Velox, who became the mascot of the 31st U.S. Infantry Regiment in 1952. Velox died at the zoo in 1961 and a memorial stone for her is displayed at the zoo. Bear Mountain established Denver as one of

8556-445: The feet are black or brownish and are naked, leathery and deeply wrinkled. The hind legs are relatively longer than those of Asian black bears. The typically small tail is 7.7–17.7 cm (3.0–7.0 in) long. The ears are small and rounded and are set well back on the head. American black bears are highly dexterous , being capable of opening screw-top jars and manipulating door latches. They also have great physical strength;

8680-865: The female's womb until November. The gestation period lasts 235 days, and litters are usually born in late January to early February. Litter size is between one and six cubs, typically two or three. At birth, cubs weigh 280–450 g (0.62–0.99 lb) and measure 20.5 cm (8.1 in) in length. They are born with fine, gray, down-like hair and their hind quarters are underdeveloped. They typically open their eyes after 28–40 days and begin walking after 5 weeks. Cubs are dependent on their mother's milk for 30 weeks and will reach independence at 16–18 months. At 6 weeks, they attain 900 g (2.0 lb), by 8 weeks they reach 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and by 6 months they weigh 18 to 27 kg (40 to 60 lb). They reach sexual maturity at 3 years and attain their full growth at 5 years. The average lifespan in

8804-588: The few times the genetics of the European population would mix with the North American population. In October 2018, bull elephants Chuck and Jake came to the exhibit from the African Lion Safari in Ontario . This move made Denver's herd the largest Asian elephant bachelor herd in the world with five bulls. On February 22, 2020, the first greater one-horned rhino calf in the zoo's history was born as

8928-477: The first to use simulated concrete rocks. It underwent a $ 250,000 restoration between 1987 and 1989. Although the exhibit's residents have moved to Harmony Hill, the structure remains for visitors to appreciate. Mountain Sheep Habitat was opened in 1979. It contains two natural-style "mountains" housing Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep and mountain goats . Monkey Island was built in 1937 with funds from

9052-490: The foremost among American zoos, and the Saint Louis Zoo hired Borcherdt after seeing the exhibit. Although other zoos in the region made extensive use of New Deal funds to upgrade their facilities, only one notable addition was made to Denver Zoo between 1918 and 1950. Monkey Island was built in 1937 using funds from the Works Progress Administration . Mayor Benjamin F. Stapleton funded the zoo very little, and it

9176-476: The former tapir yard. Feline House was built in 1964. The building is now closed and has been renovated in some areas to make way for Stingray Cove and outdoor yards have been repurposed for smaller species. Of note; a Geoffroy's cat that was rescued after a smuggling attempt at Denver International Airport is displayed here. American black bear 16, see text Euarctos americanus The American black bear ( Ursus americanus ), also known as

9300-453: The genus Ursus , dated to 4.95 mya. This suggests that U. abstrusus may be the direct ancestor of the American black bear, which evolved in North America. Although Wolverton and Lyman still consider U. vitabilis an "apparent precursor to modern black bears", it has also been placed within U. americanus . The ancestors of American black bears and Asian black bears diverged from sun bears 4.58 mya. The American black bear then split from

9424-688: The grandfather of Craig Roberts Stapleton , former U.S. ambassador to France and the Czech Republic. In early 2018, Stapleton's great-grandson, Walker Stapleton , a candidate for governor of Colorado, was accused of paying off the History Colorado Center to remove mention of the family's ties with the white supremacy movement and the beginnings of the Ku Klux Klan in America from their exhibitions. In June 2020, in

9548-467: The hard-to-manage cub to the keeper of City Park , Alexander J. Graham, who started the zoo with this animal. Other animals at the young zoo included native waterfowl at Duck Lake, native prairie dogs , pronghorn antelope which roamed the park, and a flock of Chinese pheasants , which later populated the eastern plains of the state. As this collection grew, the newly-formed park board continued to focus almost exclusively on acquiring native animals (with

9672-693: The hundreds each day by a single bear during the fall. During the fall period, bears may also habitually raid the nut caches of tree squirrels . Also extremely important in fall are berries such as huckleberries and buffalo berries . Bears living in areas near human settlements or around a considerable influx of recreational human activity often come to rely on foods inadvertently provided by humans, especially during summertime. These include refuse, birdseed, agricultural products and honey from apiaries . Benjamin F. Stapleton Benjamin Franklin Stapleton (November 12, 1869 – May 23, 1950)

