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102-452: The desert monastic communities that grew out of the informal gathering of hermit monks became the model for Christian monasticism , first influencing the Coptic communities these monks were a part of and preached to. Some were monophysites or believed in a similar idea. The eastern monastic tradition at Mount Athos and the western Rule of St. Benedict both were strongly influenced by

204-490: A center of monastic culture and learning, and many later monks and bishops would pass through Lérins in the early stages of their career. Honoratus was called to be Bishop of Arles . John Cassian began his monastic career at a monastery in Palestine and Egypt around 385 to study monastic practice there. In Egypt, he had been attracted to the isolated life of hermits, which he considered the highest form of monasticism, yet

306-561: A discourse collected in the Philokalia on Abba Philimon, a Desert Father. Hesychast prayer was a meditative practice that was traditionally done in silence and with eyes closed—"empty of mental pictures" and visual concepts, but with the intense consciousness of God's presence. The words hesychast and hesychia were frequently used in 4th and 5th century writings of Desert Fathers such as Macarius of Egypt , Evagrius Ponticus , and Gregory of Nyssa . The title hesychast

408-568: A hermit in a cave near Subiaco, Italy. He was asked to be head over several monks who wished to change to the monastic style of Pachomius by living in the community. Between the years 530 and 560, he wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict as a guideline for monks living in community. Scholars such as Lester K. Little attribute the rise of monasticism at this time to the immense changes in the church brought about by Constantine 's legalization of Christianity. The subsequent transformation of Christianity into

510-541: A house for carpenters, a house for agriculturists, and so forth. But other principles of division seem to have been employed, e.g., there was a house for the Greeks. On Saturdays and Sundays, all the monks assembled in the church for Mass; on other days the Office and other spiritual exercises were celebrated in the houses. From a secular point of view, a monastery was an industrial community in which almost every kind of trade

612-688: A lay condition—monks depended on a local parish church for the sacraments . However, if the monastery was isolated in the desert, as were many of the Egyptian examples, that inconvenience compelled monasteries either to take in priest members, to have their abbot or other members ordained. A priest-monk is sometimes called a hieromonk . In many cases in Eastern Orthodoxy , when a bishopric needed to be filled, they would look to nearby monasteries to find suitable candidates, being good sources of men who were spiritually mature and generally possessing

714-495: A love for learning. Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom". Women's communities were normally much smaller and poorer. The nuns had to do everything themselves unless they had a couple of tenant-farmers to supply food, or pious who made donations. They spun and wove, kept their huts clean, milked their cows, and made their own meals, which could be meager. Apophthegmata Patrum The Sayings of

816-400: A more formal structure, established a monastery with rules and organization. His regulations included discipline, obedience, manual labour, silence, fasting, and long periods of prayer—some historians view the rules as being inspired by Pachomius' experiences as a Roman soldier. The first fully organized monastery with Pachomius included men and women living in separate quarters, up to three in

918-504: A profound evangelical and theological basis. At the time of his conversion in Milan in the years 386–387, Augustine was aware of the life of Saint Anthony in the desert of Egypt. Upon his return to Africa as a Christian in the year 388, however, Augustine and a few Christian friends founded at Thagaste a lay community. They became cenobites in the countryside rather than in the desert. Saint Benedict (c. 480 – 547 AD) lived for many years as

1020-441: A room. They supported themselves by weaving cloth and baskets, along with other tasks. Each new monk or nun had a three-year probationary period, concluding with admittance in full standing to the monastery. All property was held communally, meals were eaten together and in silence, twice a week they fasted, and they wore simple peasant clothing with a hood. Several times a day they came together for prayer and readings, and each person

1122-697: A work of such importance that many Orthodox monasteries to this day read it publicly either during the Divine Services or in Trapeza during Great Lent . At the height of the East Roman Empire, numerous great monasteries were established by the emperors, including the twenty "sovereign monasteries" on the Holy Mountain , an actual "monastic republic" wherein the entire country is devoted to bringing souls closer to God. In this milieu,

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1224-640: Is a religious way of life of Christians who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church , modeled upon scriptural examples and ideals, including those in the Old Testament . It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e. g., the Rule of Saint Augustine , Anthony the Great , St Pachomius ,

1326-477: Is also no division between the "active" and "contemplative" life. Orthodox monastic life embraces both active and contemplative aspects. Within the Eastern Orthodox Church , there exist three types of monasticism: eremitic, cenobitic, and the skete . The skete is a very small community, often of two or three ( Matthew 18:20 ), under the direction of an Elder . They pray privately for most of

