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61-612: Differdange is an industrial town that was home to much of Luxembourg's steel production , much of its development occurred during its heyday. Today, Differdange still remains an important industrial center, with ArcelorMittal , the world's largest steel producer, retaining the ARBED steel plant in the town. Notable landmarks in Differdange include the Maison de Soins de Differdange , an ancient Cistercian abbey dating back to 1235 and

122-794: A German civil administration headed by Gauleiter Gustav Simon was established in July 1940. It had two main goals: to turn the Luxembourgers' minds towards Deutschtum , and to bring the steel industry under German control. Immediately after the occupation, two high-level functionaries were sent to the country. These were Otto Steinbrinck , "Commissioner-General for the Belgo-Luxembourg Iron-Producing Industry" and Paul Raabe, "Commissioner-General for Iron Ore Exploitation and Distribution for Lorraine and Luxembourg". In June 1940, Steinbrinck called together

183-551: A Tripartite agreement was reached, stipulating that ARBED would invest 23.2 billion francs by 1983 to modernise its factories. The unions accepted that worker numbers would be reduced to 16,500, and the Luxembourg government granted ARBED a loan of 3.2 billion francs, over 10 years. The production facilities that were not profitable and not worth modernising, were closed. Additionally, synergy agreements were made with other steel producers: instead of everyone doing everything across

244-598: A break, heavy industry was still dependent on foreign labour. During the economic crisis after 1929, employers tended to lay off foreign workers first, meaning that by 1939 their proportion of the steel workforce had sunk to 20%. With the sale of German companies after World War I, the proportion of Luxembourgish managers in the steel industry also increased. ARBED traditionally favoured them, while Hadir preferred to have Frenchmen in positions of management. After Luxembourg had been invaded in May 1940 and occupied by German troops,

305-565: A delegate was sent from Germany to oversee Meyer's work; the share ownership of ARBED, which had mostly belonged to the Société générale de Belgique , was much changed; and the executive board included nine Germans and six Luxembourgers (compared to the pre-war 15 Luxembourgers and two Belgians). It was, however, intended from the outset that when Germany had won the war, ARBED and the Rodange foundry would also pass into German ownership. Concerning

366-573: A large market in the East. The treaty to join the Zollverein was regularly renewed over the next 60 years, and facilitated the country's industrial development. Profiting from the economic dynamism of its German neighbours, Luxembourg started exporting its iron ore to the Saar and Ruhr areas, but also to Belgian forges. A deposit of minette , a low-quality Luxembourgish iron ore, had been discovered in

427-587: A new foundry in Dudelange , which used the new procedure exclusively. To run this plant, they partnered up with Victor Tesch and the Count de Bertier , who owned a large amount of land in Dudelange, and founded the " Société anonyme des Hauts-fourneaux et Forges de Dudelange" . From the late 19th century to World War I , the Luxembourg steel industry depended entirely on Germany. 90% of the coke used in Luxembourg

488-488: A supranational institution: it would mean transferring control over a central part of the national economy to a common body. Trade union leaders feared the move would mean lower pay for Luxembourgish workers, while managers feared that subsidies to Belgian coal producers would mean an imbalance in prices between Belgium and Luxembourg. The Benelux countries each received one seat in the High Authority, and Luxembourg

549-759: A ton of steel was supported with 13 francs in Luxembourg, 700-900 francs in France, 1,500 francs in the UK, and with 1,800 francs in Belgium. Thus, the Tripartite agreement was changed in 1979, and on 8 April 1982 a law created the "national investment contribution" ( Contribution nationale d'investissement ), also called the "solidarity tax", which was levied by general taxation. Longwy Longwy ( French pronunciation: [lɔ̃wi] ; older German : Langich , [ˈlaŋɪç] ; Luxembourgish : Lonkech )

610-539: A trade alliance with the French, but it was not to be. Instead, after tough negotiations, Luxembourg found a new economic and trade partner in Belgium, with whom it formed the Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union in 1921. The post-war return of Lorraine — hitherto part of Germany — to France meant that the vast Lorraine-Luxembourg-Saar industrial complex was broken up. The break with Germany meant that

671-681: Is twinned with: Steel industry in Luxembourg In the industrial sector, the Luxembourg steel industry continues to occupy the first place in the country, even after the industrial reforms which have taken place since the 1960s. Iron was already worked and processed by the Celts in the region of modern-day Luxembourg. Archeological remains of this have been found on the Gläicht between Esch-Alzette and Rumelange . In 2003–2005,

