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58-708: Diamond Creek ( Hualapai : Gwada ) is an intermittent stream that flows through the Hualapai tribal reservation generally north from Peach Springs, Arizona to the Colorado River . Diamond Creek Road is graded in the river canyon adjacent to, and in some cases, within the streambed of Diamond Creek. Diamond Creek Road provides the only vehicular access to the Colorado River between Lees Ferry , 225 miles (362 km) upriver and Pierce Ferry , 52 miles (84 km) downriver. This access makes Diamond Creek

116-642: A nominative/accusative case marking system, as mentioned in the morphology section. It is said that noun incorporation occurs in the language. This is notable with verbs of belonging, such as with the noun "nyigwáy(ya)," meaning "shirt." To say "to be wearing a shirt" the noun form "nyigwáy" is incorporated into the verb, appearing with a prefix for person, and suffixes for reflexiveness and auxiliaries. The noun form obligatorily also occurs before its incorporated verb form: nyigwáy shirt '-nyiggwa:y(-v)-wi 3 / 1 -shirt(- REFL )- AUX nyigwáy '-nyiggwa:y(-v)-wi shirt 3/1-shirt(-REFL)-AUX "I have

174-545: A "completed action") correspond to the imperfect and perfect forms of the equivalent verbs in French and Spanish, savoir and saber . This is also true when the sense of verb "to know" is "to know somebody", in this case opposed in aspect to the verb "to meet" (or even to the construction "to get to know"). These correspond to imperfect and perfect forms of conocer in Spanish, and connaître in French. In German, on

232-599: A kind of lexical aspect, except that it is typically not a property of a verb in isolation, but rather a property of an entire verb phrase . Achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives have telic situation aspect, while states and activities have atelic situation aspect. The other factor in situation aspect is duration, which is also a property of a verb phrase. Accomplishments, states, and activities have duration, while achievements and semelfactives do not. In some languages, aspect and time are very clearly separated, making them much more distinct to their speakers. There are

290-621: A more elaborate paradigm of aspectual distinctions (often at the expense of tense). The following table, appearing originally in Green (2002) shows the possible aspectual distinctions in AAVE in their prototypical, negative and stressed /emphatic affirmative forms: (see Habitual be ) (see ) Although Standard German does not have aspects, many Upper German and all West Central German dialects, and some more vernacular forms of German do make an aspectual distinction which partly corresponds with

348-475: A number of languages that mark aspect much more saliently than time. Prominent in this category are Chinese and American Sign Language , which both differentiate many aspects but rely exclusively on optional time-indicating terms to pinpoint an action with respect to time. In other language groups, for example in most modern Indo-European languages (except Slavic languages and some Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi ), aspect has become almost entirely conflated, in

406-775: A past tense, it relates the action to the present time. One cannot say of someone now deceased that they "have eaten" or "have been eating". The present auxiliary implies that they are in some way present (alive), even when the action denoted is completed (perfect) or partially completed (progressive perfect).) Aspects of the past tense: Aspects can also be marked on non-finite forms of the verb: "(to) be eating" ( infinitive with progressive aspect), "(to) have eaten" (infinitive with perfect aspect), "having eaten" ( present participle or gerund with perfect aspect), etc. The perfect infinitive can further be governed by modal verbs to express various meanings, mostly combining modality with past reference: "I should have eaten" etc. In particular,

464-534: A popular location for whitewater rafting trips to take out from trips through the Grand Canyon . Rafting trips also launch from the same location and proceed downriver to Lake Mead . The Hualapai tribal government charges a fee for all vehicles and people traversing the road. During periods of heavy rain Diamond Creek is prone to flash flooding. Flash floods have historically damaged or destroyed

522-460: A prepositional for -phrase describing a time duration: "I had a car for five hours", "I shopped for five hours", but not "*I bought a car for five hours". Lexical aspect is sometimes called Aktionsart , especially by German and Slavic linguists. Lexical or situation aspect is marked in Athabaskan languages . One of the factors in situation aspect is telicity . Telicity might be considered