9796-495: The lack of a white blaze on the chest and hairier footpads. Despite their name, black bears show a great deal of color variation. Individual coat colors can range from white, blonde, cinnamon, light brown or dark chocolate brown to jet black, with many intermediate variations existing. Silvery-gray American black bears with a blue luster (this is found mostly on the flanks) occur along a portion of coastal Alaska and British Columbia. White to cream-colored American black bears occur in

9920-520: The largest gorilla habitats in the world. Sumatran orangutans have their own outdoor habitat where they can climb trees and swing in hammocks. Jewels of the Emerald Forest pavilion is situated near the entrance to Primate Panorama. It features a meandering trail through diorama replicas exhibiting many small primates amongst other rainforest animals. Animals housed here include the aye-aye , cotton-top tamarin , golden lion tamarin , white-faced saki , Bali mynah and Prevost's squirrel . Connecting to

10044-629: The largest population of the species in any of the 48 contiguous United States . In 2020 there were about 1,500 bears in Great Smoky Mountains National Park , where the population density is about two per square mile. In western North Carolina , the black bear population has dramatically increased in recent decades, from about 3,000 in the early 2000s to over 8,000 in the 2020s. As of 1993, known black bear populations in Mexico existed in four areas, though knowledge on

10168-529: The largest studies on regional body mass, bears in British Columbia averaged 73.7 kg (162 lb) in 89 females and 103.1 kg (227 lb) in 243 males. In Yellowstone National Park , a study found that adult males averaged 119 kg (262 lb) and adult females averaged 67 kg (148 lb). Black bears in north-central Minnesota averaged 70 kg (150 lb) in 163 females and 125 kg (276 lb) in 77 males. In New York,

10292-801: The largest, most powerful males dominating the most fruitful feeding spots. They mark their territories by rubbing their bodies against trees and clawing at the bark. Annual ranges held by mature male bears tend to be very large, though there is some variation. On Long Island off the coast of Washington, ranges average 5 sq mi (13 km ), whereas on the Ungava Peninsula in Canada ranges can average up to 1,000 sq mi (2,600 km ), with some male bears traveling as far as 4,349 sq mi (11,260 km ) at times of food shortages. Bears may communicate with various vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking and grunting are

10416-838: The last decade. The current range in the United States is constant throughout most of the Northeast and within the Appalachian Mountains almost continuously from Maine to northern Georgia , the northern Midwest , the Rocky Mountain region , the West Coast and Alaska . However, it becomes increasingly fragmented or absent in other regions. Despite this, American black bears in those areas seem to have expanded their range in recent decades, such as with recent sightings in Ohio , Illinois , southern Indiana , and western Nebraska. Sightings of itinerant black bears in

10540-533: The last glacial period 10,000 years ago, American black bears were probably the only bear present in much of North America until the migration of brown bears to the rest of the continent. American black bears are reproductively compatible with several other bear species and occasionally produce hybrid offspring. According to Jack Hanna 's Monkeys on the Interstate , a bear captured in Sanford, Florida ,

10664-471: The latter species. When initially emerging from hibernation, they will seek to feed on carrion from winter-killed animals and newborn ungulates . As the spring temperature warms, American black bears seek new shoots of many plant species, especially new grasses , wetland plants and forbs . Young shoots and buds from trees and shrubs during the spring period are important to bears emerging from hibernation, as they assist in rebuilding muscle and strengthening

10788-558: The males average 136 kg (300 lb) and females 72.6 kg (160 lb). It was found in Nevada and the Lake Tahoe region that bears closer to urban regions were significantly heavier than their arid-country dwelling counterparts, with males near urban areas averaging 138 kg (304 lb) against wild-land males which averaged 115.5 kg (255 lb) whereas peri-urban females averaged 97.9 kg (216 lb) against

10912-466: The mayor's city hall faction from the Klan in a statement of loyalty to Grand Dragon Locke, who was under fire from national Klan forces. Locke, however, remained in power, but two weeks later, Stapleton declared his independence from Locke and the Colorado Klan by firing the Klan police chief, Candlish, whom he had appointed earlier in his term to appease them. In 1932, Stapleton won election to

11036-598: The mayoral campaign. Stapleton responded by denying that he was a Klan member and condemning the Klan, "to appease his Jewish and Catholic supporters." Stapleton declared, "True Americanism needs no mask or disguise. Any attempt to stir up racial prejudices or religious intolerance is contrary to our constitution and is therefore un-American." The voters believed Stapleton's denial and he was elected, defeating an unpopular incumbent, Dewey Bailey . Stapleton then appointed fellow Klansmen to multiple positions in Denver government, though he initially resisted Klan pressure to appoint

