Misplaced Pages

#939060

32-524: Diallo (pronounced jah-loh ; Fula : 𞤔𞤢𞤤𞥆𞤮 , romanized:  Jallo , [dʒalo, ɟalo] ) is a French pronunciation of a Fulani surname of Fula origin (English transcriptions are Jalloh and Jallow ; the Portuguese and Creole transcription is Djaló ). It is one of several common surnames used among the Fula . Notable people with the name include: Fula language It

64-427: A local language in many African countries, such as Mauritania , Guinea-Bissau , Sierra Leone , Togo , CAR , Chad , Sudan , Ethiopia and Somalia , numbering more than 95 million speakers in total. The two sounds / c / and / ɟ / , may be realized as affricate sounds [ tʃ ] and [ dʒ ] . Short / i e o u / vowel sounds can also be realized as [ ɪ ɛ ɔ ʊ ]. There were unsuccessful efforts in

96-484: A nominative case (i.e., used as verb subject) and an accusative or dative case (i.e., used as a verb object) as well as a possessive form. Relative pronouns generally take the same form as the nominative. While there are numerous varieties of Fula, it is typically regarded as a single language. Wilson (1989) states that "travelers over wide distances never find communication impossible," and Ka (1991) concludes that despite its geographic span and dialect variation, Fulfulde

128-630: A noun with its class marker. Classes 1 and 2 can be described as personal classes, classes 3-6 as diminutive classes, classes 7-8 as augmentative classes, and classes 9-25 as neutral classes. It is formed on the basis of McIntosh's 1984 description of Kaceccereere Fulfulde, which the author describes as "essentially the same" as David Arnott 's 1970 description of the noun classes of the Gombe dialect of Fula. Thus, certain examples from Arnott also informed this table. Verbs in Fula are usually classed in three voices : active, middle, and passive. Not every root

160-637: A substratum while Dravidian was displaced). It can also be found in the languages of eastern Siberia , such as Tungusic , as well as northern Mandarin Chinese . In indigenous languages of the Americas , it is found in about half the languages, with no clear geographic or genealogical pattern. It is also found in a few languages of the Caucasus and Sub-Saharan Africa , such as Fulani , and Khoekhoe . It is, of course, possible in any language to express

192-596: A suffix indicates the singular. The exclusive form is used in the singular as the normal word for "I", but the inclusive also occurs in the singular. The distinction is one of discourse : the singular inclusive has been described as the "modesty I" in Tongan. It is often rendered in English as one , but in Samoan, its use has been described as indicating emotional involvement on the part of the speaker. In theory, clusivity of

224-642: A two-by-two grid: In some languages, the three first-person pronouns appear to be unrelated roots. That is the case for Chechen , which has singular со ( so ) , exclusive тхо ( txo ) , and inclusive вай ( vay ) . In others, however, all three are transparently simple compounds, as in Tok Pisin , an English creole spoken in Papua New Guinea , which has singular mi, exclusive mi-pela , and inclusive yu-mi (a compound of mi with yu "you") or yu-mi-pela . However, when only one of

256-559: Is a grammatical distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive " we " and exclusive "we" . Inclusive "we" specifically includes the addressee , while exclusive "we" specifically excludes the addressee; in other words, two (or more) words that both translate to "we", one meaning "you and I, and possibly someone else", the other meaning "me and some other person or persons, but not you". While imagining that this sort of distinction could be made in other persons (particularly

288-604: Is also found in languages of eastern, southern, and southwestern Asia , Americas , and in some creole languages . Some African languages also make the distinction, such as the Fula language . No European language outside the Caucasus makes this distinction grammatically, but some constructions may be semantically inclusive or exclusive. Several Polynesian languages , such as Samoan and Tongan , have clusivity with overt dual and plural suffixes in their pronouns. The lack of

320-443: Is based on verbonominal roots, from which verbal, noun, and modifier words are derived. It uses suffixes (sometimes inaccurately called infixes , as they come between the root and the inflectional ending) to modify meaning. These suffixes often serve the same purposes in Fula that prepositions do in English. The Fula or Fulfulde language is characterized by a robust noun class system, with 24 to 26 noun classes being common across

352-416: Is nonetheless not currently attested. Horst J. Simon provides a deep analysis of second-person clusivity in his 2005 article. He concludes that oft-repeated rumors regarding the existence of second-person clusivity—or indeed, any [+3] pronoun feature beyond simple exclusive we – are ill-founded, and based on erroneous analysis of the data. The inclusive–exclusive distinction occurs nearly universally among