1428-618: Is among the Russians, for whom it is normally reserved to hermits, or to very advanced monastics. The Schema monk or Schema nun wears the same habit as the Rassophore, but to it is added the Analavos (Church Slavonic: Analav ), a garment shaped like a cross, covering the shoulders and coming down to the knees (or lower) in front and in back. This garment is roughly reminiscent of the scapular worn by some Roman Catholic orders, but it

1530-451: Is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society. The word 'eremitic' comes from the Greek word eremos , which means desert. This name was given because of St. Anthony of Egypt, who left civilization behind to live on a solitary Egyptian mountain in the third century. Though he was probably not the first Christian hermit, he is recognized as such as he was the first known one. Paul

1632-587: Is finely embroidered with the Cross and instruments of the Passion (see illustration, above). The Klobuk worn by a Schema monk is also embroidered with a red cross and other symbols. the Klobuk may be shaped differently, more rounded at the top, in which case it is referred to as a koukoulion . The skufia worn by a Schema monk is also more intricately embroidered. The religious habit worn by Eastern Orthodox monastics

1734-478: Is recorded by Athanasius that Anthony received special privileges from God, such as the ability to heal the sick, inspire others to have faith in healing through God, and even converse with God on occasion. Around this time, desert monasticism appeared nearly simultaneously in several areas, including Egypt and Syria , and some of the Desert Fathers's Coptic traditions also spread to Nubia . Over time,

1836-464: Is the same for both monks and nuns, except that the nuns wear an additional veil, called an apostolnik . The central and unifying feature of Eastern Orthodox monasticism is Hesychasm , the practice of silence, and the concentrated saying of the Jesus Prayer . All ascetic practices and monastic humility is guided towards preparing the heart for theoria or the "divine vision" that comes from

1938-473: The Lausiac History , after the prefect Lausus, to whom it was addressed). Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (whose Life of Saint Anthony the Great set the pattern for monastic hagiography ), Saint Jerome , and other anonymous compilers were also responsible for setting down very influential accounts. Also of great importance are the writings surrounding the communities founded by Saint Pachomius,

2040-686: The Alphabetic Sayings , the Systematic Sayings , and the Anonymous Sayings . The sections of the Anonymous Sayings (Wortley 2013) are: Wortley's Greek text of the Anonymous Sayings is based on the following manuscripts. The Alphabetical Sayings (Ward 1984) list the sayings of 131 Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers. Although some of the Desert Fathers quoted in the collection are well known, other names are obscure and difficult to identify. The 20 chapters of

2142-552: The Methodist Revival in England are seen by modern scholars as being influenced by the Desert Fathers. Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit monk to go to the desert, but it was Anthony the Great who launched the movement that became the Desert Fathers. Sometime around AD 270, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of one's possessions, giving

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2244-530: The Philokalia was compiled. As the Great Schism between East and West grew, conflict arose over misunderstandings about Hesychasm . Saint Gregory Palamas , bishop of Thessalonica , an experienced Athonite monk, defended Eastern Orthodox spirituality against the critiques of Barlaam of Calabria , and left numerous important works on the spiritual life. Christian monasticism was and continued to be

2346-613: The Rule of St Basil , the Rule of St Benedict ) and, in modern times, the Canon law of the respective Christian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms monks (men) and nuns (women). The word monk originated from the Greek μοναχός ( monachos , 'monk'), itself from μόνος ( monos ) meaning 'alone'. Christian monks did not live in monasteries at first; rather, they began by living alone as solitaries , as

2448-658: The Sahidic and Bohairic dialects of Coptic, but they represent back-translations from Greek. They were collected and published by Marius Chaîne . The Sayings have been translated in whole or in part several times. Pelagius and John the Deacon made the first translations into Latin . Martin of Braga also translated some of the Sayings into Latin, followed by a more extensive translation by Paschasius of Dumium in approximately 555. That work may contain only one fifth of

2550-636: The Systematic Collection began to emerge a century later ( c.  500 AD ) and features sayings from the Alphabetic Collection and the Anonymous Sayings , combined and systematically ordered under twenty-one chapters. This collection contains about 1200 items and therefore does not completely combine the two older collections. The various collections of sayings often overlap. A partial list of Desert Fathers: Christian monasticism Christian monasticism

2652-599: The eremitical or secluded, (b) the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first and St. Pachomius of the second. The monastic life is based on Jesus 's amen to "be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect" ( Matthew 5:48). This ideal, also called the state of perfection , can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia , a book of monastic writings. Their manner of self-renunciation has three elements corresponding to