11160-498: The members of a naturally formed, one-of-a-kind ' rock garden ', and wanted them preserved. Unbeknown to Stapleton, Cranmer was attempting to persuade the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) to quietly go ahead with plans to demolish the rocks with dynamite . He was successful in this, and the rocks were razed. With Stapleton's rock garden removed, the process began of hiring architects to design and oversee

11284-461: The metabolic changes that allow black bears to remain dormant for months without eating, drinking, urinating or defecating, most biologists have redefined mammalian hibernation as "specialized, seasonal reduction in metabolism concurrent with scarce food and cold weather". American black bears are now considered highly efficient hibernators. The physiology of American black bears in the wild is closely related to that of bears in captivity. Understanding

11408-403: The metabolic rate can drop to a quarter of the bear's (nonhibernating) basal metabolic rate . These reductions in metabolic rate and heart rate do not appear to decrease the bear's ability to heal injuries during hibernation. Their circadian rhythm stays intact during hibernation. This allows the bear to sense the changes in the day based on the ambient temperature caused by the sun's position in

11532-434: The most common sounds and are made in cordial situations to conspecifics, offspring and occasionally humans. When at ease, they produce a loud rumbling hum. During times of fear or nervousness, bears may moan, huff or blow air. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping. In aggressive interactions, black bears produce guttural pulsing calls that may sound like growling. Cubs squeal, bawl or scream when anxious and make

11656-415: The muscular strength compared to that of a well-nourished, inactive human. The bear's bone mass does not change in geometry or mineral composition during hibernation, which implies that the bear's conservation of bone mass during hibernation is caused by a biological mechanism. During hibernation American black bears retain all excretory waste, leading to the development of a hardened mass of fecal material in

11780-418: The number of species and the number of animals at the zoo. Along with the animals, 90% of which had never been on display at the zoo, there are over 250 species of plants represented in the exhibit. On November 6, 1994, twin polar bear cubs Klondike and Snow were born to a first-time mother named Ulu, who rejected the cubs. They were successfully raised by zoo staff and became a popular attraction. Their story

11904-475: The physiology of bears in the wild is vital to the bear's success in captivity. The bears enter their dens in October and November, although in the southernmost areas of their range (i.e. Florida, Mexico, the southeastern United States ), only pregnant females and mothers with yearling cubs will enter hibernation. Prior to that time, they can put on up to 14 kg (30 lb) of body fat to get them through

12028-483: The post of state auditor . Unsatisfied, Stapleton decided in 1935 to campaign again for election as for mayor, winning in that year and also in 1939 and 1943. Stapleton was responsible for many civic improvements during his five terms as mayor of Denver. Most projects attributed to Stapleton were during his third term as mayor when he had access to funds and manpower from the New Deal . During this time, he saw through

12152-408: The predominance of black or brown/blonde specimens by location: American black bears have eyesight and hearing comparable to that of humans. Their keenest sense is smell, which is about seven times more sensitive than a domestic dog's. They are excellent and strong swimmers, swimming for pleasure and to feed (largely on fish). They regularly climb trees to feed, escape enemies and hibernate. Four of

12276-402: The project reported that no airborne byproducts would be released when the system was running but surrounding residents were still concerned that the gasification process would create an unpleasant odor around the zoo. These concerns resulted in ending the gasification project at Denver Zoo. Since the decision in 2015, the zoo is seeking partners to continue the project with offsite. Nonetheless,

12400-522: The rank of first sergeant . At the conclusion of his war-time service, Stapleton returned to Denver to practice law and first became actively interested in politics, helping found the Veterans of Foreign Wars . Stapleton later became a member of the Ku Klux Klan . Stapleton's political career began in 1904 as police magistrate, where he remained until 1915, when President Woodrow Wilson appointed him postmaster . During his appointment, he oversaw

12524-545: The rays as they swim around the tank. Admission to the exhibit (which includes one piece of food for feeding to the rays) costs $ 5 in addition to zoo entry. The exhibit opened in June 2020. The zoo's new Flamingo Habitat opened in 2023, located just outside Tropical Discovery. It provides Chilean and American flamingoes with pools and marshes replicating the Andean highlands. Also in this area will be an updated Sea Lion Habitat for California sea lions which will feature

12648-410: The result of artificial insemination . At its opening, the exhibit contained a waste-to-energy gasification system that burned organic waste (uneaten food, animal waste, etc...) in an oxygen-deprived environment in order to create energy. The system powered outdoor hot tubs for the elephants and Denver Zoo's goal was to be "Zero Waste" by 2020, powering the whole facility with waste. Those involved with