SECTION 10

#1732765875940

384-658: Is spoken as a first language by the Fula people ("Fulani", Fula: Fulɓe ) from the Senegambia region and Guinea to Cameroon , Nigeria , and Sudan and by related groups such as the Toucouleur people in the Senegal River Valley. It is also spoken as a second language by various peoples in the region, such as the Kirdi of northern Cameroon and northeastern Nigeria . Several names are applied to

416-708: Is still fundamentally one language. However, Ethnologue has found that nine different translations are needed to make the Bible comprehensible for most Fula speakers , and it treats these varieties as separate languages. They are listed in the box at the beginning of this article. Fulfulde is an official lingua franca in Guinea , Senegal , Gambia , northeastern Nigeria , Cameroon , Mali , Burkina Faso , Northern Ghana , Southern Niger and Northern Benin (in Borgou Region, where many speakers are bilingual), and

448-509: Is used in all voices. Some middle-voice verbs are reflexive . A common example are verbs from the root - 𞤤𞤮𞥅𞤼 loot- : Another feature of the language is initial consonant mutation between singular and plural forms of nouns and of verbs (except in Pular, no consonant mutation exists in verbs, only in nouns) . A simplified schema is: Fula has inclusive and exclusive first-person plural pronouns. The inclusive pronouns include both

480-448: Is used instead of ɲ. a , aa , b , mb (or nb ), ɓ , c , d , nd , ɗ , e , ee , f , g , ng , h , i , ii , j , nj , k , l , m , n , ŋ , ɲ (ny or ñ ) , o , oo , p , r , s , t , u , uu , w , y , ƴ or ʼy, ʼ The letters q , v , x , z are used in some cases for loan words. Long vowels are written doubled: <aa, ee, ii, oo, uu> The standard Fulfulde alphabet adopted during

512-572: The Arabic script or Ajami since before European colonization by many scholars and learned people including Usman dan Fodio and the early emirs of the northern Nigeria emirates. This continues to a certain degree and notably in some areas like Guinea and Cameroon . Fula also has Arabic loanwords . When written using the Latin script , Fula uses the following additional special "hooked" characters to distinguish meaningfully different sounds in

544-712: The Austronesian languages and the languages of northern Australia , but rarely in the nearby Papuan languages . ( Tok Pisin , an English-Melanesian creole , generally has the inclusive–exclusive distinction, but this varies with the speaker's language background.) It is widespread in India, featuring in the Dravidian and Munda languages , as well as in several Indo-European languages of India such as Oriya , Marathi , Rajasthani , Punjabi , Dakhini , and Gujarati (which either borrowed it from Dravidian or retained it as

576-528: The 1950s and 1960s to create a unique script to write Fulfulde. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, two teenage brothers, Ibrahima and Abdoulaye Barry from the Nzérékoré Region of Guinea, created the Adlam script , which accurately represents all the sounds of Fulani. The script is written from right to left and includes 28 letters with 5 vowels and 23 consonants. Fula has also been written in

608-447: The Fula noun class system and the marking of gender is done with adjectives rather than class markers . Noun classes are marked by suffixes on nouns. These suffixes are the same as the class name, though they are frequently subject to phonological processes, most frequently the dropping of the suffix's initial consonant. The table below illustrates the class name, the semantic property associated with class membership, and an example of

640-550: The Fulfulde dialects. Noun classes in Fula are abstract categories with some classes having semantic attributes that characterize a subset of that class' members, and others being marked by a membership too diverse to warrant any semantic categorization of the class' members. For example, classes are for stringy, long things, and another for big things, another for liquids, a noun class for strong, rigid objects, another for human or humanoid traits etc. Gender does not have any role in

672-1136: The UNESCO-sponsored expert meeting in Bamako in March 1966 is as follows: a, b, mb, ɓ, c, d, nd, ɗ, e, f, g, ng, h, i, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ŋ, ny ( later ɲ or ñ), o, p, r, s, t, u, w, y, ƴ, ʼ. The following is a sample text in Fula of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . The first line is in Adlam, the second in Latin script, the third in IPA. 𞤋𞤲𞥆𞤢𞤥𞤢 Innama /inːama 𞤢𞥄𞤣𞤫𞥅𞤶𞤭 aadeeji aːdeːɟi 𞤬𞤮𞤬 fof fof 𞤨𞤮𞤼𞤭, poti, poti, 𞤲𞤣𞤭𞤥𞤯𞤭𞤣𞤭 ndimɗidi ⁿdimɗidi 𞤫 e e 𞤶𞤭𞤦𞤭𞤲𞤢𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤫 jibinannde ɟibinanⁿde 𞤼𞤮 to to 𞤦𞤢𞤲𞥆𞤺𞤫 Inclusive and exclusive we#Fula language In linguistics , clusivity