580-490: A primary stressed (phonetically long) vowel. The most common syllable structures that occur in Havasupai-Hualapai are CV, CVC, and VC; however, consonant clusters of two or three consonants can and do occur initially, medially, and finally. At word boundaries, syllabification breaks up consonant clusters to CVC or CV structure as much as is possible. CCC and CCCC clusters occur, but they are always broken up by

638-427: A relation between the time of the event and the time of reference. This is the case with the perfect aspect , which indicates that an event occurred prior to (but has continuing relevance at) the time of reference: "I have eaten"; "I had eaten"; "I will have eaten". Different languages make different grammatical aspectual distinctions; some (such as Standard German ; see below ) do not make any. The marking of aspect

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696-422: A shirt on." Similar processes occur with kinship terms and verbs of belonging such as with the following noun "bi:", which means "female's brother's child/nephew/niece": e'e yes '-bi:-v-wi 3 / 1 -nephew- REFL - AUX e'e '-bi:-v-wi yes 3/1-nephew-REFL-AUX "Yes, I have a nephew/niece." This can be considered a more iconic form of noun incorporation, as the noun doesn't also occur outside

754-515: A specific aspectual sense beyond the incompleteness implied by the tense: يَضْرِبُ ( yaḍribu , he strikes/is striking/will strike/etc.). Those are the only two "tenses" in Arabic (not counting أَمْر amr , command or imperative, which is traditionally considered as denoting future events.) To explicitly mark aspect, Arabic uses a variety of lexical and syntactic devices. Contemporary Arabic dialects are another matter. One major change from al-fuṣḥā

812-692: A syllable boundary (that is, C-CC/CC-C or CC-CC). Syllable-initial CC clusters are either composed of (1) /θ/, /s/, or /h/, followed by any consonant or (2) any consonant followed by /w/. Morphologically, Hualapai-Havasupai is classified by WALS as weakly suffixing. There are different affixes for nouns, verbs, and particles in Hualapai-Havasupai, and there exist suffixes that can change nouns to verbs and vice versa. The affixes that exist—apart from word roots—are generally short in phonemic length, restricted to C, CV, VC, or V in composition. Verbs are marked for person (first, second, and third) through

870-463: A verbal noun. In the Tyrolean and other Bavarian regiolect the prefix *da can be found, which form perfective aspects. "I hu's gleant" (Ich habe es gelernt = I learnt it) vs. "I hu's daleant" (*Ich habe es DAlernt = I succeeded in learning). In Dutch (a West Germanic language ), two types of continuous form are used. Both types are considered Standard Dutch. The first type is very similar to

928-594: Is stress-timed , which governs many parts of the phonological structure of the language, including where long vowels occur, what kind of consonant clusters can occur and where, and how syllable boundaries are divided. There are three types of stress : primary, secondary, and weak. All vowels can have any of these three types of stress, but syllabic consonants can only have weak stress. Primary stresses occur at regularly timed intervals in an utterance. Secondary stresses occur according to an alternating-stress system, which most commonly dictates that two secondary stresses follow

986-502: Is a past habitual , as in "I used to go to school," and going to / gonna + VERB is a prospective , a future situation highlighting current intention or expectation, as in "I'm going to go to school next year." The aspectual systems of certain dialects of English, such as African-American Vernacular English (see for example habitual be ), and of creoles based on English vocabulary, such as Hawaiian Creole English , are quite different from those of standard English, and often reflect

1044-475: Is clearly similar if not identical to the Greek aorist, which is considered a tense but is more of an aspect marker. In the Arabic, aorist aspect is the logical consequence of past tense. By contrast, the "Verb of Similarity" ( الْفِعْل الْمُضَارِع al-fiʿl al-muḍāriʿ ), so called because of its resemblance to the active participial noun, is considered to denote an event in the present or future without committing to

