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59-535: At its height, the population of the kingdom consisted of 12–15,000 families. The northern border of the kingdom was defined by Tso Ngon Lake ; on the east, the boundary terminated at those states that utilized the Horpa variation of the Rgyalrongic languages , Chantui and Litang ; the southern and western boundaries were defined by Batang , Sanai , Gonjo and Draya; and Lhato and Chamdo , respectively. During

118-521: A pH of 9.3. It has increased in salinity and basicity since the early Holocene . At the tip of the peninsula on the western side of the lake are Cormorant Island and Egg Island, collectively known as the Bird Islands. Qinghai Lake became isolated from the Yellow River about 150,000 years ago. If the water level were to rise by approximately 50 meters (160 ft), the connection to

177-504: A pro-drop language : its syntax often allows either subjects or objects to be dropped when their reference is understood. Additionally, words are generally not restricted to use as certain parts of speech : many characters may function as either a noun, verb, or adjective. There is no general copula in Classical Chinese akin to how 是 ( shì ) is used in modern Standard Chinese. Characters that can sometimes function as

236-418: A system of honorifics . Many final and interrogative particles are found in Classical Chinese. Beyond differences in grammar and vocabulary, Classical Chinese can be distinguished by its literary qualities: an effort to maintain parallelism and rhythm is typical, even in prose works. Works also make extensive use of literary techniques such as allusion, which contributes to the language's brevity. Prior to

295-564: A conservative impulse: many later changes in the varieties of Chinese are not reflected in the literary form. Due to millennia of this evolution, Literary Chinese is only partially intelligible when read or spoken aloud for someone only familiar with modern vernacular forms. Literary Chinese has largely been replaced by written vernacular Chinese among Chinese speakers; speakers of non-Chinese languages have similarly abandoned Literary Chinese in favour of their own local vernaculars. Although varieties of Chinese have diverged in various directions from

354-429: A copula in specific circumstances include 為 ( wéi ; 'make', 'do') when indicating temporary circumstances, and 曰 ( yuē ; 'say') when used in the sense of 'to be called'. Classical Chinese has more pronouns compared to the modern vernacular. In particular, whereas modern Standard Chinese has one character generally used as a first-person pronoun, Classical Chinese has several—many of which are used as part of

413-514: A form now called Literary Chinese , which was used for almost all formal writing in China until the early 20th century. Each written character corresponds to a single spoken syllable, and almost always to a single independent word. As a result, the characteristic style of the language is comparatively terse. Starting in the 2nd century CE, use of Literary Chinese spread to the countries surrounding China, including Vietnam , Korea , Japan , and

472-580: A hollow of the Tibetan Plateau at 3,205 meters (10,515 ft) above sea level . It lies between Haibei Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in northeastern Qinghai in Northwest China . The lake has fluctuated in size, shrinking over much of the 20th century but increasing since 2004. It had a surface area of 4,317 square kilometers (1,667 sq mi), an average depth of 21 meters (69 ft), and

531-401: A maximum depth of 25.5 m (84 ft) in 2008. Twenty-three rivers and streams empty into Qinghai Lake, most of them seasonal. Five permanent streams provide 80% of the total influx. The relatively low inflow and high evaporation rates have turned Qinghai saline and alkaline; the salt concentration is presently about 1.4% by weight ( seawater has a salt concentration of about 3.5%), with

590-485: A peak of a few metres higher than today, before declining again amidst a regional cooling and drying trend until 1,400 years ago, when they were less than 10 metres lower than average modern levels. They then began to rise once more until reaching their present level. The lake often remains frozen for three months continuously in winter. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), substantial numbers of Han Chinese lived in

649-542: A surface area of 4,317 km (1,667 sq mi), an average depth of 21 m (69 ft), and a maximum depth of 25.5 m (84 ft) in 2008. Qinghai is the atonal pinyin romanisation of the Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese name 青海 . Although modern Chinese distinguishes between the colors blue and green, this distinction did not exist in classical Chinese . The color 青 ( qīng )

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708-561: Is a focal point in global concerns regarding avian influenza ( H5N1 ), as a major outbreak here could spread the virus across Europe and Asia, further increasing the chances of a pandemic. Minor outbreaks of H5N1 have already been identified at the lake. The Bird Islands have been sanctuaries of the Qinghai Lake Natural Protection Zone since 1997. There are five native fish species: The edible naked carp ( Gymnocypris przewalskii , 湟鱼 ; huángyú ), which