12772-524: The same period as the giant and lesser short-faced bears ( Arctodus simus and A. pristinus , respectively) and the Florida spectacled bear ( Tremarctos floridanus ). These tremarctine bears evolved from bears that had emigrated from Asia to the Americas 7–8 mya. The giant and lesser short-faced bears are thought to have been heavily carnivorous and the Florida spectacled bear more herbivorous, while

12896-576: The same style as Predator Ridge. It includes more than 2 miles (3.2 km) of trails for the animals, and pools in the exhibit contain a total of 1,100,000 US gallons (4,200,000 L). Northern white-cheeked gibbons swing directly over a boardwalk for visitors, traveling between three islands. Clouded leopards and sarus cranes live in nearby yards. The exhibit includes an indoor facility for smaller species like fishing cats , Asian small-clawed otters , black-breasted leaf turtles and green tree pythons and it provides important breeding facilities for

13020-497: The several months during which they fast. Hibernation typically lasts 3–8 months, depending on regional climate. Hibernating bears spend their time in hollowed-out dens in tree cavities, under logs or rocks, in banks, caves, or culverts, and in shallow depressions. Although naturally-made dens are occasionally used, most dens are dug out by the bear. During their time in hibernation, an American black bear's heart rate drops from 40 to 50 beats per minute to 8 beats per minute, and

13144-486: The skeleton and are often the only digestible foods available at that time. During summer, the diet largely comprises fruits, especially berries and soft masts such as buds and drupes . During the autumn hyperphagia , feeding becomes virtually the full-time task. Hard masts become the most important part of the diet in autumn and may even partially dictate the species' distribution. Favored masts such as hazelnuts , oak acorns and whitebark pine nuts may be consumed by

13268-592: The sky. It has also been shown that ambient light exposure and low disturbance levels (that is to say, wild bears in ambient light conditions) directly correlate with their activity levels. The bear keeping track of the changing days allows it to awaken from hibernation at the appropriate time of year to conserve as much energy as possible. The hibernating bear does not display the same rate of muscle and bone atrophy relative to other nonhibernatory animals that are subject to long periods of inactivity due to ailment or old age. A hibernating bear only loses approximately half

13392-493: The smallest bear species in North America , large males exceed the size of other bear species, except the brown bear and the polar bear. Weight tends to vary according to age, sex, health and season. Seasonal variation in weight is very pronounced: in autumn, their pre-den weight tends to be 30% higher than in spring, when black bears emerge from their dens. Bears on the East Coast tend to be heavier on average than those on

13516-639: The southern farmlands of Alberta , Saskatchewan and Manitoba ; they have been extirpated on Prince Edward Island since 1937. Surveys taken in the mid-1990s found the Canadian black bear population to be between 396,000 and 476,000 in seven provinces; this estimate excludes populations in New Brunswick , the Northwest Territories , Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan . All provinces indicated stable populations of American black bears over

13640-494: The wild is 18 years, though it is quite possible for wild individuals to survive for more than 23 years. The record age of a wild individual was 39 years, while that in captivity was 44 years. The average annual survival rate is variable, ranging from 86% in Florida to 73% in Virginia and North Carolina. In Minnesota, 99% of wintering adult bears were able to survive the hibernation cycle in one study. Remarkably,

13764-512: The winter is mild enough, they may wake up and forage for food. Females also give birth in February and nurture their cubs until the snow melts. During winter, American black bears consume 25–40% of their body weight. The footpads peel off while they sleep, making room for new tissue. Many of the physiological changes an American black bear exhibits during hibernation are retained slightly post-hibernation. Upon exiting hibernation, bears retain

13888-445: The world's largest captive male and female American black bears. Ted, the male, weighed 431–453.5 kg (950–1,000 lb) in the fall of 2006. Honey, the female, weighed 219.6 kg (484 lb) in the fall of 2007. The fur is soft, with dense underfur and long, coarse, thick guard hairs. The fur is not as shaggy or coarse as that of brown bears. American black bear skins can be distinguished from those of Asian black bears by

14012-688: The zoo announced the acquisition of 570 acres in Weld County . This land, donated by the Lembke family, will be dubbed the Lembke Family Preserve. The new facility will not be open to the public but will increase space the zoo can use for breeding and reintroduction programs seven-fold. This is the first expansion outside Denver Zoo's 80-acre main campus in its history. Also in 2024, the zoo rebranded to reflect its ongoing focus on conservation and education and moving forward will be known as