1102-412: Is inferred through use of these aspectual markers, along with optional inclusion of adverbs. There is a distinction between grammatical aspect, as described here, and lexical aspect . Other terms for the contrast lexical vs. grammatical include: situation vs. viewpoint and inner vs. outer . Lexical aspect, also known as Aktionsart , is an inherent property of a verb or verb-complement phrase, and

1160-430: Is not (necessarily) when the event occurs, but how the time in which it occurs is viewed: as complete, ongoing, consequential, planned, etc. In most dialects of Ancient Greek, aspect is indicated uniquely by verbal morphology. For example, the very frequently used aorist , though a functional preterite in the indicative mood, conveys historic or 'immediate' aspect in the subjunctive and optative. The perfect in all moods

1218-523: Is not marked formally. The distinctions made as part of lexical aspect are different from those of grammatical aspect. Typical distinctions are between states ("I owned"), activities ("I shopped"), accomplishments ("I painted a picture"), achievements ("I bought"), and punctual, or semelfactive , events ("I sneezed"). These distinctions are often relevant syntactically. For example, states and activities, but not usually achievements, can be used in English with

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1276-826: Is often conflated with the marking of tense and mood (see tense–aspect–mood ). Aspectual distinctions may be restricted to certain tenses: in Latin and the Romance languages , for example, the perfective–imperfective distinction is marked in the past tense , by the division between preterites and imperfects . Explicit consideration of aspect as a category first arose out of study of the Slavic languages ; here verbs often occur in pairs, with two related verbs being used respectively for imperfective and perfective meanings. The concept of grammatical aspect (or verbal aspect ) should not be confused with perfect and imperfect verb forms ;

1334-436: Is often confused with the closely related concept of tense , because they both convey information about time. While tense relates the time of referent to some other time, commonly the speech event, aspect conveys other temporal information, such as duration, completion, or frequency, as it relates to the time of action. Thus tense refers to temporally when while aspect refers to temporally how . Aspect can be said to describe

1392-448: Is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense/mood marker. In literary Arabic ( الْفُصْحَى al-fuṣḥā ) the verb has two aspect-tenses: perfective (past), and imperfective (non-past). There is some disagreement among grammarians whether to view the distinction as a distinction in aspect, or tense, or both. The past verb ( الْفِعْل الْمَاضِي al-fiʿl al-māḍī ) denotes an event ( حَدَث ḥadaṯ ) completed in

1450-570: Is the basic aspectual distinction in the Slavic languages. It semantically corresponds to the distinction between the morphological forms known respectively as the aorist and imperfect in Greek , the preterite and imperfect in Spanish, the simple past ( passé simple ) and imperfect in French, and the perfect and imperfect in Latin (from the Latin perfectus , meaning "completed"). Essentially,

1508-461: Is the use of a prefix particle ( بِ bi in Egyptian and Levantine dialects—though it may have a slightly different range of functions in each dialect) to explicitly mark progressive, continuous, or habitual aspect: بيكتب , bi-yiktib , he is now writing, writes all the time, etc. Aspect can mark the stage of an action. The prospective aspect is a combination of tense and aspect that indicates

1566-639: Is used as an aspectual marker, conveying the sense of a resultant state. E.g. ὁράω – I see (present); εἶδον – I saw (aorist); οἶδα – I am in a state of having seen = I know (perfect). Turkish has a same/similar aspect, such as in Görmüş bulunuyorum/durumdayım , where görmüş means "having seen" and bulunuyorum/durumdayım means "I am in the state". In many Sino-Tibetan languages, such as Mandarin , verbs lack grammatical markers of tense, but are rich in aspect (Heine, Kuteva 2010, p. 10). Markers of aspect are attached to verbs to indicate aspect. Event time

1624-539: Is widely discussed in the literature. Watahomigie et al. poses that the use of /β/ is attributed to older generations of Hualapai dialect speakers, and Edwin Kozlowski notes that in the Hualapai dialect, [v] is weakened to [β] in weak-stressed syllables. Thus, the underlying form /v-ul/ "to ride" surfaces as [βəʔul]. Long and short vowels are contrastive in the language. The following is a minimal pair illustrating of

