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70-581: The town's heraldic shield, showing a crowned lion on a castle, was granted in 1988. It is based on the town's 14th-century seal and arms. In 1977, Diekirch became the first town in Luxembourg to have a pedestrian zone . Diekirch is home to a brewery of national importance carrying the town's name. Three secondary schools are located in Diekirch: Lycée classique de Diekirch , Lycée technique hôtelier Alexis Heck and Nordstadlycée . The town

140-413: A "network society" and suggested that the "space of places" is being surpassed by a "space of flows." Feminist scholar Caren Kaplan (1996) explored questions about the gendering of metaphors of travel in social and cultural theory. The contemporary paradigm under the moniker "mobilities" appears to originate with the work of sociologist John Urry . In his book, Sociology Beyond Societies: Mobilities for

210-674: A block of 25th Street . A portion of Third Street in Santa Monica in Greater Los Angeles was converted into a pedestrian mall in the 1960s to become what is now the Third Street Promenade, a very popular shopping district located just a few blocks from the beach and Santa Monica Pier . Lincoln Road in Miami Beach , which had previously been a shopping street with traffic, was converted into

280-879: A car-free interior. Melia et al. describe this as the "limited access" type. In some cases, such as Stellwerk 60 in Cologne , there is a removable barrier, controlled by a residents' organisation. In Amsterdam, Waterwijk is a 6-hectare neighborhood where cars may only access parking areas from the streets that form the edges of the neighborhood; all of the inner areas of the neighborhood are car-free. Many cities close certain streets to automobiles, typically on weekends and especially in warm weather, to provide more urban space for recreation, and to increase foot traffic to nearby businesses. Examples include Newbury Street in Boston , and Memorial Drive in Cambridge, Massachusetts (which

350-410: A church was built, which gave the settlement its name: "Diet-Kirch" ("people's church"). In Old Franconian , thioda ( Old High German : "diota" – the people). Þeudō is a reconstructed word from Germanic, which plays a role in the etymology of the term "Deutsch". In the 14th century, John , the blind king of Bohemia, fortified it, surrounding the place with a castellated wall and a ditch supplied by

420-456: A continuum rather than incompatible extremes. Indeed, traditional transport geography has not been wholly quantitative any more than mobilities is wholly qualitative. Sociological explorations of mobility can incorporate empirical techniques, while model-based inquiries can be tempered with richer understandings of the meanings, representations and assumptions inherently embedded in models. Shaw and Sidaway (2010, 505) argue that even as research in

490-410: A critique of contradictory orientations toward both sedentarism and deterritorialisation in social science. People had often been seen as static entities tied to specific places, or as nomadic and placeless in a frenetic and globalized existence. Mobilities looks at movements and the forces that drive, constrain and are produced by those movements. Several typologies have been formulated to clarify

560-438: A list of typical subjects which have been explored in the mobilities paradigm (Taylor and Francis, 2011): Sheller and Urry (2006, 215) place mobilities in the sociological tradition by defining the primordial theorist of mobilities as Georg Simmel (1858–1918). Simmel's essays, "Bridge and Door" (Simmel, 1909 / 1994) and "The Metropolis and Mental Life" (Simmel, 1903 / 2001) identify a uniquely human will to connection, as well as

630-600: A pedestrian only street in 1960. The designer was Morris Lapidus. Lincoln Road Mall is now one of the main attractions in Miami Beach. The idea of exclusive pedestrian zones lost popularity through the 1980s and into the 1990s and results were generally disappointing, but are enjoying a renaissance with the 1989 renovation and relaunch of the Third Street Promenade in Santa Monica, California ,

700-415: A powerful socio-technical system that "impacts not only on local public spaces and opportunities for coming together, but also on the formation of gendered subjectivities, familial and social networks, spatially segregated urban neighborhoods, national images and aspirations to modernity, and global relations ranging from transnational migration to terrorism and oil wars " (Sheller and Urry, 2006, 209). This