14136-423: The zoo concluded the attack was the result of human error by Pfaff. The zoo has not had jaguars since 2010. In 2009, Denver Zoo was the first zoo in the United States to achieve ISO 14001 certification. City park rebuilt its greenhouses in 2009, and as part of this project was able to provide the zoo with its own dedicated greenhouse. That same year, Denver Zoo celebrated the birth of an endangered aye-aye that

14260-428: Was in poorly maintained condition when Mayor Quigg Newton was elected in 1947. Newton hired DeBoer, the architect involved with the zoo's design forty years before, to plan a rebirth. Starting with the 1950 overhaul of Monkey Island, the zoo has steadily added to and improved its exhibits. The Denver Zoological Foundation was created in 1950, the same year that the zoo acquired its first elephant, Cookie. A Children's zoo

14384-555: Was opened in 1951 (since replaced by Primate Panorama). A perimeter fence was built in 1957, defining the zoo as a separate area but still within City Park . Automobile traffic in the zoo was finally eliminated completely in 1959. Pachyderm Habitat was opened the same year, and Cookie was joined by a second elephant, Candy. The zoo opened the Feline House in 1964, a Giraffe House in 1966, and an Animal Hospital in 1969. Bird World

14508-480: Was opened in 1975, followed by the Mountain Sheep Habitat in 1979, Northern Shores for polar bears, Arctic foxes , North American river otters , and pinnipeds in 1987, and Wolf Pack Woods in 1988. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 made it impossible to keep the polar bears and sea lions in the Bear Mountain enclosure. This and its deteriorating condition lead to a $ 250,000 renovation of

14632-418: Was re-certified for ISO 14001 and achieved OHSAS 18001 certification, becoming only the fourth zoo in the world to get both certifications. Denver Zoo was founded in 1896 when an orphaned American black bear cub named Billy Bryan – short for William Jennings Bryan after the contemporary American politician – was given to Thomas S. McMurry (mayor of Denver from 1895–1899) as a gift. McMurry gave

14756-679: Was the mayor of Denver, Colorado , for two periods (comprising five terms), the first from 1923 to 1931 and the second from 1935 to 1947. He also served as the Democratic Colorado State Auditor from 1933 to 1935 and was a member of the Ku Klux Klan . Stapleton was born November 12, 1869, in Paintsville, Kentucky , son of Elizabeth Jane Newman (1851–1927) and Samuel Stapleton (1847–1911). He attended National Normal University in Lebanon, Ohio , graduating with

14880-765: Was the cattle-killer shot in December 1921 on the Moqui Reservation in Arizona . The record-sized American black bear from New Jersey was shot in Morris County December 2011 and scaled 376.5 kg (830 lb). The Pennsylvania state record weighed 399 kg (880 lb) and was shot in November 2010 in Pike County . The North American Bear Center, located in Ely, Minnesota , is home to

15004-545: Was the first of the species to be conceived and born in a North American zoo. The zoo has continued to have a successful breeding program. In 2012, the zoo opened the $ 50 million Toyota Elephant Passage. The exhibit was originally announced in 2006 as Asian Tropics. It was opened to the general public on June 1, 2012 as the largest bull elephant habitat in the world. In 2015, following conservation work around Lake Titicaca in Peru , Denver Zoo welcomed 20 Lake Titicaca frogs from

15128-489: Was thought to have been the offspring of an escaped female Asian black bear and a male American black bear. In 1859, an American black bear and a Eurasian brown bear were bred together in the London Zoological Gardens , but the three cubs that were born died before they reached maturity. In The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication , Charles Darwin noted: In the nine-year Report it

15252-601: Was unable to determine whether it was a large American black bear or a grizzly bear. Sixteen subspecies are traditionally recognized; however, a recent genetic study does not support designating some of these, such as the Florida black bear, as distinct subspecies. Listed alphabetically according to subspecific name: Historically, American black bears occupied the majority of North America's forested regions. Today, they are primarily limited to sparsely settled, forested areas. American black bears currently inhabit much of their original Canadian range, though they seldom occur in

15376-601: Was widely viewed at the time as a huge boondoggle . Stapleton was excoriated as either corrupt or incompetent, or both, for having the taxpayers subsidize a mere plaything of the wealthy; what the Denver Post sneeringly dubbed "Stapleton's Folly", and others jokingly called "Rattlesnake Hollow". It was viewed by some as too far from civilization to be practicable. The close relationship Stapleton seemed to have with land-owning political backers who stood to benefit, conspicuous among them H. Brown Canon of Windsor Farm Dairy, were

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