1682-674: The Diamond Creek Road forcing closure and, in one instance, washing vehicles into the Colorado River. Hualapai language The modern Hualapai and Havasupai have separate sociopolitical identities, but a consensus among linguists is that the differences in speech among them lie only at the dialect level, rather than constituting separate languages, and the differences between the two dialects have been reported as "negligible". The language even bears similarity to Yavapai , and sometimes they are grouped together for means of linguistic classification (see Ethnologue ). Regarding

1740-399: The English continuous form : alongside the standard present tense Ich esse ('I eat') and past Ich aß ('I ate') there is the form Ich bin/war am essen/Essen ('I am/was at the eating'; capitalization varies). This is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb sein ("to be") followed by the preposition and article am (= an dem ) and the infinitive, which German uses in many constructions as

1798-413: The English language between the simple past "X-ed," as compared to the progressive "was X-ing". Compare "I wrote the letters this morning" (i.e. finished writing the letters: an action completed) and "I was writing the letters this morning" (the letters may still be unfinished). In describing longer time periods, English needs context to maintain the distinction between the habitual ("I called him often in

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1856-479: The Orthography section of this page. As shown from the chart above, aspiration is a contrastive feature in many stops and affricates in Hualapai-Havasupai. Often, consonant sounds are realized in different ways in different phonetic environments. For example, if a glottal stop occurs at the beginning of a word, it may sometimes be replaced by a vowel such as /a/. The phonemic difference between /β/ and /v/

1914-558: The action is in preparation to take place. The inceptive aspect identifies the beginning stage of an action (e.g. Esperanto uses ek- , e.g. Mi ekmanĝas , "I am beginning to eat".) and inchoative and ingressive aspects identify a change of state ( The flowers started blooming ) or the start of an action ( He started running ). Aspects of stage continue through progressive, pausative, resumptive, cessive, and terminative. Important qualifications: The English tense–aspect system has two morphologically distinct tenses, past and non-past ,

1972-575: The action pertains to the present. Grammatical aspect is a formal property of a language , distinguished through overt inflection , derivational affixes, or independent words that serve as grammatically required markers of those aspects. For example, the Kʼicheʼ language spoken in Guatemala has the inflectional prefixes k - and x - to mark incompletive and completive aspect; Mandarin Chinese has

2030-490: The aspect markers - le 了, - zhe 着, zài - 在, and - guò 过 to mark the perfective, durative stative, durative progressive, and experiential aspects, and also marks aspect with adverbs ; and English marks the continuous aspect with the verb to be coupled with present participle and the perfect with the verb to have coupled with past participle . Even languages that do not mark aspect morphologically or through auxiliary verbs , however, can convey such distinctions by

2088-401: The event ("I helped him"). Imperfective aspect is used for situations conceived as existing continuously or habitually as time flows ("I was helping him"; "I used to help people"). Further distinctions can be made, for example, to distinguish states and ongoing actions ( continuous and progressive aspects ) from repetitive actions ( habitual aspect ). Certain aspectual distinctions express

2146-403: The following sentence, both subject markers are used: John(a)-ch John- SUBJ Mary Grammatical aspect In linguistics , aspect is a grammatical category that expresses how a verbal action, event, or state, extends over time. For instance, perfective aspect is used in referring to an event conceived as bounded and unitary, without reference to any flow of time during

2204-517: The imperfective and perfective. Yaska also applied this distinction to a verb versus an action nominal. Grammarians of the Greek and Latin languages also showed an interest in aspect, but the idea did not enter into the modern Western grammatical tradition until the 19th century via the study of the grammar of the Slavic languages . The earliest use of the term recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1853. Aspect