770-623: A single square to entire districts, but with highly variable degrees of dependence on cars for their broader transport links. Pedestrian zones have a great variety of approaches to human-powered vehicles such as bicycles , inline skates , skateboards and kick scooters . Some have a total ban on anything with wheels, others ban certain categories, others segregate the human-powered wheels from foot traffic, and others still have no rules at all. Many Middle Eastern kasbahs have no motorized traffic, but use donkey - or hand- carts to carry goods. The idea of separating pedestrians from wheeled traffic

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840-555: A stream. It remained more or less fortified until the beginning of the 19th century when the French, during their occupation, levelled the old walls and substituted avenues of trees. In the course of extensive excavation in the 1960s, it was shown that the St. Laurence church is a Roman building. In the early 20th century, wall ruins and mosaics were found north of the town center. Archaeological investigations in 1992–1993, 1999, and 2008 enabled

910-471: A street or an area to pedestrian-only use is called pedestrianisation . Pedestrianisation usually aims to provide better accessibility and mobility for pedestrians, to enhance the amount of shopping and other business activities in the area or to improve the attractiveness of the local environment in terms of aesthetics, air pollution, noise and crashes involving motor vehicle with pedestrians. In some cases, motor traffic in surrounding areas increases, as it

980-848: Is along a river). In some cases, popularity has resulted in streets being permanently closed to cars, including JFK Drive in Golden Gate Park , San Francisco ; Griffith Drive in Griffith Park , Los Angeles ; and Capel Street in Dublin. Several studies have been carried out on European carfree developments. The most comprehensive was conducted in 2000 by Jan Scheurer. Other more recent studies have been made of specific car-free areas such as Vienna's Floridsdorf car-free development. Characteristics of car-free developments: The main benefits found for car-free developments: The main problems related to parking management. Where parking

1050-482: Is also the seat of one of the six regional headquarters of the Grand Ducal Police and one of Luxembourg's two judicial districts. The town received its name, according to old sources, when Charlemagne in the late 8th century resettled Saxons, in order to bring them under his control. One of the centres of these settlements was in the area of Diekirch. In order to convert the pagan Saxons to Christianity,

1120-562: Is an old one, dating back at least to the Renaissance . However, the earliest modern implementation of the idea in cities seems to date from about 1800, when the first covered shopping arcade was opened in Paris . Separated shopping arcades were constructed throughout Europe in the 19th century, precursors of modern shopping malls. A number of architects and city planners, including Joseph Paxton , Ebenezer Howard , and Clarence Stein , in

1190-424: Is auto-free. The only cars allowed on the island are police and ambulance vehicles. In Rio de Janeiro, the roads beside the beaches are auto-free on Sundays and holidays. Mobilities Mobilities is a contemporary paradigm in the social sciences that explores the movement of people ( human migration , individual mobility , travel , transport ), ideas (see e.g. meme ) and things (transport), as well as

1260-404: Is centered on Strøget , which is not a single street but a series of interconnected avenues which create a very large pedestrian zone, although it is crossed in places by streets with vehicular traffic. Most of these zones allow delivery trucks to service the businesses there during the early morning, and street-cleaning vehicles will usually go through these streets after most shops have closed for

1330-460: Is different from a typical pedestrian zone, in that it implies a development largely predicated on modes of transport other than the car. A number of towns and cities in Europe have never allowed motor vehicles . Archetypal examples are: Other examples are: To assist with transport from the car parks in at the edge of car-free cities, there are often bus stations, bicycle sharing stations, and

1400-434: Is displaced rather than replaced. Nonetheless, pedestrianisation schemes are often associated with significant falls in local air and noise pollution and in accidents, and frequently with increased retail turnover and increased property values locally. A car-free development generally implies a large-scale pedestrianised area that relies on modes of transport other than the car, while pedestrian zones may vary in size from

1470-585: Is held under the sign of the donkey. Diekirch is twinned with: Pedestrian zone Pedestrian zones (also known as auto-free zones and car-free zones , as pedestrian precincts in British English , and as pedestrian malls in the United States and Australia) are areas of a city or town restricted to use by people on foot or human-powered transport such as bicycles, with non-emergency motor traffic not allowed. Converting

