145-518: Der Freiwillige ( lit. ' The Volunteer ' ) was a German magazine, published from 1956 as the official organ of HIAG , a lobby group and a denialist veterans' organisation founded by former high-ranking Waffen-SS personnel in West Germany in 1951. In 2014, the publication was merged into DMZ Zeitgeschichte [ de ] . This article about mass media in Germany
290-531: A containment policy to stop Soviet expansion. In June 1943, a visiting politician had suggested to Eisenhower that he might become president after the war. Believing that a general should not participate in politics, Merlo J. Pusey wrote that "figuratively speaking, [Eisenhower] kicked his political-minded visitor out of his office". As others asked him about his political future, Eisenhower told one that he could not imagine wanting to be considered for any political job "from dogcatcher to Grand High Supreme King of
435-608: A very bloody large-scale battle , and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945. Throughout 1945, the allied armies liberated numerous Nazi concentration camps throughout Europe. As the allies learned the full extend of the Holocaust , Eisenhower anticipated that, in the future, attempts to recharacterize Nazi crimes as propaganda ( Holocaust denial ) would be made, and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of Nazi death camps . Following
580-446: A 1951 issue of Wiking-Ruf . Internal disagreements began to emerge in the early and mid-1950s as to the stance of the organisation: Some believed in the adoption of a more open stance and the centralisation of the group under Steiner and Gille, while others within the organisation believed that this would harm the goals of rehabilitation. The main stated aims of the organisation were to provide assistance to veterans and to campaign for
725-675: A 1958 editorial, he praised the foreign volunteers who, like German SS men, saw the "diabolical" threat of Bolshevism and "fought like lions" against it, as part of the Waffen-SS. The picture books echoed the same themes; one of them proclaimed: "From all European lands came volunteers as genuine comrades-in-arms. They fought for their Fatherland against Bolshevism." Glossy books, such as Waffen-SS in Pictures (1957), featured, as described by MacKenzie, "tales of valour and heroism" and "propaganda photographs of Aryan-ideal volunteers from all over
870-470: A HIAG member's letter to the leadership conveying the dismay at "Jews" who became "powerful once again" and could thus stand in the way of political support for the Waffen-SS rehabilitation. Spiegel also reported Wilke's findings that the HIAG leadership maintained close contacts with far-right groups. Lobbying by HIAG and other revisionists produced some early successes. In 1953, Chancellor Adenauer stated in
1015-657: A basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and he became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts , inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on numerous occasions. Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. He began oil painting while at Columbia University, after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait. Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during
1160-854: A broken-down Tin Lizzie , loaded with paint, has been driven over it". Angels in the Outfield was Eisenhower's favorite movie. His favorite reading material for relaxation was the Western novels of Zane Grey . With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at cards. He learned poker, which he called his "favorite indoor sport", in Abilene. Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him. A friend reported that after learning to play contract bridge at West Point, Eisenhower played
1305-464: A camp for thousands of troops and developing a full combat training schedule. After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain and a few days later was promoted to major , a rank he held for 16 years. The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads. Indeed, the convoy averaged only 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later
1450-670: A life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly with the Philippine Army Air Corps at the Zablan Airfield in Camp Murphy under Capt. Jesus Villamor , making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937, and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at Fort Lewis . Also around this time, he
1595-484: A man's character by the way he plays cards. Eisenhower is a calm and collected player and never whines at his losses. He is brilliant in victory but never commits the bridge player's worst crime of gloating when he wins." Bridge expert Oswald Jacoby frequently participated in the White House games and said, "The President plays better bridge than golf. He tries to break 90 at golf. At bridge, you would say he plays in
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#17327827548331740-473: A military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow . The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in
1885-563: A pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house in Coombe, Kingston upon Thames , and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney. He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7. In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of
2030-473: A platform for its publicity. This extensive body of work, 57 book titles and more than 50 years of monthly periodicals, has been described by historians as revisionist apologia . Always in touch with its members' Nazi past, HIAG was a subject of significant controversy, both in West Germany and abroad. The organisation drifted into open far-right extremism in its later history; it disbanded in 1992 at
2175-539: A propaganda company ( Propagandakompanie ) of the Waffen-SS, but nothing came out of it. By the mid-1950s, HIAG had been able to differentiate the Waffen-SS from other SS formations; the crimes that could not be denied were attributed to Allgemeine-SS (security and police), the SS-Totenkopfverbände , and the Einsatzgruppen . The Waffen-SS was thus successfully integrated into the myth of
2320-526: A public speech in Hanover that members of the combat formations of the Waffen-SS had been "soldiers just like the rest" who had been "simply drafted". Large describes this declaration as "irresponsible and unhistorical", while the military historian Simon MacKenzie refers to it as "the least credible" of the several claims put forth by Waffen-SS apologists. MacKenzie states that on the Eastern Front
2465-474: A railroad mechanic and then at a creamery. By 1898, the parents made a decent living and provided a suitable home for their large family. Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third of seven sons born to Ida and David. His mother soon reversed his two forenames after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family. He was named Dwight after