2754-758: The "Vita Antonii" some years later and its translation into Latin spread the knowledge of Egyptian monachism widely and many were found in Italy to imitate the example thus set forth. The first Italian monks aimed at reproducing exactly what was done in Egypt and not a few—such as Saint Jerome , Rufinus , Paula , Eustochium and the two Melanias ( Elder and Younger )—actually went to live in Egypt or Palestine as being better suited to monastic life than Italy. The earliest phases of monasticism in Western Europe involved figures like Martin of Tours , who after serving in

2856-402: The "devout", who usually lived not in the deserts but on the edge of inhabited places, still remaining in the world but practicing asceticism and striving for union with God. In ante-Nicene asceticism, a man would lead a single life, practice long and frequent fasts, abstain from meat and wine, and support himself, if he were able, by some small handicraft, keeping of what he earned only so much as

2958-777: The Christian faith," because monasteries had declined. Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by the respective church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church , the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Anglican Church , or the Lutheran Church ). Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like-minded Christians. Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types: (a)

3060-516: The Desert Fathers ( Latin : Apophthegmata Patrum Aegyptiorum ; Greek : ἀποφθέγματα τῶν πατέρων , romanized :  Apophthégmata tōn Patérōn ) is the name given to various textual collections consisting of stories and sayings attributed to the Desert Fathers from approximately the 5th century AD. The collections consist of wisdom stories describing the spiritual practices and experiences of early Christian hermits living in

3162-414: The Desert Fathers' lives. The lives of the Desert Fathers that were organized into communities included frequent recitation of the scriptures—during the week they chanted psalms while performing manual labour and during the weekends they held liturgies and group services. The monk's experience in the cell occurred in a variety of ways, including meditation on scripture. Group practices were more prominent in

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3264-684: The Desert Fathers: The Alphabetical Collection ). This collection contains about a thousand items. The same editors also recognised a number of anonymous sayings and tales of the Desert Fathers and Mothers that were popularly circulated. This material was gathered into a collection now known as the Anonymous Patrum Apophthegmata ( Anonymous Sayings of the Desert Fathers ). These sayings were loosely ordered by subject (for instance: humility, charity etc.). The collection now known as

3366-551: The East from the hermits living in the deserts of Egypt to Palestine, Syria, and on up into Asia Minor and beyond, the sayings ( apophthegmata ) and acts ( praxeis ) of the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers came to be recorded and circulated, first among their fellow monastics and then among the laity as well. Among these earliest recorded accounts was the Paradise, by Palladius of Galatia , Bishop of Helenopolis (also known as

3468-578: The Great , Abba Amoun the Hermit and Abba Moses the Black . The sayings also include those of three different ammas , most notably Syncletica of Alexandria . Sayings of the Desert Fathers influenced many notable theologians, including Saint Jerome and Saint Augustine . The Desert Fathers spoke Coptic , the latest stage of ancient Egyptian . The sayings were originally passed on orally in Coptic, but

3570-463: The Great , Poemen , Macarius of Egypt , Moses the Black , and Syncletica of Alexandria . Other notable Desert Fathers include Jerome , Pachomius , Abba Or , and Shenouda the Archimandrite , and many individuals who spent part of their lives in the Egyptian desert, including Athanasius of Alexandria , John Chrysostom , Evagrius Ponticus , and Hilarion . John Cassian 's works brought

3672-591: The Hegumen may at his discretion clothe the candidate as a novice . There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice; he (or she) would simply be given the Podraznik , belt and skoufos . After a period of about three years, the Hegumen may at his discretion tonsure the novice as a Rassophore monk, giving him the outer garment called the Rassa (Greek: Rason ). A monk (or nun) may remain in this grade all

3774-473: The Hermit is the first Christian historically known to have been living as a monk. In the 3rd century, Anthony of Egypt (252–356) lived as a hermit in the desert and gradually gained followers who lived as hermits nearby but not in actual community with him. This type of monasticism is called eremitical or "hermit-like". Another option for becoming a solitary monastic was to become an anchoress/anchorite. This began because there were persons who wanted to live

3876-558: The Roman legions converted to Christianity and established a hermitage near Milan , then moved on to Poitiers where a community gathered around his hermitage. He was called to become Bishop of Tours in 372, where he established a monastery at Marmoutier on the opposite bank of the Loire , a few miles upstream from the city. His cell was a hut of wood, and round it his disciples, who soon numbered eighty, dwelt in caves and huts. His monastery