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1540-780: Is home to the national operational headquarters of the Luxembourgish Army at the Haerebierg Military Centre (located on the hill Herrenberg ) and the National Museum of Military History , reflecting Diekirch's pivotal role in the Battle of the Bulge , a major battle of World War II . It was here that the river Sauer was crossed on the night of January 18, 1945, by the US 5th Infantry division . The town

1610-568: Is not controlled in the surrounding area, this often results in complaints from neighbours about overspill parking . There were calls for traffic to be reinstated in Trafalgar Square , London, after pedestrianization caused noise nuisance for visitors to the National Gallery . The director of the gallery is reported to have blamed pedestrianization for the "trashing of a civic space". Local shopkeepers may be critical of

1680-569: Is the work of early 20th-century sociologist Georg Simmel , who identified a uniquely human "will to connection," and provided a theoretical connection between mobility and materiality. Simmel focused on the increased tempo of urban life , that "drives not only its social, economic, and infrastructural formations, but also the psychic forms of the urban dweller." Along with this tempo comes a need for precision in timing and location in order to prevent chaos, which results in complex and novel systems of relationships. A second body of theory comes from

1750-639: The Gay Village in Montreal . Algonquin and Ward's Islands, parts of the Toronto Islands group, are also car-free zones for all 700 residents. Since summer 2004, Toronto has also been experimenting with " Pedestrian Sundays " [1] in its busy Kensington Market . Granville Mall in Halifax, Nova Scotia was a run-down section of buildings on Granville Street built in the 1840s that was restored in

1820-842: The postmodern conception of spatiality , with the substance of places being constantly in motion and subject to constant reassembly and reconfiguration (Thrift 1996). A fourth body of theory is a "recentring of the corporeal body as an affective vehicle through which we sense place and movement, and construct emotional geographies". For example, the car is "experienced through a combination of senses and sensed through multiple registers of motion and emotion″ (Sheller and Urry 2006, 216). A fifth body of theory incorporates how topologies of social networks relate to how complex patterns form and change . Contemporary information technologies and ways of life often create broad but weak social ties across time and space, with social life incorporating fewer chance meetings and more networked connections. Finally,

1890-481: The 1990s at the request of the retailers. Half of Kalamazoo's pedestrian mall has been converted into a regular street with auto traffic, though with wide sidewalks. Mackinac Island , between the upper and lower peninsulas of Michigan, banned horseless carriages in 1896, making it auto-free. The original ban still stands, except for emergency vehicles. Travel on the island is largely by foot, bicycle, or horse-drawn carriage. An 8-mile (13 km) road, M-185 rings

1960-546: The 1994-5 Fremont Street Experience in Las Vegas and recent pedestrianization of various streets in New York City . These pedestrian zones were more closely tied to the success of retail than in Europe, and by the 1980s, most did not succeed competing with ever more elaborate enclosed malls. Almost all of this generation of pedestrian malls built from 1959 through to the 1970s, have disappeared, or were shrunk down in

2030-522: The 19th and early 20th centuries proposed plans to separate pedestrians from traffic in various new developments. The first "pedestrianisation" of an existing street seems to have taken place "around 1929" in Essen , Germany. This was in Limbecker Straße, a very narrow shopping street that could not accommodate both vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Two other German cities followed this model in

2100-543: The Coronavirus Pandemic, and held as a virtual event in 2022, with the distances walked in different locations across the world. The march drew significant interest from service members across NATO countries. This included the United States Army, with the 492nd Civil Affairs Battalion based out of Buckeye, Arizona hosting the largest individual marching event in the United States that year. In 2023

2170-534: The Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the city, written by architecture and urban theorist Massimo Paolini and signed by 160 academics and 300 architects. A pedestrian zone is often limited in scope: for example, a single square or a few streets reserved for pedestrians, within a city where residents still largely get around in cars. A car-free town, city or region may be much larger. A car-free zone