2610-466: A result of this heightened review, by September 1956, only 33 of 1310 applications by ex-Waffen-SS officers had been accepted (making them 0.4% of the Bundeswehr's officer-corps), as compared to 195 of 462 applications by enlisted men. At the height of HIAG activity in the early 1960s, around 8% of the approximately 250,000 former Waffen-SS members living in West Germany were members of HIAG. This
2755-531: A sanitised version of history without any references to massacres. He argues that the unit histories, like other HIAG publications, focused on the "positive", "heroic" side of National Socialism. The researcher Danny S. Parker notes similar efforts undertaken to rewrite the history of the Leibstandarte division. HIAG worked with Rudolf Lehmann, chief of staff of the 1st SS Panzer Corps , to produce what Parker calls an "exculpating multi-volume chronicle" of
2900-408: A voracious reader on the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling. Eisenhower's parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David. His mother, previously a member (with David) of
3045-486: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This European political magazine or journal-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . See tips for writing articles about magazines . Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page . HIAG HIAG ( German : Hilfsgemeinschaft auf Gegenseitigkeit der Angehörigen der ehemaligen Waffen-SS , lit. 'Mutual aid association of former Waffen-SS members')
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#17327827548333190-482: Is named, married Richard Nixon 's daughter Julie in 1968. Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and he joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948. He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow. He had
3335-577: Is one of the two ravens that are the companions of the god Odin ; muninn is Old Norse for "memory". The aim of the publishing house was to publish, in cooperation with HIAG, the works of former Waffen-SS members. Its authors were former Waffen-SS unit commanders or staff officers who were members of HIAG. The Munin Verlag titles did not go through the rigorous fact-checking processes common in peer-reviewed historical literature; they were revisionist accounts, unedited by professional historians, presenting
3480-578: The Bundeswehr at their old rank. Former Waffen-SS men who wished to join the Bundeswehr still faced heightened scrutiny, especially the officers. All Waffen-SS applicants went through the rigorous vetting process reserved for those with the higher ranks in the Wehrmacht. HIAG labeled the procedure "political inquisition" and complained bitterly about it in its publications, but to no avail. As
3625-684: The 1956 election in landslides , both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II . Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain the spread of communism and reduce federal deficits . In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end the Korean War and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and an armistice resulted, which remains in effect. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized "inexpensive" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued Harry S. Truman 's policy of recognizing Taiwan as
3770-732: The Allied forces 2 to 1. In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower – not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He
3915-814: The Army Industrial College in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy). His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression . He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in
4060-722: The Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas . His administration undertook the development and construction of the Interstate Highway System , which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history. In 1957, following the Soviet launch of Sputnik , Eisenhower led the American response which included
4205-546: The Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers. During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with
4350-504: The French armed forces . The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle , a French antifascist monarchist. Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General Henri Giraud , who had been installed by
4495-543: The Geneva Convention . Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067 but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization . In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment. His actions reflected
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4640-586: The German Federal Military Archive [ de ] for any information that may have implicated units and personnel in questionable activity. To rehabilitate the image of the force, HIAG underwrote the publication of works by right-wing academics sympathetic to the Waffen-SS. The unit narratives were extensive (often in several volumes) and strived for an official-seeming representation of their history, backed by maps and operational orders. MacKenzie points out that "the older or
4785-688: The Italian leader , had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche . But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering
4930-714: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington , where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow , and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he
5075-663: The North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned in the underground headquarters within the Rock of Gibraltar . Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command Gibraltar in 200 years. French cooperation
5220-555: The Panama Canal Zone , where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz 's On War ), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met." On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–1926 he attended
5365-745: The River Brethren ( Brethren in Christ Church ) sect of the Mennonites , joined the International Bible Students Association , later known as Jehovah's Witnesses . The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Dwight never joined. His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked", but she did not overrule his decision. Speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he
5510-591: The Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis . Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was cancelled when a US spy plane
5655-760: The creation of NASA and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the National Defense Education Act . The Soviet Union began to reinforce their own space program , escalating the Space Race . His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958 . In his farewell address , he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending , particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the military–industrial complex ". Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among