767-838: Is far more common in Chinese languages than in English: for example, each of the following words had a distinct Old Chinese pronunciation, but are now perfectly homophones with a pronunciation of yì [î] in Standard Chinese: The poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den was composed during the 1930s by the linguist Yuen Ren Chao to demonstrate this: it contains only words pronounced shi [ʂɻ̩] with various tones in modern Standard Chinese. The poem underlines how language had become impractical for modern speakers: when spoken aloud, Literary Chinese

826-568: Is largely incomprehensible. However, the poem is perfectly comprehensible when read, and also uses homophones that were present even in Old Chinese. Romanizations have been devised to provide distinct spellings for Literary Chinese words, together with pronunciation rules for various modern varieties. The earliest was the Romanisation Interdialectique by French missionaries Henri Lamasse  [ fr ] of

885-597: Is not read with a reconstructed Old Chinese pronunciation; instead, it is read with the pronunciations as categorized and listed in a rime dictionary originally based upon the Middle Chinese pronunciation in Luoyang between the 2nd and 4th centuries. Over time, each dynasty updated and modified the official rime dictionary: by the time of the Yuan and Ming dynasties , its phonology reflected that of early Mandarin. As

944-413: Is the most abundant in the lake, and four stoneloaches ( Triplophysa stolickai , T. dorsonotata , T. scleroptera and T. siluroides ). Other Yellow River fish species occurred in the lake, but they disappeared with the increasing salinity and basicity , beginning in the early Holocene . There is an island in the western part of the lake with a temple and a few hermitages called "Mahādeva,

1003-532: The Book of Han (111 CE) is the oldest extant bibliography of Classical Chinese, compiled c.  90 CE ; only 6% of its 653 listed works are known to exist in a complete form, with another 6% existing only in fragments. Compared to written vernacular Chinese, Classical Chinese is terse and compact in its style, and uses some different vocabulary. Classical Chinese rarely uses words two or more characters in length. Classical Chinese can be described as

1062-529: The Old Chinese words in the Classical lexicon, many cognates can still be found. There is no universal agreement on the definition of "Classical Chinese". At its core, the term refers to the language used by the classics of Chinese literature roughly from the 5th century BCE to the end of the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE). The form of Chinese used in works written before

1121-611: The Qing dynasty , a Derge king requested a Tusi title in 1728. The kingdom was known for its metal working and was an important center in the establishment of the Rimé movement in Tibetan Buddhism . The royal family of Derge were known as supporters of art, producing such artists as Situ Panchen , the kingdom's senior court chaplain, who is also known for his contributions to medicine and religion. Regent Queen Tsewang Lhamo (d. 1812)

1180-586: The Ryukyu Islands , where it represented the only known form of writing. Literary Chinese was adopted as the language of civil administration in these countries, creating what is known as the Sinosphere . Each additionally developed systems of readings and annotations that enabled non-Chinese speakers to interpret Literary Chinese texts in terms of the local vernacular. While not static throughout its history, its evolution has traditionally been guided by

1239-548: The Xining valley to the east. In the 17th century, Mongolic -speaking Oirat and Khalkha tribals migrated to Qinghai and became known as Qinghai Mongols . In 1724, the Qinghai Mongols led by Lobzang Danjin  [ nl ] revolted against the Qing dynasty . The Yongzheng Emperor , after putting down the rebellion, stripped away Qinghai's autonomy and imposed direct rule. Although some Tibetans lived around

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1298-545: The imperial examination system required the candidate to compose poetry in the shi genre, pronunciation in non-Mandarin speaking parts of China such as Zhejiang , Guangdong and Fujian is either based on everyday speech, such as in Standard Cantonese , or is based on a special set of pronunciations borrowed from Classical Chinese, such as in Southern Min . In practice, all varieties of Chinese combine

1357-598: The 18th century under the reign of Tenpa Tsering, who conquered territories to the north. In the early 1900s, Eric R. Coales prepared a report that included information about the "recent" history of the kingdom for the British. According to Coales' report, in 1895, the Viceroy of Sichuan sent forces into Chantui, led by General Chang Chi, who advanced further into Derge. The king and his family were imprisoned in Chengdu . By

1416-591: The 4th century BCE, like the Five Classics , is distinct from that found in later works. The term "pre-Classical Chinese" is used to distinguish this earlier form from Classical Chinese proper, as it did not inspire later imitation to a comparable degree despite the works' equal importance in the canon. After the Han dynasty, the divergence of spoken language from the literary form became increasingly apparent. The term "Literary Chinese" has been coined to refer to