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732-517: Is a commune in the French department of Meurthe-et-Moselle , Lorraine , administrative region of Grand Est , northeastern France . The inhabitants are known as Longoviciens . In 2008, the ville neuve ("New Town") was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , as part of the " Fortifications of Vauban " group for its contributions to the development of military architecture and engineering. Longwy has historically been an industrial center of

793-638: Is probably the earliest example in Luxembourg of a château built entirely in the Renaissance style. It was intended as a residence and a fortification. Differdange's descendants were extinguished in 1400 with the death of his last grandson. In 1552, the castle underwent a disastrous fire, It was eventually restored and occupied by Anna of Isenburg . In 1794, the French Revolutionary Army committed atrocities in Differdange and slaughtered many unarmed civilians before pillaging and burning

854-547: The Differdange Castle , located on a hill in the centre of the town, which dates from 1577 and is now used by Miami University . As such, Differdange is home to Miami University's Dolibois European Center , the university's European campus branch where students study abroad. Differdange is also home to football team FC Differdange 03 . The era of the Cistercian cathedrals and abbeys was in full swing during

915-637: The Duchy of Bar . Longwy was ceded to Wenceslaus I of Luxembourg in 1368, but was returned to Bar in 1378. The Duchy of Bar was then annexed into the Duchy of Lorraine in 1480. From 1648 to 1660 Longwy was part of the Kingdom of France , returning to the Duchy of Lorraine afterwards. It was made part of France again in 1670, a situation which was finalized in the Treaties of Nijmegen in 1678. Vauban fortified

976-586: The Great Depression , which hit the country with some delay. Production stood at 2,512,000 tonnes in 1937 and 1,551,000 tonnes in 1938. There had traditionally been a high number of foreigners working in the steel industry in Luxembourg, making up 60% of the work force in 1913. This proportion had declined in World War I; however, it then increased from a level of 25% in 1922 to 40% in 1930. The 1920s, then, showed that although World War I constituted

1037-621: The Lorraine iron mining district. Factories lined the river in historic postcards. The town is also known for its artistic faience , produced there since 1798. It is produced today by the Société des faïenceries de Longwy et Senelle, often in cooperation with artists and ceramists. Overglaze enamel decoration, known as émaux and often in a manner similar to cloisonné , has been produced in Longwy ceramics since 1872. Initially produced under

1098-644: The SA des Mines du Luxembourg et des Forges de Saarbruck , which was run by Victor Tesch . In 1871 they received permission to open a foundry in Esch-sur-Alzette, which was later renamed ARBED-Schifflange. This steel mill first produced cast iron , which was processed in Burbach  [ de ] , at Burbach Foundry  [ de ] . At the same time the Brasseur foundry (later "ARBED Terres Rouges")

1159-405: The 20th century, the industrial boom was at its peak, and the population of Differdange rose from less than 4,000 in 1890 to almost 18,000 by 1930. In 1967, the "Société des Hauts-Fourneaux and Aciererie de Differdange" merged with several steel companies in Belgium and France to form ARBED , Luxembourg's largest steel company, which had numerous factories in Differdange. The town is located in

1220-948: The German companies in Luxembourg were sold: The German market had collapsed; the Belgian market was saturated by Belgian production; the French market was closed off due to customs; this meant that the Luxembourg foundry owners had to find new markets elsewhere in Europe, in America and Asia. They quickly founded trading posts, to export their products worldwide. In 1920, ARBED founded Columeta ( Comptoir Luxembourgeois de Métallurgie , later renamed Trade Arbed ), and HADIR followed suit in 1923, by joining SOGECO ( Société Générale pour le Commerce de Produits Industriels ). Columeta had branches in Brazil , Argentina , India and Japan . New markets for

1281-588: The Luxembourg heads of industry, to make them pledge to cooperate with the Germans. Anyone refusing to do so would have to resign. The representatives of ARBED and the Rodange foundry agreed to the conditions, while those of Hadir refused. Thereupon, on 15 June the Hadir foundries were incorporated into a new body, the Differdinger Stahlwerke AG . The Rodange foundry, owned by " Ougrée-Marihaye ",