5800-824: The five-star rank as General of the Army . Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of World War II : Operation Torch in the North Africa campaign in 1942–1943 and the invasion of Normandy in 1944. Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas , and raised in Abilene, Kansas . His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became a Jehovah's Witness . Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud , with whom he had two sons. During World War I , he
5945-509: The upper tier of American presidents . The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer" or "iron miner") family migrated from the German village of Karlsbrunn to the Province of Pennsylvania in 1741. Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized . David Jacob Eisenhower, Eisenhower's father, was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father's urging to stay on
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6090-490: The "Wehrmacht was just as brutal as the Waffen-SS". In the following months, a number of war-criminals from the ranks of the Waffen-SS were released. Many of them were made eligible for prisoner-of-war compensation from local governments. In 1956, the West German Federal Ministry of Defence announced that former members of the Waffen-SS, up to the grade of lieutenant colonel, would be accepted into
6235-498: The "most important works of [Waffen-SS] apologist literature". They demanded rehabilitation of the combat branch of the Nazi Party and presented Waffen-SS members as "soldiers just like any other". Both Hausser and Steiner followed up their 1950s books with works published in the 1960s. Published in 1963, Steiner's book was called The Army of Outlaws ( German : Die Armee der Geächteten ). Hausser's work appeared in 1966 under
6380-568: The 1951 law. In 1949, the ban on forming veterans' associations was lifted. Encouraged by the shifting tone of the World War II discourse and the courting of the Wehrmacht veterans by the West German government and political parties, former Waffen-SS members came forward to campaign for their interests. HIAG's history began in late 1950 by a gradual amalgamation of local groups. The majority of its members were former junior officers in
6525-602: The 70s." Eisenhower served initially in logistics and then the infantry at various camps in Texas and Georgia until 1918. When the US entered World War I , he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was denied and assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas . In February 1918, he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers . His unit was later ordered to France, but, to his chagrin, he received orders for
6670-619: The AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the Western Front north of the Alps . He was ever mindful of
6815-788: The Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army , equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill , Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle . He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov , his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends. In December 1944,
6960-665: The Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief. Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel 's move into the Kasserine Pass , Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall , commanding II Corps . He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns. In February 1943, his authority
7105-581: The Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone. Every ground commander seeks the battle of annihilation; so far as conditions permit, he tries to duplicate in modern war
7250-443: The Continent". In 1972, HIAG produced a five-hundred page SS picture tome under the nostalgic title When All Our Brothers Are Silent . Hausser spearheaded the project with Jochen Peiper , a controversial Waffen-SS figure, as a contributor. Other similar books included Scattered are the Traces (1979), Cavalry Divisions of the Waffen-SS (1982), Panzer Grenadiers of the 'Viking' Division in Pictures (1984), and many others. (One of
7395-420: The FDP hoped to win popular support. HIAG took on the cause of those imprisoned or executed for war crimes and openly celebrated its members' Nazi past. A partial list of ensuing controversies in the first 12 years of HIAG's existence includes: Large, who studied HIAG extensively, stated in 1987 that HIAG's anti-democratic and antisemitic statements were "the essence of what HIAG was all about", concluding that
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#17327827548337540-463: The German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany, located primarily in Southern Germany , and headquartered in Frankfurt am Main . Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps , he ordered camera crews to document evidence for use in the Nuremberg Trials . He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in US custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to
7685-435: The Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the Battle of the Bulge , which the Allies turned back in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Army Air Force to engage. German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the Eastern Front with the Red Army and the Western Front with the Western Allies. The British wanted to capture Berlin , but Eisenhower decided it would be
7830-442: The HIAG convention in Karlsberg, Bavaria, he stated that "SS troops committed no crimes, except the massacre at Oradour, and that was the action of a single man". Meyer claimed that the Waffen-SS was the same as the German Army. On another occasion, Meyer publicly denounced the "regime" [West Germany] that could "honour traitors" but would vilify its soldiers. He condemned the notion of "collective guilt" and equated Jews and Jesuits to
7975-456: The HIAG's leaders remained true to their Nazi ideology . Similarly, the historian Karsten Wilke, who worked with the HIAG archives in the 2000s, discovered that the HIAG members' positions were "consistently racist, anti-Semitic and anti-democratic", as the German news magazine Der Spiegel characterised them in its 2011 article "The Brown Bluff: How Waffen SS Veterans Exploited Postwar Politics". Referencing Wilke's work, Der Spiegel quoted
8120-608: The Nazis and the Waffen-SS, as all being victims of history and prejudice. In the first instance, Meyer was most likely referring to Adolf Diekmann who was the senior officer present during the Oradour massacre . Meyer himself had served a lengthy prison term for his role in the Ardenne Abbey massacre . In the second instance, he was apparently referring to the members of the 20 July plot . At Jochen Peiper's memorial in 1976, Hubert Meyer referenced Peiper's open letter from Landsberg Prison , which had previously been quoted in Hausser's 1953 books. Hubert Meyer's speech later appeared in