1475-578: The God of the Lake. Participants, both Han and Muslim, made offerings to the god. After the 1949 Chinese revolution , refugees from the 1950s Anti-Rightist Movement settled in the area west of Qinghai Lake. After the Chinese economic reform in the 1980s, drawn by new business opportunities, migration to the area increased, causing ecological stresses. Fresh grass production in Gangcha County north of

1534-509: The Heart of the Lake", " mTsho snying Ma hā de wa " in Tibetan, which historically was home to a Buddhist monastery. The temple was also used for religious purposes and ceremonies. No boat was used during summer, so monks and pilgrims traveled to and from only when the lake froze over in winter. A nomad described the size of the island by saying that: "if in the morning a she-goat starts to browse

1593-510: The Japanese readings of Literary Chinese, is part of the high school curriculum in Japan. Japan is the only country that maintains the tradition of creating Literary Chinese poetry based on Tang-era tone patterns . Chinese characters are not phonetic and rarely reflect later sound changes in words. Efforts to reconstruct Old Chinese pronunciation began relatively recently. Literary Chinese

1652-628: The Yellow River would be reestablished via the low pass to the east used by highway S310. 18,000 years ago, just after the end of the Last Glacial Maximum , the lake level of Lake Qinghai was around 30 metres lower than today. Between 15,600 and 10,700 years ago, lake levels secularly increased to around 10 metres lower than the present lake level, after which they declined slightly until around 9,200 years ago, when they began to rise again. Around 5,900 years ago, lake levels reached

1711-772: The extremely laconic style. Presently, pure Literary Chinese is occasionally used in formal or ceremonial contexts. For example, the National Anthem of the Republic of China is in Literary Chinese. Buddhist texts in Literary Chinese are still preserved from the time they were composed or translated from Sanskrit. In practice there is a socially accepted continuum between vernacular and Literary Chinese. For example, most official notices and formal letters use stock literary expressions within vernacular prose. Personal use of Classical phrases depends on factors such as

1770-412: The government. The Kuomintang Hui general Ma Bufang , having invited Kazakh Muslims, joined the governor of Qinghai and other high ranking Qinghai and national government officials in conducting a joint Kokonuur Lake Ceremony to worship the God of the Lake. During the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung and all participants bowed to a Portrait of Kuomintang founder Sun Yat-sen as well as to

1829-470: The grass around it clockwise and its kid anti-clockwise, they will meet only in the night, which shows how big the island is." It is also known as the place to which Gushri Khan and other Khoshut Mongols migrated during the 1620s. The lake is currently circumnavigated by pilgrims, mainly Tibetan Buddhists, especially every Horse Year of the 12-year cycle . Nikolay Przhevalsky estimated it would take about eight days by horse or 15 walking to circumambulate

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1888-632: The historical literary use of Latin in Europe, that of Arabic in Persia , or that of Sanskrit in South and Southeast Asia. However, unlike these examples, written Chinese uses a logography of Chinese characters that are not directly tied to their pronunciation. This lack of a fixed correspondence between writing and reading created a situation where later readings of Classical Chinese texts were able to diverge much further from their originals than occurred in

1947-541: The historical records of all non- Qin states to be burned, along with any literature associated with the Hundred Schools of Thought . The imperial library was destroyed upon the dynasty's collapse in 206 BCE, resulting in a potentially greater loss. Even works from the Classical period that have survived are not known to exist in their original forms, and are attested only in manuscripts copied centuries after their original composition. The " Yiwenzhi " section of

2006-476: The kanji represents a native word such as the reading of 行 in 行く ( iku ) or the reading of both characters in " Osaka " ( 大阪 ), as well as a system that aids Japanese speakers with a Classical word order. As pronunciation in modern varieties is different from Old Chinese as well as other historical forms such as Middle Chinese , characters that once rhymed may not any longer, or vice versa. Poetry and other rhyme-based writing thus becomes less coherent than

2065-516: The lake declined from a mean of 2,057 kilograms per hectare (1,835 lb/acre) to 1,271 kg/ha (1,134 lb/acre) in 1987. In 2001, the State Forestry Administration of China launched the "Retire Cropland, Restore Grasslands" ( 退耕，还草 ) campaign and started confiscating Tibetan and Mongol pastoralists' guns to preserve the endangered Przewalski's gazelle . Prior to the 1960s, 108 freshwater rivers emptied into

2124-411: The lake, but pilgrims report it takes about 18 days on horseback, and one took 23 days walking to complete the circuit. Classical Chinese Classical Chinese is the language in which the classics of Chinese literature were written, from c.  the 5th century BCE . For millennia thereafter, the written Chinese used in these works was imitated and iterated upon by scholars in