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2240-526: The Twenty-First Century , Urry (2000, 1) presents a "manifesto for a sociology that examines the diverse mobilities of peoples, objects, images, information and wastes; and of the complex interdependencies between, and social consequences of, these diverse mobilities." This is consistent with the aims and scope of the eponymous journal Mobilities , which "examines both the large-scale movements of people, objects, capital, and information across

2310-544: The United States, several pedestrian zones in major tourist areas were successful, such as the renovation of the mall in Santa Monica on Los Angeles' Westside and its relaunch as the Third Street Promenade ; the creation of the covered, pedestrian Fremont Street Experience in Downtown Las Vegas ; the revival of East 4th Street in Downtown Cleveland ; and the new pedestrian zone created in

2380-648: The broader social implications of those movements. Mobility can also be thought as the movement of people through social classes, social mobility or income, income mobility. A mobility "turn" (or transformation) in the social sciences began in the 1990s in response to the increasing realization of the historic and contemporary importance of movement on individuals and society. This turn has been driven by generally increased levels of mobility and new forms of mobility where bodies combine with information and different patterns of mobility. The mobilities paradigm incorporates new ways of theorizing about how these mobilities lie "at

2450-496: The center of constellations of power, the creation of identities and the microgeographies of everyday life." ( Cresswell , 2011, 551) The mobility turn arose as a response to the way in which the social sciences had traditionally been static, seeing movement as a black box and ignoring or trivializing "the importance of the systematic movements of people for work and family life, for leisure and pleasure, and for politics and protest" (Sheller and Urry, 2006, 208). Mobilities emerged as

2520-404: The city. In Madrid , Spain , the city pedestrianized 19 kilometres (12 miles) of streets and 235,000 square metres (58 acres) of spaces in total. The COVID-19 pandemic gave also birth to proposals for radical change in the organisation of the city, in particular Barcelona , being the pedestrianisation of the whole city and the proposal of an inversion of the concept of sidewalk two elements of

2590-503: The day and night. In Buenos Aires , some stretches of Calle Florida have been pedestrianised since 1913, which makes it one of the oldest car-free thoroughfares in the world today. Pedestrianised Florida, Lavalle and other streets contribute to a vibrant shopping and restaurant scene where street performers and tango dancers abound, streets are crossed with vehicular traffic at chamfered corners . Paquetá Island in Rio de Janeiro

2660-514: The early 1930s, but the idea was not seen outside Germany. Following the devastation of the Second World War a number of European cities implemented plans to pedestrianise city streets, although usually on a largely ad hoc basis, through the early 1950s, with little landscaping or planning. By 1955 twenty-one German cities had closed at least one street to automobile traffic, although only four were "true" pedestrian streets, designed for

2730-704: The early 1980s, the Alternative Liste für Demokratie und Umweltschutz (which later became part of Alliance 90/The Greens ) unsuccessfully campaigned to make West Berlin a car-free zone. In the Netherlands , the inner city of Arnhem has a pedestrian zone ( Dutch : voetgangersgebied ) within the boundaries of the following streets and squares: Nieuwe Plein, Willemsplein, Gele Rijdersplein, Looierstraat, Velperbinnensingel, Koningsplein, St. Catharinaplaats, Beekstraat, Walburgstraat, Turfstraat, Kleine Oord, and Nieuwe Oeverstraat. Rotterdam 's city center

2800-409: The effect of pedestrianization on their businesses. Reduced through traffic can lead to fewer customers using local businesses, depending on the environment and the area's dependence on the through traffic. A large number of European towns and cities have made part of their centres car-free since the early 1960s. These are often accompanied by car parks on the edge of the pedestrianised zone, and, in

2870-889: The first in the U.S. in 1959). Since then growth was rapid, such that by 1980 a study found that most British towns and cities had a pedestrian shopping precinct; 1,304 in total. In Istanbul , İstiklal Caddesi is a pedestrian street (except for a historic streetcar that runs along it) and a major tourist draw. Some Canadian examples are the Sparks Street Mall area of Ottawa , the Distillery District in Toronto , Scarth Street Mall in Regina , Stephen Avenue Mall in Calgary (with certain areas open to parking for permit holders) and part of Prince Arthur Street and