8265-399: The November 1976 issue of Der Freiwillige : For a broad public in Germany and even more throughout the rest of the world, [Peiper] has become the embodiment of that which all of us were clearly, intentionally and wrongly burdened in Nuremberg.... We have not forgotten what Jochen Peiper wrote to us from Landsberg Prison in 1952: "Don't forget that the first Europeans killed in action were in
8410-497: The Pacific. Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did. Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed. He also had to skillfully manage to retain
8555-416: The Philippines, which was denied; because of the ongoing Mexican Revolution , he was posted to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio , Texas, under the command of General Funston. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Funston convinced him to become the football coach for Peacock Military Academy ; he later became the coach at St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University , and was an honorary member of
8700-405: The SS apparatus. The Tribunal found that "the units of the Waffen-SS were directly involved in the killings of prisoners of war and the atrocities in the occupied countries" and judged the entire SS to be a criminal organisation. HIAG aimed to reverse that judgement through significant propaganda efforts in the service of its historical negationism . According to Large, HIAG was a case study in
8845-403: The SS tied the Waffen-SS to the Nazi annihilation machine through the transfer of personnel between various SS units and the shifting responsibilities of the units themselves, as they might perform frontline duties at one time, and then be reassigned to "bandit-fighting" operations – or Bandenbekämpfung — in the rear. Kurt Meyer embodied the voice of Waffen-SS apologists. In 1957, speaking at
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#17327827548338990-508: The Sigma Beta Chi fraternity there. While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of Boone, Iowa . They were immediately taken with each other. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916. A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the impending American entry into World War I ; Funston approved 10 days of leave for their wedding. The Eisenhowers moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage. The Eisenhowers had two sons. In late 1917 while he
9135-404: The Third Reich and also with the SS to destroy and drag through the mud all of what was and is sacred to us. (...) Let us be clear about it: the [Allied] battle was directed not only against the authoritarian regime of the Third Reich, but, above all, against the resurgence of the strength of the German people. Erich Kern , a far-right Austrian journalist and a former Nazi war correspondent, became
9280-605: The Universe", and another that he could not serve as Army Chief of Staff if others believed he had political ambitions. In 1945, Truman told Eisenhower during the Potsdam Conference that if desired, the president would help the general win the 1948 election , and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination. As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run. In January 1948, after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for
9425-425: The Waffen-SS did not participate in atrocities, but that the Wehrmacht did so as well. Large argues that the equivalence is meaningless, as, contrary to the myth of a clean Wehrmacht , it actively participated in the racial war of extermination in the Soviet Union. Although HIAG's leaders discouraged political affiliations, any leanings were to be "in the spirit of European and patriotic sentiment", as described in
9570-467: The Waffen-SS would have opened the door to claims by personnel of other SS and Nazi organisations, including the SA , the SD , the Hitler Youth , and others—a prospect the federal government preferred not to contemplate, because of possible domestic and international consequences. Some of its more outspoken members sounded like Nazis, harming the public image of HIAG: "The wider aim of complete rehabilitation proved harder to achieve, in part because some of
9715-698: The Waffen-SS. In the summer of 1951, HIAG was formally established by Otto Kumm , a former SS- Brigadeführer . By October 1951, HIAG claimed to consist of 376 local branches. By December 1951, former high-ranking Waffen-SS general Paul Hausser was HIAG's first spokesperson. Two well-known former Waffen-SS commanders, Felix Steiner and Herbert Gille , became early leading figures. Sepp Dietrich and Kurt Meyer became active members upon their release from prison, in 1955 and 1954. Meyer became HIAG's most effective spokesman. After Meyer's death in 1961, Erich Eberhardt , formerly of SS Division Totenkopf , assumed that role. As of 1977, Wilhelm Bittrich served as
9860-598: The Wehrmacht, condemned the Western Allies as the "real war criminals" and insisted that the blacklist on which all former SS members then stood would soon become "a list of honour". The outburst caused a furor within West Germany. Periodicals as far as the U.S. and Canada carried headlines "Hitler's Guard Cheers Ex-chief" and "Rabble-Rousing General Is Worrying the Allies", with the latter article reporting that Ramcke's speech had been greeted with "roars of approval and cries of 'Eisenhower, Schweinehund !' ('Pig – Dog')". HIAG and its spokesperson Steiner hastily tried to distance
10005-418: The West German government, the Allies commuted a number of sentences for war crimes. A public declaration by Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower followed in January 1951, distinguishing "between the regular German soldier and officer and Hitler and his criminal group... The fact that certain individuals committed in war dishonorable and despicable acts reflects on the individuals concerned and not on
10150-526: The aims of the organisation as providing comradeship, legal assistance, support for those in Allied captivity, help for families, and aid in searches for those still missing. The HIAG campaigned for Waffen-SS veterans to be awarded the legal status of persons formerly in the public service, under article 131 of the Basic Law , so that they would qualify for the same rights and pensions as Wehrmacht's career soldiers. The historian David C. Large wrote that, like any public pronouncements, these bylaws did not tell
10295-404: The baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest". He made the varsity football team and was a starter at halfback in 1912, when he tried to tackle the legendary Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indians . Eisenhower suffered a torn knee while being tackled in the next game, which was the last he played; he reinjured his knee on horseback and in