2262-431: The incorporate verb form. Havasupai-Hualapai, like other Yuman languages, is known for its switch-reference . This is a mechanism that illustrates whether the subjects are the same for multiple verbs within a sentence. The marker "-k" states that the subject-references are identical, and the marker "-m" is used when the first and second subjects are different for two verbs. The following sentences are examples of each, with

2320-474: The latter of which is also known as the present-future or, more commonly and less formally, simply the present . No marker of a distinct future tense exists on the verb in English; the futurity of an event may be expressed through the use of the auxiliary verbs " will " and " shall ", by a non-past form plus an adverb , as in "tomorrow we go to New York City", or by some other means. Past is distinguished from non-past, in contrast, with internal modifications of

2378-497: The lists of noun suffixes and prefixes below: Particles exist as interjections, adverbs, possessive pronouns, and articles. There are relatively few particles that exist in the language. They can be marked through prefixes for subordination and intensity in the same way as nouns and through the suffix /-é/, which indicates adverbial place. Havasupai-Hualapai's basic word order is S-O-V . For noun phrases, articles , such as demonstratives , occur as suffixes. Havasupai-Hualapai has

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2436-400: The markers bolded for illustrative purposes: Rhiannon-ch Rhiannon- SUBJ he'-h dress- DEM tuy -k 3 / 3 .take off- SS dathgwi:l -k -wi-ny 3 / 3 .wash- SS - AUX - PAST Rhiannon-ch he'-h tuy -k dathgwi:l -k -wi-ny Rhiannon-SUBJ dress-DEM {3/3.take off}- SS 3/3.wash- SS -AUX-PAST "Rhiannon took off the dress and washed it. Note that in

2494-418: The meanings of the latter terms are somewhat different, and in some languages, the common names used for verb forms may not follow the actual aspects precisely. The Indian linguist Yaska ( c.  7th century BCE ) dealt with grammatical aspect, distinguishing actions that are processes ( bhāva ), from those where the action is considered as a completed whole ( mūrta ). This is the key distinction between

2552-453: The modals will and shall and their subjunctive forms would and should are used to combine future or hypothetical reference with aspectual meaning: The uses of the progressive and perfect aspects are quite complex. They may refer to the viewpoint of the speaker: But they can have other illocutionary forces or additional modal components: English expresses some other aspectual distinctions with other constructions. Used to + VERB

2610-453: The non-standard German type. It is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb zijn ("to be"), followed by aan het and the gerund (which in Dutch matches the infinitive). For example: The second type is formed by one of the conjugated auxiliary verbs liggen ("to lie"), zitten ("to sit"), hangen ("to hang"), staan ("to stand") or lopen ("to walk"), followed by the preposition te and

2668-535: The other hand, the distinction is also lexical (as in English) through verbs kennen and kennenlernen , although the semantic relation between both forms is much more straightforward since kennen means "to know" and lernen means "to learn". The Germanic languages combine the concept of aspect with the concept of tense . Although English largely separates tense and aspect formally, its aspects (neutral, progressive, perfect, progressive perfect, and [in

2726-431: The past tense] habitual) do not correspond very closely to the distinction of perfective vs. imperfective that is found in most languages with aspect. Furthermore, the separation of tense and aspect in English is not maintained rigidly. One instance of this is the alternation, in some forms of English, between sentences such as "Have you eaten?" and "Did you eat?". In European languages, rather than locating an event time,

2784-473: The past" – a habit that has no point of completion) and perfective ("I called him once" – an action completed), although the construct "used to" marks both habitual aspect and past tense and can be used if the aspectual distinction otherwise is not clear. Sometimes, English has a lexical distinction where other languages may use the distinction in grammatical aspect. For example, the English verbs "to know" (the state of knowing) and "to find out" (knowing viewed as

2842-421: The past, but it says nothing about the relation of this past event to present status. For example, وَصَلَ waṣala , "arrived", indicates that arrival occurred in the past without saying anything about the present status of the arriver – maybe they stuck around, maybe they turned around and left, etc. – nor about the aspect of the past event except insofar as completeness can be considered aspectual. This past verb