3978-407: The alphabetical "apophthegmata" into English is that of Benedicta Ward (1975). English translations of the alphabetical, systematic, and anonymous collections were also later published by John Wortley from 2012 to 2014. The most comprehensive critical edition of the alphabetical "apophthegmata" was published by Tim Vivian in two volumes (2021, 2023). Different Sayings collections include

4080-402: The community and the responsibility of looking after each other's welfare. The new approach grew to the point that there were tens of thousands of monks and nuns in these organized communities within decades of Pachomius' death. One of the early pilgrims to the desert was Basil of Caesarea , who took the Rule of Pachomius into the eastern church. Basil expanded the idea of community by integrating

4182-447: The desert formed an alternate Christian society, at a time when it was no longer a risk to be a Christian. The solitude, austerity, and sacrifice of the desert was seen by Anthony as an alternative to martyrdom, which was formerly seen by many Christians as the highest form of sacrifice. Anthony quickly gained followers eager to live their lives in accordance with this solidarity and separation from material goods. From these prohibitions, it

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4284-486: The desert of Egypt. They are typically in the form of a conversation between a younger monk and his spiritual father, or as advice given to visitors. Beginning as an oral tradition in the Coptic language , they were only later written down as Greek text. The stories were extremely popular among early Christian monks , and appeared in various forms and collections. The original sayings were passed down from monk to monk, though in their current version most simply describe

4386-470: The desert, before his public ministry. Another monastic precedent in Bible would be Nazirites as they practiced tonsure, followed a certain diet as a form of fasting, lived consecrated lives and they followed a certain practice concerning hygiene. However, case of Nazirites is usually defined as a form of a historical Jewish vow or oath instead of being a direct precedent of monastic orders because of

4488-401: The desert, mostly men but also a handful of women. Religious seekers also began going to the desert seeking advice and counsel from the early Desert Fathers. By the time of Anthony's death, there were so many men and women living in the desert that it was described as "a city" by Anthony's biographer. The Desert Fathers advocated three main approaches to monasticism. One was the austere life of

4590-514: The early monastic development in the Byzantine world and eventually in the western Christian world. John Cassian played an important role in mediating the influence of the Desert Fathers to the West. This can be seen, for example, in the Rule of Saint Benedict , where Benedict of Nursia urged his monks to read the writings of John Cassian on the Desert Fathers. The Sayings of the Desert Fathers

4692-534: The early transmission (6th to 7th century AD) as well as a fragmentary version for the later period (ca. 10th to 11th century AD), originating from or still housed at the Monastery of St Catherine , Mount Sinai There are also Armenian translations of both the Alphabetical and Systematic collections. In the period 867–872, Methodius of Thessaloniki translated the text into Old Church Slavonic , of which

4794-491: The father of cenobiticism , and his disciple Saint Theodore, the founder of the skete form of monasticism. Among the first to set forth precepts for the monastic life was Saint Basil the Great , a man from a professional family who was educated in Caesarea , Constantinople , and Athens . Saint Basil visited colonies of hermits in Palestine and Egypt but was most strongly impressed by the organized communities developed under

4896-573: The first Celtic monasteries were merely settlements where the Christians lived together—priests and laity, men, women, and children alike—as a kind of religious clan. According to James F. Kenney, every important church was a monastic establishment, with a small walled village of monks and nuns living under ecclesiastical discipline, and ministering to the people of the surrounding area. Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality

4998-423: The foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions..." Monastics generally dwell in a monastery , whether they live there in a community ( cenobites ), or in seclusion ( recluses ). The basic idea of monasticism in all its varieties is seclusion or withdrawal from the world or society. Monastic life is distinct from the "religious orders" such as the friars , canons regular , clerks regular , and

5100-628: The fourteenth century Byzantine meditative prayer techniques, when it was more closely identified with the Prayer of the Heart , or "Jesus Prayer". The prayer's origin is also traced back to the Desert Fathers—the Prayer of the Heart was found inscribed in the ruins of a cell from that period in the Egyptian desert. The earliest written reference to the practice of the Prayer of the Heart may be in

5202-605: The guidance of Saint Pachomius. Saint Basil's ascetical writings set forth standards for well-disciplined community life and offered lessons in what became the ideal monastic virtue: humility. Saint Basil wrote a series of guides for monastic life (the Lesser Asketikon the Greater Asketikon the Morals , etc.) which, while not "Rules" in the legalistic sense of later Western rules, provided firm indications of