SECTION 20

#1732765875940

704-482: The exclusive is the regular word for "I", and the singular form of the inclusive may also occur on its own and then also means "I" but with a connotation of appealing or asking for indulgence. In the Kunama language of Eritrea , the first-person inclusive and exclusive distinction is marked on dual and plural forms of verbs, independent pronouns, and possessive pronouns. Where verbs are inflected for person , as in

736-475: The exclusive, ’oo-be’e , is a separate root. It is not uncommon for two separate words for "I" to pluralize into derived words, which have a clusivity distinction. For example, in Vietnamese , the familiar word for "I" ( ta ) pluralizes to inclusive we ( chúng ta ), and the formal or cold word for "I" ( tôi ) pluralizes into exclusive we ( chúng tôi ). In Samoan , the singular form of

768-460: The idea of clusivity semantically, and many languages provide common forms that clarify the ambiguity of their first person pronoun (English "the rest of us", Italian noialtri ). A language with a true clusivity distinction, however, does not provide a first-person plural with indefinite clusivity in which the clusivity of the pronoun is ambiguous; rather, speakers are forced to specify by the choice of pronoun or inflection, whether they are including

800-459: The language, just as to the Fula people . They call their language Pulaar or Pular in the western dialects and Fulfulde in the central and eastern dialects. Fula , Fulah and Fulani in English come originally from Manding (esp. Mandinka, but also Malinke and Bamana) and Hausa , respectively; Peul in French, also occasionally found in literature in English, comes from Wolof . Fula

832-516: The language: Ɓ/ɓ [ ɓ ] , Ɗ/ɗ [ ɗ  ] , Ŋ/ŋ [ ŋ ] , Ɲ/ɲ [  ɲ ] , Ƴ/ƴ [ ʔʲ ] . The letters c , j , and r , respectively represent the sounds [ c ~ tʃ ], [ ɟ ~ dʒ ], and [ r ]. Double vowel characters indicate that the vowels are elongated. An apostrophe (ʼ) is used as a glottal stop. It uses the five vowel system denoting vowel sounds and their lengths. In Nigeria ʼy substitutes ƴ, and in Senegal Ñ/ñ

864-445: The literature as "2+2" and "2+3", respectively (the numbers referring to second and third person as appropriate). Some notable linguists, such as Bernard Comrie , have attested that the distinction is extant in spoken natural languages, while others, such as John Henderson, maintain that a clusivity distinction in the second person is too complex to process. Many other linguists take the more neutral position that it could exist but

896-506: The native languages of Australia and in many Native American languages, the inclusive-exclusive distinction can be made there as well. For example, in Passamaquoddy , "I/we have it" is expressed In Tamil, on the other hand, the two different pronouns have the same agreement in the verb. First-person clusivity is a common feature among Dravidian , Kartvelian , and Caucasian languages, Australian and Austronesian languages, and

928-453: The plural pronouns is related to the singular, that may be the case for either one. In some dialects of Mandarin Chinese , for example, inclusive or exclusive 我們 ／ 我们 wǒmen is the plural form of singular 我 wǒ "I", and inclusive 咱們 ／ 咱们 zánmen is a separate root. However, in Hadza , the inclusive, ’one-be’e , is the plural of the singular ’ono ( ’one- ) "I", and

960-460: The second person should be a possible distinction, but its existence is controversial. Clusivity in the second person is conceptually simple but nonetheless if it exists is extremely rare, unlike clusivity in the first. Hypothetical second-person clusivity would be the distinction between "you and you (and you and you ... all present)" and "you (one or more addressees) and someone else whom I am not addressing currently." These are often referred to in

992-674: The second) is straightforward, in fact the existence of second-person clusivity (you vs. you and they) in natural languages is controversial and not well attested. While clusivity is not a feature of standard English language, it is found in many languages around the world. The first published description of the inclusive-exclusive distinction by a European linguist was in a description of languages of Peru in 1560 by Domingo de Santo Tomás in his Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los Reynos del Perú , published in Valladolid , Spain. Clusivity paradigms may be summarized as

Diallo - Misplaced Pages Continue

1024-447: The speaker and those being spoken to, while the exclusive pronouns exclude the listeners. The pronoun that corresponds to a given noun is determined by the noun class. Because men and women belong to the same noun class, the English pronouns "he" and "she" are translated into Fula by the same pronoun. However, depending on the dialect, there are some 25 different noun classes, each with its own pronoun. Sometimes those pronouns have both

#939060