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2940-556: The growing suburban shopping malls of the time. In the 1960s and 70s, over 200 towns in the United States adopted this approach. The Downtown Mall in Charlottesville, VA is one of the longest pedestrian malls in the United States , created in 1976 and spanning nine city blocks. A number of streets and malls in New York City are now pedestrian-only, including 6½ Avenue , Fulton Street , parts of Broadway , and

3010-431: The hierarchal order in populated cities from many perspectives. Islanders prioritize the social cohesion and trust of their communities before the alienation of mega-cities. There is a clear physical isolation that marks the boundaries between urbanity and rurality. From another view, nonetheless, this ideological dichotomy between authenticity and alienation leads residents to commercialize their spaces to outsiders. Although

3080-684: The historic center within the Small Ring (the ring road built on the site of the 14th-century walls ), including the Grand-Place/Grote Markt , the Place de Brouckère/De Brouckèreplein , the Boulevard Anspach/Anspachlaan , and the Place de la Bourse/Beursplein . Central Copenhagen is one of the oldest and largest: it was converted from car traffic into a pedestrian zone in 1962 as an experiment, and

3150-619: The island, and numerous roads cover the interior. M-185 is the only highway in the United States without motorized vehicles. Fire Island in Suffolk County, New York is pedestrianised east of the Fire Island Lighthouse and west of Smith Point County Park (with the exception of emergency vehicles). Supai, Arizona , located within the Havasupai Indian Reservation is entirely car-free,

3220-514: The larger cases, park and ride schemes. Northern Avenue , located in the Kentron district of central Yerevan , is a large pedestrian avenue. The avenue was inaugurated in 2007 and is mainly home to residential buildings, offices, luxury shops and restaurants. In Belgium , Brussels implemented Europe's largest pedestrian zone (French: Le Piétonnier ), in phases starting in 2015 and will cover 50 hectares (120 acres). The area covers much of

3290-416: The last body of theory is the analysis of complex transportation systems that are "neither perfectly ordered nor anarchic." For example, the rigid spatial coupling, operational timings, and historical bindings of rail contrast with unpredictable environmental conditions and ever-shifting political winds. And, yet, "change through the accumulation of small repetitions...could conceivably tip the car system into

3360-404: The late 1970s. The area was then closed off to vehicles. In the United States , these zones are commonly called pedestrian malls or pedestrian streets and today are relatively rare, with a few notable exceptions. In 1959, Kalamazoo was the first American city to implement a "pedestrian mall" in its downtown core. This became a method that some cities applied for their downtowns to compete with

3430-677: The like. The term car-free development implies a physical change: either build-up or changes to an existing built area. Melia et al. (2010) define car-free developments as "residential or mixed use developments which: This definition (which they distinguish from the more common "low car development") is based mainly on experience in North West Europe, where the movement for car-free development began. Within this definition, three types are identified: The more common form of carfree development involves some sort of physical barrier, which prevents motor vehicles from penetrating into

3500-527: The march returned to being only held as a live event in Diekirch. Diekirch has an annual cross country running competition — the Eurocross — which is an IAAF permit meeting and attracts world-class runners, with Gabriela Szabo and Irina Mikitenko among past winners. The town's mascot is the donkey . There is a donkey fountain in the centre of Diekirch. The yearly cavalcade (carnival procession)

3570-578: The mid-2010s in New York City including along Broadway (the street) and around Times Square . During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, some cities had made the pedestrianization of additional streets to encourage social distancing and in many cases to provide extra rooms for restaurants to serve food on patios extended into the newly available spaces. In the United States, New York City closed up to 100 miles (160 km) of streets to cars across