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5304-615: The hermit, as practiced by Anthony and his followers in lower Egypt. Another was the cenobitic life, communities of monks and nuns in upper Egypt formed by Pachomius . The third was a semi-hermitic lifestyle seen mostly in Nitria , Kellia and Scetis , west of the Nile, begun by Saint Amun . The latter were small groups (two to six) of monks and nuns with a common spiritual elder—these separate groups would join in larger gatherings to worship on Saturdays and Sundays. This third form of monasticism

5406-415: The historical context concerning Israelites and the importance of private rituals concerning vow making in historical Israelite religion . Early Christian ascetics have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century. There were also individual ascetics, known as

5508-669: The importance of a single community of monks, living under the same roof, and under the guidance—and even discipline—of a strong abbot. His teachings set the model for Greek and Russian monasticism but had less influence in the Latin West. Of great importance to the development of monasticism is the Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt . Here the Ladder of Divine Ascent was written by Saint John Climacus (c.600),

5610-456: The initial letter of the Abba's name in the order of the Greek alphabet, resulting in the editors starting with Anthony the Great, Arsenius and Agathon, and concluding with Cheremon, Psenthaisius and Or. These editors were the first to use the word apophthegms (meaning: saying, maxim or aphorism ), resulting in this collection being known as Apophthegmata Patrum Alphabetica ( The Sayings of

5712-576: The liturgical tradition of the church. Fasting , Hesychasm, and the pursuit of the spiritual life are strongly encouraged not only among monastics but also among the laity. There are also three levels of monks: the Rassophore , the Stavrophore , and the Schema-Monk (or Schema-Nun). Each of the three degrees represents an increased level of asceticism. In the early days of monasticism, there

5814-500: The main Roman religion ended the position of Christians as a minority sect. In response, a new form of dedication was developed. The long-term "martyrdom" of the ascetic replaced the violent physical martyrdom of the persecutions . In the early church, there were also opponents of Monasticism, among the first opponents to Monasticism were Helvidius , Jovinian , Vigilantius and Aerius of Sebaste . Most of them were attacked by Jerome who defended monastic and ascetic ideas. Jovinian

5916-495: The model of Anthony and other hermits attracted many followers, who lived alone in the desert or in small groups. They chose a life of extreme asceticism , renouncing all the pleasures of the senses, rich food, baths, rest, and anything that made them comfortable. They instead focused their energies on praying, singing psalms, fasting, giving alms to the needy, and preserving love and harmony with one another while keeping their thoughts and desires for God alone. Thousands joined them in

6018-420: The monasteries he founded were all organized monastic communities. About 415 he established two monasteries near Marseilles , one for men, one for women. In time these attracted a total of 5,000 monks and nuns. Most significant for the future development of monasticism were Cassian's Institutes , which provided a guide for monastic life and his Conferences , a collection of spiritual reflections. It seems that

6120-596: The monastic ideal of St. Anthony. They lived by themselves, gathering together for common worship on Saturdays and Sundays only. In 346 in Egypt, St Pachomius established the first cenobitic Christian monastery. At Tabenna in Upper Egypt , sometime around 323 AD, Pachomius decided to mold his disciples into a more organized community in which the monks lived in individual huts or rooms ( cellula in Latin ,) but worked, ate, and worshipped in shared space. The intention

6222-599: The monastic is given a cross to wear at all times. This cross is called a Paramand—a wooden cross attached by ribbons to a square cloth embroidered with the Instruments of the Passion and the words, "I bear upon my body the marks of the Lord Jesus" ( Galatians 6:17 ). The Paramand is so-called because it is worn under the Mantle (Greek: Mandyas ; Church Slavonic : Mantya ), which is a long cape which completely covers

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6324-467: The monk from neck to foot. Among the Russians, Stavrophores are also informally referred to as "mantle monks". At his Tonsure, a Stavrophore is given a wooden hand cross and a lit candle, as well as a prayer rope. The highest rank of monasticism is the Great Schema (Greek: Megaloschemos ; Church Slavonic: Schimnik ). Attaining the level of Schema monk is much more common among the Greeks than it

6426-407: The monks and nuns into the wider public community, with the monks and nuns under the authority of a bishop and serving the poor and needy. As more pilgrims began visiting the monks in the desert, influence from the monastic communities began spreading. Latin versions of the original Greek stories and sayings of the Desert Fathers, along with the earliest monastic rules coming out of the desert, guided