2183-678: The lake, the Qing maintained an administrative division from the time of Güshi Khan between the Dalai Lama's western realm (slightly smaller than the current Tibet Autonomous Region ) and the Tibetan-inhabited areas in the east. Yongzheng also sent Manchu and Han settlers to dilute the Mongols. During Nationalist rule (1928–1949), the Han formed a majority of Qinghai Province's residents, although Chinese Muslims ( Hui ) dominated

2242-459: The lake. As of 2003, 85% of the river mouths have dried up, including the lake's largest tributary, the Buha River. In between 1959 and 1982, there had been an annual water level drop of 10 centimeters (3.9 in), which was reversed at a rate of 10 cm/year (3.9 in/year) between 1983 and 1989, but has continued to drop since. The Chinese Academy of Sciences reported in 1998 the lake

2301-412: The later forms of written Chinese in conscious imitation of the classics, with sinologists generally emphasizing distinctions such as the gradual addition of new vocabulary and the erosion of certain points of Classical grammar as their functions were forgotten. Literary Chinese was used in almost all formal and personal writing in China from the end of the Han dynasty until the early 20th century, when it

2360-565: The laws of Taiwan are still written in a subset of Literary Chinese. As a result, it is necessary for modern Taiwanese lawyers to learn at least a subset of the literary language. Many works of literature in Classical and Literary Chinese have been highly influential in Chinese culture, such as the canon of Tang poetry . However, even with knowledge of its grammar and vocabulary, works in Literary Chinese can be difficult for native vernacular speakers to understand, due to its frequent allusions and references to other historical literature, as well as

2419-520: The literary revolution in China that began with the 1919 May Fourth Movement , prominent examples of vernacular Chinese literature include the 18th-century novel Dream of the Red Chamber . Most government documents in the Republic of China were written in Literary Chinese until reforms spearheaded by President Yen Chia-kan in the 1970s to shift to written vernacular Chinese. However, most of

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2478-554: The local ruling class during the standardization of western Chinese toponyms in the Qing dynasty . Similar use of the Chinese word for "sea" to translate Mongolian lake toponyms can be seen elsewhere around Qinghai, as with Lake Heihai ("Black Sea") in the Kunlun Mountains . The Tibetans also separately calqued the name as Mtsho-sngon-po or Tso ngönpo ( མཚོ ་ སྔོན་པོ ་ , "Blue Lake or Sea"). Qinghai Lake lies about 100 kilometers (62 mi) west of Xining in

2537-437: The north; Shadao Lake (沙岛, Shādǎo ), covering an area of 19.6 km (7.6 sq mi) to the northeast, followed in the 1980s, along with Haiyan Lake (海晏, Hǎiyàn ) of 112.5 km (43.4 sq mi). Another 96.7 km (37.3 sq mi) daughter lake split off in 2004. In addition, the lake has now split into half a dozen more small lakes at the border. Qinghai Provincial Remote Sensing Center, attributed

2596-546: The original reading must have been. However, some modern Chinese varieties have certain phonological characteristics that are closer to the older pronunciations than others, as shown by the preservation of certain rhyme structures. Another particular characteristic of Literary Chinese is its present homophony . Reading Classical texts with character pronunciations from modern languages results in many homophonous characters that originally had distinct Old Chinese pronunciations, but have since merged to varying degrees. This phenomenon

2655-533: The other literary traditions, adding a unique dimension to the study of Literary Chinese. Literary Chinese was adopted in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature states that this adoption came mainly from diplomatic and cultural ties with China, while conquest, colonization, and migration played smaller roles. Unlike Latin and Sanskrit, historical Chinese language theory consisted almost exclusively of lexicography , as opposed to

2714-412: The school curriculum is taught primarily by presenting a literary work and including a vernacular gloss that explains the meaning of phrases. The examinations usually require the student to read a paragraph in Literary Chinese and then explain its meaning in the vernacular. Contemporary use of Literary Chinese in Japan is mainly in the field of education and the study of literature. Learning kanbun ,

2773-400: The separation of Qinghai Lake to shrinkage of the water surface as a result of a lowered water level and desertification in the region. The water surface has shrunk by 312 km (120 sq mi) over the last three decades. The lake is located at the crossroads of several bird migration routes across Asia. Many species use Qinghai as an intermediate stop during migration. As such, it

2832-481: The sky and fresh grass, but now uses xöx specifically for deep or dark blue distinguished both from light blue ( цэнхэр , tsenher ) and green ( ногоон , nogoon ). Classical Mongolian also did not distinguish between lakes and larger bodies of water. The Chinese name, using "sea" rather than "lake," is thus an overly literal calque of this name, used by the Upper Mongols , some of whom made up