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3640-403: The mobilities paradigm has attempted to reengage transportation and the social sciences, mobilities shares a fate similar to traditional transportation geography in still remaining outside the mainstream of the broader academic geographic community. Sheller and Urry (2006, 215-217) presented six bodies of theory underpinning the mobilities paradigm: The prime theoretical foundation of mobilities

3710-440: The more productive ways of distinguishing postmodernism from modernism proper, whose experience of temporality -- existential time, along with deep memory -- it is henceforth conventional to see as dominant of the high modern." For Oswin & Yeoh (2010) mobility seems to be inextricably intertwined with late-modernity and the end of the nation-state. The sense of mobility makes us to think in migratory and tourist fluxes as well as

3780-400: The necessary infrastructure for that displacement takes place. P. Vannini (2012) opted to see mobility as a projection of existent cultural values, expectancies and structures that denotes styles of life. Mobility after all would not only generate effects on people's behaviour but also specific styles of life. Vannini explains convincingly that on Canada 's coast, the values of islanders defy

3850-621: The night. It has grown in size from 15,800 square metres (3.9 acres) in 1962 to 95,750 square metres (23.66 acres) in 1996. A number of German islands ban or strictly limit the private use of motor vehicles. Heligoland , Hiddensee , and all but two of the East Frisian islands are car-free; Borkum and Norderney have car-free zones and strictly limit automobile use during the summer season and in certain areas, also forbidding travel at night. Some areas provide exceptions for police and emergency vehicles; Heligoland also bans bicycles. In

3920-802: The only community in the United States where mail is still carried out by mule. Supai is located eight miles from the nearest road, and is accessible only by foot, horse/mule, or helicopter. Culdesac Tempe , a 17-acre (0.069 square kilometers) car-free district in Tempe, Arizona , is intended to be the nation's first market-rate rental apartment district to ban its tenants from owning cars. Bikes and emergency vehicles are allowed. It has received significant investments from executives at Lyft and Opendoor . Argentina's big cities, Córdoba , Mendoza and Rosario , have lively pedestrianised street centers ( Spanish : peatonales ) combined with town squares and parks which are crowded with people walking at every hour of

3990-428: The other" (Sheller and Urry, 2006, 216; Engel and Nugent, 2010, 1; Soja, 1999 / 2005, 261). Engel and Nugent (2010) trace the conceptual roots of the spatial turn to Ernst Cassirer and Henri Lefebvre (1974), although Fredric Jameson appears to have coined the epochal usage of the term for the 1980s paradigm shift. Jameson (1988 / 2003, 154) notes that the concept of the spatial turn "has often seemed to offer one of

4060-552: The pedestrian zone to other streets. As of 2018, Rotterdam featured three different types of pedestrian zones: "pedestrian zones", "pedestrian zones, cycling permitted outside of shopping hours", and "pedestrian zones, cycling permitted 24/7". Three exceptions to motor vehicles could apply to specific sections of these three zones, namely: "logistics allowed within window times (5 to 10:30 a.m)", "logistics allowed 24/7", and "commercial traffic allowed during market days". In Britain, shopping streets primarily for pedestrians date back to

4130-470: The purpose. At this time pedestrianisation was not seen as a traffic restraint policy, but rather as a complement to customers who would arrive by car in a city centre. Pedestrianisation was also common in the United States during the 1950s and 60s as downtown businesses attempted to compete with new suburban shopping malls. However, most of these initiatives were not successful in the long term, and about 90% have been changed back to motorised areas. In

4200-501: The reconstruction of a large Roman villa, which extended over all the land of the medieval town and was abandoned in the early 5th century. Diekirch hosts the "International March of Diekirch", a 20 km up to 40 km road walking event. Held since 1968, it is open to both the military and civilians, with finishers earning the Medal of the "Marche de L’Armée", a Luxembourgish Army award. The marches of 2020 and 2021 were canceled due to

4270-508: The science and technology studies which look at mobile sociotechnical systems that incorporate hybrid geographies of human and nonhuman components. Automobile , rail or air transport systems involve complex transport networks that affect society and are affected by society. These networks can have dynamic and enduring parts. Non-transport information networks can also have unpredictable effects on encouraging or suppressing physical mobility (Pellegrino 2012). A third body of theory comes from