10440-456: The boxing ring, so he turned to fencing and gymnastics. Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader, which caught the attention of General Frederick Funston . He graduated from West Point in the middle of the class of 1915, which became known as " the class the stars fell on ", because 59 members eventually became general officers . After graduation in 1915, Second Lieutenant Eisenhower requested an assignment in
10585-428: The broader West German process of historical manipulation. HIAG's rewriting of history encompassed multi-prong publicity campaigns—including tendentious periodicals, books, and public speeches, as well as a publishing house dedicated to presenting the Waffen-SS in a positive light. The leadership viewed restoring the "tarnished shield" as a key component of the desired legal and economic rehabilitation, and thus no effort
10730-518: The campaigns in the West and in the East. On the other hand, as the war progressed, and the Waffen-SS grew to encompass conscripts (from 1943), Waffen-SS personnel began to resemble that of the Wehrmacht, contributing to the postwar confusion as to the organisation's status. The results of conscription allowed the Waffen-SS proponents to blur the line between the Waffen-SS and the Wehrmacht, arguing not that
10875-719: The cavalry units in question, SS Cavalry Brigade , was responsible for the murder of an estimated 23,700 Jews and others in July–August 1941 alone, during the Pripyat Marshes massacres . Its regimental commander Lombard reported eliminating close to 11,000 "plunderers" in the first two weeks of the same operation. ) HIAG leadership denied that there was any connection between the Waffen-SS and Nazi atrocities. In 1957, Paul Hausser wrote, in Der Freiwillige , an open letter to West Germany's minister of defence, stating that
11020-442: The center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944 . In recognition of his senior position in
11165-402: The chairman. HIAG membership was open to convicted war criminals, with the group's position being to absolve them of their responsibility. For example, the group openly embraced and advocated on behalf of Dietrich, Walter Reder , and Herbert Kappler , former SS men convicted of wartime massacres. With the publication of its first periodical, Wiking-Ruf ("Viking Call"), in late 1951, HIAG
11310-597: The changing political and military situation as leverage to demand the rehabilitation of the Wehrmacht . In October 1950, a group of former senior officers produced a document, which became known as the " Himmerod memorandum ", for West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer . It included the demands that German war criminals be released and that the "defamation" of the German soldiers, including the Waffen-SS personnel, cease, which Adenauer worked to implement. To accommodate
11455-475: The classic example of Cannae . Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group 's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley ( 12th US Army Group ) and Devers ( Sixth US Army Group ) insisted they be given priority in
11600-463: The clean Wehrmacht . The positive image of the Waffen-SS indeed found a receptive audience during the Cold War. Senior Waffen-SS personnel were "not shy about suggesting that they had once organised and led a NATO -like army (and an elite one at that)", notes MacKenzie. John M. Steiner, in his 1975 work, points out that SS apologists, especially strongly represented in HIAG, stressed that they were
11745-702: The clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington, D.C. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct. In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army. MacArthur allowed Eisenhower to handpick an officer whom he thought would contribute to
11890-401: The concentration camp guard units ( SS-Totenkopfverbände ) served on external detail only, "without the possibility of interfering with the internal procedure". He did not mention that the guards accompanied prisoners to labour sites and that the commanders of concentration camps generally came from the Waffen-SS. This apologist position also ignored the fact that the organisational structure of
12035-511: The division, which even whitewashed the Malmedy massacre . HIAG involved a legal consultant to make sure the account would be within the framework of the strict German laws prohibiting glorification of the Nazi past. The project also included the former chief of staff of the unit, Dietrich Ziemssen, who in 1952 produced a denialist version of the massacre in his pamphlet Der Malmedy Prozess . In
12180-455: The early 1950s, HIAG claimed to represent 2 million potential voters, a vast exaggeration, as only 250,000 Waffen-SS veterans were living in West Germany at that time. In 1951, SPD leader Kurt Schumacher established contact with HIAG. When he first met with its leaders, Schumacher believed that 150,000 people were already members of HIAG, as evidenced by internal party correspondence; he considered that number to be "politically significant". In
12325-399: The early 1950s. Along with other veterans' organisations, HIAG campaigned for the immediate amnesty and early release of war criminals still in Allied captivity. This issue was significant, as most of these organisations made their cooperation in the area of rearmament contingent on the satisfactory resolution of the amnesty issue. It was partly for this reason that the West German government
12470-504: The early 1960s. HIAG also asserted that the Waffen-SS was merely "the fourth arm of the Wehrmacht"; these claims were even "more dubious", explains Large. As a Nazi organisation combining both military and police powers, the Waffen-SS was an arm of the SS : its members stood under SS jurisdiction separate from that of the Wehrmacht; its personnel were responsible for guarding concentration camps and were thoroughly implicated in war crimes during
12615-439: The evangelist Dwight L. Moody . All of the boys were nicknamed "Ike", such as "Big Ike" ( Edgar ) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name. By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike". In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown. As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother Earl an eye, for which he
12760-667: The family farm. Eisenhower's mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower , of predominantly German Protestant ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in Lecompton, Kansas , on the campus of their alma mater, Lane University . David owned a general store in Hope, Kansas , but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $ 24 (equivalent to $ 814 in 2023) to their name. David worked as
12905-592: The federal level, but local groups continue to exist into the 21st century. Its monthly periodical, Der Freiwillige , survived until 2014. While HIAG only partially achieved its goals of legal and economic rehabilitation of the Waffen-SS, its propaganda efforts led to the reshaping of the image of the Waffen-SS in popular culture . In the years following World War II , the Allied occupational authorities in Germany implemented policies which included demilitarisation , denazification , democratisation and decentralisation . The Allies' attempts were often perceived by