2891-515: The study of grammar and syntax. Such approaches largely arrived with Europeans beginning in the 17th century. Christian missionaries later coined the term 文理 ( wénlǐ ; 'principles of literature', 'bookish language') to describe Classical Chinese; this term never became widely used among domestic speakers. According to the traditional " burning of books and burying of scholars " account, in 213 BCE Qin Shi Huang ordered

2950-445: The subject matter and the level of education of the writer. Excepting professional scholars and enthusiasts, most modern writers cannot easily write in Literary Chinese. Even so, most Chinese people with at least a middle school education are able to read basic Literary Chinese, because this ability is part of the Chinese middle school and high school curricula, and is a component of the college entrance examination. Literary Chinese in

3009-544: The time political intrigue in China had forced the troops to withdraw, the king had died, leaving behind two sons, Doje Senkel and Djembel Rinch'en. The former of these enjoyed the support of the Chinese, but the latter, who may have been illegitimate, had backers in Chantui. The two struggled over the throne until 1908, when Doje Senkel appealed for assistance to the Chinese General Chao Eh-Feng, who

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3068-452: The title. The former names Chinghai , Ch'ing-hai , or Ch'inghai Lake are based on the Wade–Giles romanisation of the same Chinese name. Qinghai Lake is also known as Koko Nor from its Classical Mongolian name ᠬᠥᠬᠡ ᠨᠠᠭᠤᠷ . The modern Mongolian form of the same name is Höhnuur ( Хөхнуур ). Similar to Chinese, Classical Mongolian used ᠬᠥᠬᠡ inclusive of both the color of

3127-676: The two extremes of pronunciation: that according to a prescribed system, versus that based on everyday speech. Mandarin and Cantonese, for example, also have words that are pronounced one way in colloquial usage and another way when used in Literary Chinese or in specialized terms coming from Literary Chinese, though the system is not as extensive as that of Min or Wu . Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese readers of Literary Chinese each use distinct systems of pronunciation specific to their own languages. Japanese speakers have readings of Chinese origin called on'yomi for many words, such as for "ginko" ( 銀行 ) or "Tokyo" ( 東京 ), but use kun'yomi when

3186-662: Was a "single" color inclusive of both blue and green as separate shades . The name is thus variously translated as "Blue Sea", "Green Sea", "Blue-Green Sea", "Blue/Green Sea", etc. For a time after its wars with the Xiongnu , Han China connected the lake with the legendary "Western Sea" assumed to balance the East China Sea , but as the Han Empire expanded further west into the Tarim Basin other lakes assumed

3245-407: Was again threatened with loss of surface area due to livestock over-grazing, land reclamations, and natural causes. Surface area decreased 11.7% in the period from 1908 to 2000. During that period, higher lake floor areas were exposed and numerous water bodies separated from the rest of the main lake. In the 1960s, the 48.9-square-kilometer (18.9 sq mi) Gahai Lake (尕海, Gǎhǎi ) appeared in

3304-562: Was built on the site. 31°49′N 98°40′E  /  31.817°N 98.667°E  / 31.817; 98.667 Qinghai Lake Qinghai Lake is the largest lake in China . Located in an endorheic basin in Qinghai Province , to which it gave its name, Qinghai Lake is classified as an alkaline salt lake . The lake has fluctuated in size, shrinking over much of the 20th century but increasing since 2004. It had

3363-522: Was known for her support of the Nyingma school and for commissioning the printing its texts, including The Collected Tantras of the Nyingma . Degé became the capital of the kingdom in the 15th century under the reign of Lodro Tobden, the 31st in the line of the Derge kings. It was he who invited Thang Tong Gyalpo to establish the now renowned Gongchen Monastery in the region. The kingdom expanded during

3422-607: Was largely replaced by written vernacular Chinese . A distinct, narrower definition of the Classical period begins with the life of Confucius (551–479 BCE) and ends with the founding of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE. The adoption of Chinese literary culture in the Sinosphere amid the existence of various regional vernaculars is an example of diglossia . The coexistence of Literary Chinese and native languages throughout China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam can be compared to

3481-533: Was on military campaign in the area to secure the political primacy of China. Djembel Rinch'en was driven to take sanctuary with the Dalai Lama , Thubten Gyatso ; Doje Senkel yielded the kingdom to China in exchange for an allowance. The Chinese retained direct control of Derge until 1918. The palace of the Derge kings, located next to the Parkhang Monastery , was demolished after 1950 and a school

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