6528-456: The more recent religious congregations . The latter has essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc., which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labors of the most varied character, in every case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state. Monks and friars are two distinct roles. In the thirteenth century "...new orders of friars were founded to teach

6630-400: The organized communities formed by Pachomius. The purpose of these practices were explained by John Cassian , a Desert Father, who described the goal of psalmody (the outward recitation of scripture) and asceticism as the ascent to deep mystical prayer and mystical contemplation. There are many different collections of sayings of the Desert Fathers. The earliest writings were simply ordered by

6732-829: The original Greek text. In the 17th century, the Dutch Jesuit Heribert Rosweyde compiled and translated all the available sources on the Desert Fathers and published them in Latin as the Vitae patrum . Two translations in Aramaic were made: the Nestorian monk Ânân Îshô 's translation into Classical Syriac from the early 7th century, known as the Paradise of the Fathers ; and a Christian Palestinian Aramaic translation known from dispersed fragments for

6834-418: The original was lost in the 14th century, but several dozen copies of the Paterik' ( Патерікъ ) survived. Some of the Sayings are preserved in Arabic and Georgian translations. Through the Asceticon , some of the Sayings made their way into Sogdian . Helen Waddell translated a selection of elements from the Vitae patrum into English in the early 20th century. The first complete translation of

6936-401: The original written version was Greek . The earliest written record of the sayings appears to be from the end of the 4th century AD. Two versions from the 5th century, the Collectio Monastica , written in Ethiopic , and the Asceticon of Isaiah of Scetis , written in Greek, show how the oral tradition became the written collections. There are surviving fragments of the Sayings in both

7038-405: The other qualities desired in a bishop. Eventually, among the Eastern Orthodox Churches, it became established by canon law that all bishops must be monks. Monastic centers thrive to this day in Bulgaria , Ethiopia , Georgia , Greece , North Macedonia , Russia , Romania , Serbia , the Holy Land , and elsewhere in the Orthodox world, the Autonomous Monastic State of Mount Athos remaining

7140-427: The period, as an individual response to the monastic impulse by someone who had experienced monasticism and then went off to establish either a hermitage to which others later came or a cenobitic community." The monasteries were organized on a family basis. Next in importance to the abbot was the scribe, in charge of the scriptorium, the teaching function of the monastery, and the keeping of the annals. The role of scribe

7242-456: The proceeds to the poor, and following Jesus. He followed the advice and made the further step of moving deep into the desert to seek complete solitude. Anthony lived in a time of transition for Christianity—the Diocletianic Persecution in AD 303 was the last great formal persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire . Only ten years later, Christianity was made legal in Egypt by Diocletian 's successor Constantine I . Those who left for

7344-584: The rest of his life, if he so chooses. But the Rite of Tonsure for the Rassophore refers to the grade as that of the "Beginner", so it is intended that the monk will advance on to the next level. The Rassophore is also given a klobuk which he wears in church and on formal occasions. In addition, Rassophores will be given a prayer rope at their tonsure. The next rank, Stavrophore , is the grade that most Russian monks remain all their lives. The title Stavrophore means "cross-bearer" because when Tonsured into this grade

7446-399: The rest to the poor. When members of the church began finding ways to work with the Roman state, the Desert Fathers saw that as a compromise between "the things of God and the things of Caesar." The monastic communities were essentially an alternate Christian society. The hermits doubted that religion and politics could ever produce a truly Christian society. For them, the only Christian society

7548-480: The solitary lifestyle but were not able to live alone in the wild. Thus, they would go to the bishop for permission who would then perform the rite of enclosure. After this was completed, the anchoress would live alone in a room that typically had a window that opened into a church so they could receive communion and participate in church services. There were two other windows that allowed food to be passed in and people to come to seek advice. The most well-known anchoress

7650-667: The spiritual center of monasticism for the Eastern Orthodox Church. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain , a great renaissance of monasticism has occurred, and many previously empty or destroyed monastic communities have been reopened. Monasticism continues to be very influential in the Eastern Orthodox Church. According to the Sacred Canons , all Bishops must be monks (not merely celibate), and feast days to Glorified monastic saints are an important part of

7752-403: The stories from that time recount the struggle to overcome negative emotions such as anger and judgment of others. Helping a brother monk who was ill or struggling was seen as taking priority over any other consideration. Hermits were frequently seen to break a long fast when hosting visitors, as hospitality and kindness were more important than keeping the ascetic practices that were so dominant in