2900-400: The perfective aspect looks at an event as a complete action, while the imperfective aspect views an event as the process of unfolding or a repeated or habitual event (thus corresponding to the progressive/continuous aspect for events of short-term duration and to habitual aspect for longer terms). For events of short durations in the past, the distinction often coincides with the distinction in

2958-475: The phonemic contrast of Havasupai-Hualapai vowel length: pa:ʔ ' person ' vs. paʔ ' arrow ' . Short vowels may sometimes be reduced to [ə] or dropped completely when they occur in an unstressed syllable, primarily in a word-initial context. In addition to this chart, there are four attested diphthongs that are common for this language: /aʊ/ as in 'cow', /aɪ/ as in 'lie', /eɪ/ as in 'they', and /ui/ as in 'buoy'. Havasupai-Hualapai's prosodic system

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3016-758: The prefixes /a-/, /ma-/, and /ø-/, respectively. Many other affixes attach to the verb to reveal information like tense, aspect , modality , number, adverbial qualities, and conjunctivity. The verb suffixes /-wi/ and /-yu/ are divisive for verbs and are weak-stressed by-forms of /wí/, meaning do , and /yú/, meaning be. These occur on all verbs. The three numbers that can be marked in verbs are singular, paucal plural, and multiple plural. There are six types of aspect, and any verb can have as many as three and as few as zero aspect markers. The six types are distributive-iterative, continued, interrupted, perfective, imperfective, and habitual. Nouns are marked for number, case, definiteness , and demonstrativeness , as can be seen by

3074-593: The relationship of Havasupai and Hualapai to Yavapai, Warren Gazzam, a Tolkapaya Yavapai speaker, reported that "they (Hualapais) speak the same language as we do, some words or accents are a little different". For illustrative purposes, the following chart is the consonant inventory of the Hualapai dialect of the language, which varies slightly from the Havasupai dialect. Because the two dialects have different orthographies, IPA symbols are used here. For more information about how these sounds are depicted in writing, see

3132-525: The texture of the time in which a situation occurs, such as a single point of time, a continuous range of time, a sequence of discrete points in time, etc., whereas tense indicates its location in time. For example, consider the following sentences: "I eat", "I am eating", "I have eaten", and "I have been eating". All are in the present tense , indicated by the present-tense verb of each sentence ( eat , am , and have ). Yet since they differ in aspect each conveys different information or points of view as to how

3190-400: The use of adverbs or other syntactic constructions. Grammatical aspect is distinguished from lexical aspect or Aktionsart , which is an inherent feature of verbs or verb phrases and is determined by the nature of the situation that the verb describes. The most fundamental aspectual distinction, represented in many languages, is between perfective aspect and imperfective aspect. This

3248-399: The verb. These two tenses may be modified further for progressive aspect (also called continuous aspect), for the perfect , or for both. These two aspectual forms are also referred to as BE +ING and HAVE +EN, respectively, which avoids what may be unfamiliar terminology. Aspects of the present tense: (While many elementary discussions of English grammar classify the present perfect as

3306-479: The verbal morphological system, with time. In Russian , aspect is more salient than tense in narrative. Russian, like other Slavic languages, uses different lexical entries for the different aspects, whereas other languages mark them morphologically , and still others with auxiliaries (e.g., English). In Hindi , the aspect marker is overtly separated from the tense/mood marker. Periphrastic Hindi verb forms consist of two elements. The first of these two elements

3364-522: The way tense does, aspect describes "the internal temporal constituency of a situation", or in other words, aspect is a way "of conceiving the flow of the process itself". English aspectual distinctions in the past tense include "I went, I used to go, I was going, I had gone"; in the present tense "I lose, I am losing, I have lost, I have been losing, I am going to lose"; and with the future modal "I will see, I will be seeing, I will have seen, I am going to see". What distinguishes these aspects within each tense

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