13050-497: The first to fight for Europe and Western civilisation against "Asiatic Communist hordes". Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight David Eisenhower (born David Dwight Eisenhower ; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969), also known by his nickname Ike , was the 34th president of the United States , serving from 1953 to 1961. During World War II , he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved
13195-527: The first to use such a weapon." Initially, Eisenhower hoped for cooperation with the Soviets. He even visited Warsaw in 1945. Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration , he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city. However, by mid-1947, as east–west tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower agreed with
13340-546: The former Waffen-SS members' version of events. Until HIAG's dissolution in 1992, Munin-Verlag published 57 titles. Walter Harzer took on the role of the official historian of HIAG, in charge of coordinating the writing of the histories of Waffen-SS divisions. HIAG worked with historian Ernst Klink , of the Military History Research Office (MGFA) in Freiburg, to screen materials donated to
13485-417: The forthcoming Republican National Convention , Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office". Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time. Many believed he
13630-420: The full story of HIAG's real goals. By investigating how these statutes were applied in practice, he was able to tease out what the organisation stood for. For example, HIAG claimed to represent the entire Waffen-SS membership, living and dead, as well as their families: 500,000 in total. In reality, the organisation's rolls did not exceed 20,000. HIAG attained this number in the late 1950s, and maintained it until
13775-544: The funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions. Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery. When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented. At that time, a friend Edward "Swede" Hazlett was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply, since no tuition
13920-409: The game six nights a week for five months. Eisenhower continued to play bridge throughout his military career. While stationed in the Philippines, he played regularly with President Manuel Quezon , earning him the nickname the "Bridge Wizard of Manila". An unwritten qualification for an officer's appointment to Eisenhower's staff during World War II was the ability to play bridge. He played even during
14065-621: The great majority of German soldiers and officers." The same year, some former career officers of the Wehrmacht were granted war pensions. Unlike the Wehrmacht, the SS had been deemed a criminal organisation at the Nuremberg trials and could thus act as an "alibi of a nation" (as Gerald Reitlinger's 1956 book of that title suggested), as being solely responsible for crimes of the Nazi regime . Consequently, Waffen-SS career personnel were not covered under
14210-432: The hazing, though he willingly accepted it as a plebe. He was also a regular violator of the more detailed regulations and finished school with a less than stellar discipline rating. Academically, Eisenhower's best subject by far was English. Otherwise, his performance was average, though he thoroughly enjoyed the typical emphasis of engineering on science and mathematics. In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making
14355-616: The help of his brother Milton Eisenhower , then a journalist at the Agriculture Department , he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley , Assistant Secretary of War , from 1929 to February 1933. Major Eisenhower graduated from
14500-561: The improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as president. He assumed duties again at Camp Meade , Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton , Sereno E. Brett , and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered
14645-400: The inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion. Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history: Our landings in
14790-470: The last 20 years of his life. The images were mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington , and Abraham Lincoln . Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's paintings, "simple and earnest", caused her to "wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, Eisenhower in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like
14935-673: The legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the Formosa Resolution . His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War . After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam . He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration. During
15080-537: The membership's "undemocratic" ways, but these efforts at reforming the veterans were futile. Such dealing with HIAG caused concerns within the SPD, where HIAG's members were thus described as "unteachables" ( Unbelehrbare ). HIAG found its best champion in the centre-right Free Democratic Party (FDP), whose platform was most closely aligned to HIAG's goals. The FDP demanded the release of war criminals, seeing their incarceration as "political". Through their support of HIAG,
15225-403: The mid-to-late 1970s, HIAG attempted to commission a favorable biography of Peiper, to stop "the bad rumors", according to a HIAG official. "We must steadfastly remain behind the wheel and direct this book ourselves, otherwise [Erich Kern] will do it", Harzer wrote to a fellow member in 1976. HIAG contemplated approaching (or approached) Herbert Reinecker , a prolific screenwriter who had served in
15370-689: The mission. Hence he chose James Ord , a classmate of his at West Point. Having been brought up in Mexico, which inculcated into him the Spanish culture which influenced both Mexico and the Philippines, Ord was deemed the right pick for the job. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted
15515-472: The more enthusiastic members of HIAG sounded alarmingly Nazi in their pronouncements." During the Nuremberg Trials, HIAG's personnel, such as Hausser in his testimony as a defence witness, contended that the Waffen-SS was a purely military organisation no different from the Wehrmacht. The prosecution at Nuremberg rejected this claim and successfully argued that the Waffen-SS was an integral part of
15660-535: The more famous the unit, the larger the work—to the point where no less than five volumes and well over 2,000 pages were devoted to the doings of the 2nd Panzer Division Das Reich ", authored by one of its former officers, Otto Weidinger. The French author Jean-Paul Picaper, who studied the Oradour massacre perpetrated by the men of the Das Reich , notes the tendentious nature of Weidinger's narrative: it provided