7854-440: The stories in the form of "Abba X said ..." The early Desert Fathers also received many visitors seeking counseling, typically by asking "Give me a word, abba " or "Speak a word, abba , how can I be saved?" Some of the sayings are responses to those seeking guidance. Many notable Desert Fathers are mentioned in the collections, including Anthony the Great , Abba Arsenius , Abba Poemen , Abba Macarius of Egypt , Abba Pachomius

7956-683: The three evangelical counsels : poverty , chastity and obedience . First-century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism. Early Christian monasticism drew its inspiration from the examples of the Prophet Elijah and John the Baptist , who both lived alone in the desert, and above all from the story of Jesus' time in solitary struggle with Satan in

8058-674: The time he died in 346 there were thought to be 3,000 such communities dotting Egypt, especially in the Thebaid . From there monasticism quickly spread out first to Palestine and the Judean Desert , Syria , North Africa and eventually the rest of the Roman Empire . In 370 Basil the Great, monastic founder in Cappadocia, became bishop of Caesarea and wrote principles of ascetic life. Eastern monastic teachings were brought to

8160-691: The traditions that began in the desert. All of the monastic revivals of the Middle Ages looked to the desert for inspiration and guidance. Much of Eastern Christian spirituality, including the Hesychast movement, has its roots in the practices of the Desert Fathers. Even religious renewals such as the German evangelicals and Pietists in Pennsylvania, the Devotio Moderna movement, and

8262-404: The union of the soul with God. Such a union is not accomplished by any human activity. All an ascetic can do is prepare the ground; it is for God to cause the seed to grow and bear fruit. The introduction of monasticism into the West may be dated from about A.D. 340 when St. Athanasius visited Rome accompanied by the two Egyptian monks Ammon and Isidore, disciples of St. Anthony. The publication of

8364-482: The week, then come together on Sundays and Feast Days for communal prayer, thus combining aspects of both eremitic and coenobitic monasticism. Even before Saint Anthony the Great (the "father of monasticism") went out into the desert, there were Christians who devoted their lives to ascetic discipline and striving to lead an evangelical life (i.e., in accordance with the teachings of the Gospel). As monasticism spread in

8466-580: The western church by Saint John Cassian (c. 360 – c. 435). As a young adult, he and his friend Germanus entered a monastery in Palestine but then journeyed to Egypt to visit the eremitic groups in Nitria. Many years later, Cassian founded a monastery of monks and probably also one of nuns near Marseilles. He wrote two long works, the Institutes and Conferences . In these books, he not only transmitted his Egyptian experience but also gave Christian monasticism

8568-413: The wide disparity of dates for the sayings attributed to Abba Poemen, some scholars believe that "Poemen" was a generic name for a combination of different unnamed Abbas. Others conclude that the sayings attributed to Abba Poemen are accurate, based on a notable and historical Abba Poemen. Among the notable Desert Fathers and Mothers with sayings in the book, in addition to Anthony the Great , were Arsenius

8670-473: The wisdom of the Desert Fathers into a wider arena. The legalization of Christianity by the Roman Empire in 313 gave Anthony a greater resolve to go out into the desert. Nostalgic for the tradition of martyrdom, he saw withdrawal and asceticism as an alternative. He insisted on selling all his material possessions—he left his younger sister a small amount of money to live her life in a convent, and donated

8772-468: The word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together and model themselves after the original monks nearby. Quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life. According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, "By creating an alternate social structure within the Church they laid

8874-586: The word for "Father"—in Syriac , Abba ; in English, " Abbot ". Guidelines for daily life were created, and separate monasteries were created for men and women. St Pachomius introduced a monastic Rule of cenobitic life, giving everyone the same food and attire. The monks of the monastery fulfilled the obediences assigned them for the common good of the monastery. Among the various obediences was copying books. St Pachomius considered that an obedience fulfilled with zeal

8976-496: Was Julian of Norwich who was born in England in 1342. While the earliest Desert Fathers lived as hermits, they were rarely completely isolated, but often lived in proximity to one another, and soon loose-knit communities began to form in such places as the Desert of Nitria and the Desert of Skete. Saint Macarius established individual groups of cells such as those at Kellia , founded in 338. These monks were anchorites, following

9078-414: Was absolutely necessary for his own sustenance, and giving the rest to the poor. An early form of "proto-monasticism" appeared as well in the 3rd century among Syriac Christians through the " Sons of the covenant " movement. Eastern Orthodoxy looks to Basil of Caesarea as a founding monastic legislator, as well to as the example of the Desert Fathers . Eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism,