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4340-661: The study of migration or transport: Mobilities can be seen as a postmodern descendant of modernist transportation studies , with the influence of the spatial turn corresponding to a " post-structuralist agnosticism about both naturalistic and universal explanations and about single-voiced historical narratives, and to the concomitant recognition that position and context are centrally and inescapably implicated in all constructions of knowledge" (Cosgrove, 1999, 7; Warf and Arias, 2009). Despite these ontological and epistemological differences, Shaw and Hesse (2010, 207) have argued that mobilities and transport geography represent points on

4410-504: The thirteenth century. A 1981 study found that many Victorian and later arcades continued to be used. A third of London's 168 precincts at that time had been built before 1939, as were a tenth of the 1,304 precincts in the U.K. as a whole. Early post-1945 new towns carried on the tradition of providing some traffic-free shopping streets. However, in the conversion of traditional shopping streets to pedestrian precincts, Britain started only in 1967 (versus Germany's first conversion in 1929, or

4480-461: The tourism industry is adopted in these communities as a form of activity, many locals have historically migrated from urban populated cities. The intellectual roots of mobilities in sociology distinguish it from traditional transportation studies and transportation geography , which have firmer roots in mid 20th century positivist spatial science. Cresswell (2011, 551) presents six characteristics distinguishing mobilities from prior approaches to

4550-564: The traditionally fixed forms of media) and ‘disembodied mobility’ (the transformation in the social order). The categories are typically considered interrelated, and therefore they are not exclusive. While mobilities is commonly associated with sociology , contributions to the mobilities literature have come from scholars in anthropology , cultural studies , economics , geography , migration studies , science and technology studies , and tourism and transport studies. (Sheller and Urry, 2006, 207) The eponymous journal Mobilities provides

4620-540: The urban demands of tempo and precision that are satisfied with mobility. The more immediate precursors of contemporary mobilities research emerged in the 1990s (Cresswell 2011, 551). Historian James Clifford (1997) advocated for a shift from deep analysis of particular places to the routes connecting them. Marc Augé (1995) considered the philosophical potential of an anthropology of "non-places" like airports and motorways that are characterized by constant transition and temporality. Sociologist Manuel Castells outlined

4690-515: The wide variety of mobilities. Most notably, John Urry divides mobilities into five types: mobility of objects, corporeal mobility, imaginative mobility, virtual mobility and communicative mobility. Later, Leopoldina Fortunati and Sakari Taipale proposed an alternative typology taking the individual and the human body as a point of reference. They differentiate between ‘macro-mobilities’ (consistent physical displacements), ‘micro-mobilities’ (small-scale displacements), ‘media mobility’ (mobility added to

4760-453: The world, as well as more local processes of daily transportation, movement through public and private spaces, and the travel of material things in everyday life" (Taylor and Francis, 2011). In 2006, Mimi Sheller and John Urry published an oft-cited paper that examined the mobilities paradigm as it was just emerging, exploring its motivations, theoretical underpinnings, and methodologies. Sheller and Urry specifically focused on automobility as

4830-670: Was almost completely destroyed by German bombing in May 1940. The city decided to build a central shopping street, for pedestrians only, the Lijnbaan , which became Europe's first purpose-built pedestrian street. The Lijnbaan served as a model for many other such streets in the early post- World War II era, such as Warsaw , Prague , Hamburg , and the UK's first pedestrianised shopping precinct in Stevenage in 1959. Rotterdam has since expanded

4900-490: Was further developed by the journal Mobilities (Hannam, Sheller and Urry, 2006). Mobilities can be viewed as an extension of the " spatial turn " in the arts and sciences in the 1980s, in which scholars began "to interpret space and the spatiality of human life with the same critical insight and interpretive power as have traditionally been given to time and history (the historicality of human life) on one hand, and to social relations and society (the sociality of human life) on

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