15805-492: The new tank corps , where he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel in the National Army . He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at Camp Colt – his first command. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel. His spirits were raised when
15950-538: The new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis. In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army . His main role was the rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, which was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported
16095-669: The new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon . Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be
16240-467: The new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court-martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented. From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner , John J. Pershing , Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall . He first became executive officer to General Conner in
16385-600: The next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord. Admiral Ernest J. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from
16530-530: The occupied population as "victors' justice" and met with limited success. For those in the Western occupation zones, the beginning of the Cold War further undermined these policies by reviving the idea of the necessity to fight against Soviet communism, echoing an aspect of Hitler's foreign policy. In 1950, after the outbreak of the Korean War , it became clear to the United States that German armed forces would need to be reconstituted. Former German officers used
16675-402: The organisation from Ramcke and his remarks. The notion that Waffen-SS personnel had been "soldiers like all others" found its way into the discourse regarding war captivity. HIAG claimed that its members were victims of Allied arbitrariness and complained of harsh internment conditions. HIAG equated the status of war criminals with that of prisoners of war and obfuscated the differences between
16820-529: The organisation held its first major meeting in Verden . It began respectably, with Gille announcing that the veterans were ready to "do their duty for the Fatherland" and Steiner declaring support for "freedom, order and justice". But the next speaker delivered a different message. Hermann-Bernhard Ramcke , a former paratroop general and a convicted war criminal, invited to demonstrate so-called solidarity with
16965-401: The organisation's key employee responsible for its publishing arm. He first became active within HIAG in 1955, and then joined as a full-time employee in 1959. According to the historian Jonathan Petropoulos , Kern remained an "unrepentant and unreconstructed Nazi" up to his death in 1991. The theme of foreign volunteers was featured prominently, with Steiner lending his voice in this area. In
17110-642: The regimental executive officer. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated IX Corps under Major General Kenyon Joyce . In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General Walter Krueger , Commander of the Third Army , at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers , he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941. After
17255-483: The rehabilitation of their legal status with respect to war pensions. During its early existence, HIAG also focused on "tracing service" actions ( Kameraden-Suchdienst ). HIAG embraced the Suchdienst activities, not only because it was concerned for the fate of some 40,000 members of the Waffen-SS who were missing in action, but because this outwardly humanitarian and non-political activity could help improve how it
17400-470: The rest of their lives. Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill , George S. Patton, George Marshall, and Bernard Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur and that a positive relationship endured. While in Manila, Mamie suffered
17545-424: The same letter, Schumacher referred to the Waffen-SS as a "branch of the Wehrmacht". Later, the SPD defence policy expert Fritz Erler and Helmut Schmidt , a member of SPD parliamentary delegation and a future Chancellor of Germany , handled the relationship with HIAG. They maintained close contact, attending private and public meetings and keeping up regular correspondence. They often admonished HIAG leadership for
17690-431: The services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate , and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy. The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from
17835-657: The stressful weeks leading up to the D-Day landings. His favorite partner was General Alfred Gruenther , considered the best player in the US Army; he appointed Gruenther his second-in-command at NATO partly because of his skill at bridge. Saturday night bridge games at the White House were a feature of his presidency. He was a strong player, though not an expert by modern standards. The great bridge player and popularizer Ely Culbertson described his game as classic and sound with "flashes of brilliance" and said that "you can always judge
17980-641: The title Soldiers Like Any Other ( German : Soldaten wie andere auch ). According to MacKenzie, the books' titles were symbolic of the Waffen-SS image that HIAG's leaders wanted to portray, while Sydnor describes this later generation of books as "equally tendentious". In addition to HIAG's own publishing house Munin Verlag (below), similar books were also published by Plesse Verlag [ de ] in Göttingen. In 1958, HIAG established its own publishing house—Munin Verlag. The name comes from Norse mythology popular with right-wing movements. Muninn
18125-671: The unit under his command received orders overseas to France. This time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed a week before his departure date. Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite receiving the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home. In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the Great War (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery ) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing
18270-505: The units of the Waffen-SS, that the ones beaten to death during the post war period mostly were men from our ranks. They had become fair game because of their belief in the indivisibility of Western Europe. Remember these martyrs." To buttress the reputation of the Waffen-SS, the memoirs of HIAG's leading members featured quotations by former Wehrmacht generals endorsing the fighting skills of the force. Steiner's, Meyer's, and Hausser's books have been characterised by historian Charles Sydnor as
18415-556: The veterans of the Wehrmacht and those of the Waffen-SS. In its periodical Wiking-Ruf , HIAG made use of the same drawings of emaciated German POWs behind barbed wire used by the publications of another post-war organisation—the West German Association of Returnees and Families of POWs and MIAs [ de ] (VdH). In its turn, VdH saw its role as a counterbalance to militaristic veterans' organisations such as HIAG and explicitly distanced itself from them in