9180-562: Was also widely read in the early Benedictine monasteries. Many of the monks and nuns developed a reputation for holiness and wisdom, with the small communities following a particularly holy or wise elder, who was their spiritual father ( abba ) or mother ( amma ). The individual Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers are mostly known through The Sayings of the Desert Fathers , which included 1,202 sayings attributed to twenty-seven abbas and three ammas . The greatest number of sayings are attributed to Abba "Poemen", Greek for "shepherd". Because of

9282-439: Was expected to spend time alone meditating on the scriptures. Programs were created for educating those who came to the monastery unable to read. Pachomius also formalized the establishment of an abba (father) or amma (mother) in charge of the spiritual welfare of their monks and nuns, with the implication that those joining the monastery were also joining a new family. Members also formed smaller groups, with different tasks in

9384-443: Was greater than fasting or prayer. A Pachomian monastery was a collection of buildings surrounded by a wall. The monks were distributed in houses, each house containing about forty monks. There would be thirty to forty houses in a monastery. There was an abbot over each monastery and provosts with subordinate officials over each house. The monks were divided into houses according to the work they were employed in: thus there would be

9486-437: Was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers, with a monastic enclosure surrounding a collection of individual monastic cells. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world. Illtud , David , Gildas , and Deiniol were leading figures in 6th-century Britain. According to Thomas O'Loughlin , "Each monastery should be seen, as with most monasteries of

9588-541: Was laid out as a colony of hermits rather than as a single integrated community. The type of life was simply the Antonian monachism of Egypt. Honoratus of Marseilles was a wealthy Gallo-Roman aristocrat, who after a pilgrimage to Egypt, founded the Monastery of Lérins in 410, on an island lying off the modern city of Cannes . The monastery combined a community with isolated hermitages where older, spiritually-proven monks could live in isolation. Lérins became, in time,

9690-421: Was often a path to the position of abbot. Hereditary right and relationship to the abbot were factors influencing appointment to monastic offices. Buildings would generally have been of wood, wattle, and thatch. Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Celtic monasticism was characterized by a rigorous asceticism and

9792-535: Was only one level—the Great Schema —and even Saint Theodore the Studite argued against the establishment of intermediate grades, but nonetheless the consensus of the church has favored the development of three distinct levels. When a candidate wishes to embrace the monastic life, he will enter the monastery of his choice as a guest and ask to be received by the Hegumen (Abbot). After a period of at least three days

9894-500: Was practised. This, of course, involved much buying and selling, so the monks had ships of their own on the Nile, which conveyed their agricultural produce and manufactured goods to the market and brought back what the monasteries required. From the spiritual point of view, the Pachomian monk was a religious living under a rule. The community of Pachomius was so successful he was called upon to help organize others, and by one count by

9996-479: Was responsible for most of the sayings that were compiled as the Apophthegmata Patrum ( Sayings of the Desert Fathers ). The small communities founded by the Desert Fathers were the beginning of Christian monasticism . Initially Anthony and others lived as hermits, sometimes forming groups of two or three. Small informal communities began developing, until the monk Pachomius , seeing the need for

10098-401: Was spiritual and not mundane. Hesychasm (from the Greek for "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is a mystical tradition and movement that originated with the Desert Fathers and was central to their practice of prayer. Hesychasm for the Desert Fathers was primarily the practice of "interior silence and continual prayer." It did not become a formal movement of specific practices until

10200-497: Was the most influential opponent of monasticism, he wrote a work in the year 390, which is now lost, which attacked monasticism and its ethical principles. Monasticism was also opposed by some Arians . Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as in the West, so there are no formal Monastic Rules ( Regulae ); rather, each monk and nun is encouraged to read all of the Holy Fathers and emulate their virtues. There

10302-429: Was to bring together individual ascetics who, although pious, did not, like Saint Anthony, have the physical ability or skills to live a solitary existence in the desert. This method of monastic organization is called cenobitic or "communal". In Catholic theology, this community-based living is considered superior because of the obedience practiced and the accountability offered. The head of a monastery came to be known by

10404-509: Was used in early times synonymously with hermit , as compared to a cenobite who lived in community. Hesychasm can refer to inner or outer stillness, though in The Sayings of the Desert Fathers it referred to inner tranquility. The Desert Fathers gave a great deal of emphasis to living and practicing the teachings of Jesus, much more than theoretical knowledge. Their efforts to live the commandments were not seen as being easy—many of

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