18560-520: The war ended in Europe, he served as military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany (1945), Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and as the first supreme commander of NATO (1951–1952). In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft , who opposed NATO . Eisenhower won that year's election and
18705-657: Was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953. Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated in 1909. As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening. The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and surprisingly recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year. He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked
18850-503: Was a lobby group and a denialist veterans' organisation founded by former high-ranking Waffen-SS personnel in West Germany in 1951. Its main objective was to achieve legal, economic, and historical rehabilitation of the Waffen-SS. To achieve these aims, the organisation used contacts with political parties, and employed multi-prong historical negationism and propaganda efforts, including periodicals, books, and public speeches. A HIAG-owned publishing house, Munin Verlag , served as
18995-582: Was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly. At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold , commanding general of the Army Air Forces , to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney . He returned to Washington on June 3 with
19140-523: Was beginning to draw attention to itself and generate public controversy, including speculation that it was a neo-Nazi organisation. In response, Hausser wrote an open letter to the Bundestag , West Germany's parliament, denying these accusations and describing the HIAG as an advocacy organisation for former Waffen-SS troops. Hausser asserted that its members rejected all forms of radicalism and were "upstanding citizens". The HIAG bylaws of 1952 described
19285-450: Was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany. Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for
19430-492: Was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation" with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into Tunisia and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in Vichy France and his continued role as commander-in-chief of
19575-434: Was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained tank crews. Between the wars he served in staff positions in the US and the Philippines, reaching the rank of brigadier general shortly before the entry of the US into World War II in 1941. After further promotion Eisenhower oversaw the Allied invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany . After
19720-663: Was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army , commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign . After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the invasion of Sicily . Once Mussolini ,
19865-765: Was in charge of training at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia , his wife Mamie had their first son, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower , who died of scarlet fever at the age of three. Eisenhower was mostly reluctant to discuss his death. Their second son, John Eisenhower , was born in Denver , Colorado. John served in the United States Army , retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. He married Barbara Jean Thompson and had four children: David , Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean . David, after whom Camp David
20010-604: Was offered a post by the Philippine Commonwealth Government, namely by then Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named Quezon City , but he declined the offer. Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as commanding officer of the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment at Fort Lewis , Washington, later becoming
20155-463: Was perceived by the West German government and the society at large. Such public relations activities ("image polishing", according to Large) were important to HIAG, as it faced ongoing scrutiny and even calls for a ban on the organisation. The Suchdiensttreffen events (literally: tracing service meetings) later evolved into annual Kameradschaftstreffen ("veterans' reunions"), which were large-scale conventions, often accompanied by rallies. In 1952,
20300-466: Was remorseful for the remainder of his life. Eisenhower developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring the outdoors. He learned about hunting and fishing, cooking, and card playing from a man named Bob Davis who camped on the Smoky Hill River . While his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's interest in military history; he became
20445-473: Was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his Senator, Joseph L. Bristow . Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy. He accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911. At West Point, Eisenhower relished the emphasis on traditions and on sports, but was less enthusiastic about
20590-455: Was shot down over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower approved the Bay of Pigs Invasion , which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out. On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security . He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege . He signed
20735-430: Was spared. HIAG's first periodical was Wiking-Ruf , which was launched in 1951. In 1955, HIAG launched its other publication Der Freiwillige ( The Volunteer ). A 1952 editorial by Kumm highlighted key themes that were used throughout HIAG's subsequent history: Even during the war, and especially after the war, infamous and lying propagandists have been able to make use of all the unfortunate events connected to
20880-533: Was sympathetic to the fate of these individuals and made every effort to secure their early release. Chancellor Adenauer even met with Kurt Meyer in Werl Prison when he went there on an inspection tour. Behind the scenes, HIAG cultivated close relationships with the ruling Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the main opposition Social Democratic Party (SPD), garnering attention by inflating its membership numbers and influence. In meetings with politicians in
21025-404: Was the timeframe when HIAG achieved its last success in economic rehabilitation: in 1961, the West German government partially restored pension rights to Waffen-SS personnel under the 131 legislation. HIAG greeted this development as a partial victory, which they hoped would lead to a complete rehabilitation. This wider aim proved impossible to achieve: the government was cautious, as rehabilitating
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