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1342-439: The Luxembourg steel industry not only had to reorient itself economically, but also had to restructure itself. The challenge was twofold: firstly, to secure both pre- and post-production markets (that is, on the one hand, the supply of raw materials, minette and coke, and on the other, a demand for the finished products, from nails to grey-beams); secondly, to take the place of the German firms, which had had to withdraw. In 1919,

1403-546: The Treaty of Versailles. However, this concession was effectively cancelled out by the massive inflation in Germany in 1922–1923. The Luxembourg steel industry managed to transform itself in a short period of time from a supplier of German steel companies into an independent producer of diverse finished goods, which were competitive on the world market. In summary, one can say that the basis for Luxembourg steel production, as it

1464-483: The abbey was plundered and sacked by French soldiers. However, it was during the French invasion of Luxembourg that the abbey and the town experienced real raids and innumerable rampages. The last abbess to direct the convent was Marie-Madeleine de Gourcy, who held office until 1796. After her mandate, the Order was then formally dissolved. The Abbey of Differdange was auctioned off in 1797 and subsequently be bought by

1525-508: The arrival of British cast iron. The re-establishment of customs rights in 1879 put an end to this crisis. From then onwards, cartels were formed with a view to regulating the steel market. In 1879, a Lorraine-Luxembourgish iron cartel ( Lothringisch-Luxemburgisches Roheisensyndikat ) was formed, and in 1889 a steel cartel, the Lothringisch-Luxemburgischer Stahlwerksverband . Around the turn of

1586-500: The century, a greater level of vertical integration came about in Luxembourg. The exploitation of minette , iron extraction, steel production and the process of rolling the steel were organised close to each other. The companies banded together in bigger and bigger conglomerates: The production statistics make it clear how much the Luxembourg steel industry had changed within only 35 years. The volume of minette mined increased tenfold from 700,000 tons in 1868 to 7 million tons in 1913;

1647-474: The city. Beginning in 1830, Luxembourg's steel industry evolved from and artisan stage to an industrial stage. In 1896, two blast furnaces were erected in Differdange with the name of "Société Anonyme des Hauts-Fourneaux de Differdange" . Subsequently, eight other blast furnaces were built, allowing the production of steel beams known at the time as "Differdinger" . On August 4, 1907, Differdange received its town status by William IV of Luxembourg . During

1708-573: The commune of Differdange in 1929. In 1981 following its purchase by government of Luxembourg, the Differdange Abbey was transformed into a hospital and health center. The Differdange Castle is one of the only remaining landmarks from the Renaissance period in the area. Although it has no known origin since all traced manuscripts have disappeared, squire listed was Wilhelm de Differdange, named in documents dating from 1310. The castle

1769-486: The country, the use of the Gilchrist–Thomas process in steel-making after 1879, and a high level of immigration—Germans after 1870, Italians after 1890—contributed to make Luxembourg's steel industry one of the most important in Europe. Five large steel companies were founded from 1870 to 1890: Under a law passed in 1870, the state became the owner of all minette reserves down to a certain depth. In 1880, another law

1830-507: The creation of a European Coal and Steel Community in 1950: soon, Germany, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands and Luxembourg agreed to the " Schuman Plan ". For Luxembourg, the stakes were high, as steel was vital to its economy. The Schuman Plan would allow it to export its products to Germany and France, and grant it free access to the raw materials it required. At the same time, there was some nervousness at transferring sovereign rights to

1891-554: The direction of Amadeo de Carenza, this style reached a peak in the Art Deco style, retailed by the Parisian department store Printemps . Route nationale 52 (part of European route E411 ) passes through Longwy. Longwy station has rail connections to Luxembourg, Charleville-Mézières and Nancy. Longwy initially belonged to Lotharingia . After the division of that kingdom, the town became part of Upper Lorraine and ultimately

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1952-526: The factories. In Belval, the blast furnaces A (1965) and B (1970) started production. A new process, the so-called LD-AC process, allowed steel quality to be improved. ARBED managed to reinforce its position, and in 1967 it took over Hadir, thereby becoming a monopoly producer in Luxembourg steel production and processing. Around the same time, it became the majority owner of the Sidmar factory in Ghent , one of

2013-497: The foundries: at Arbed-Schifflange, prisoners from the external camp of the Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp at Audun-le-Tiche were used. Due to the national importance of each country's steel sector, there was a grave risk of overproduction. For this reason, it was necessary to create a supranational body capable of coordinating European steel production. The French foreign minister, Robert Schuman , proposed

2074-562: The foundry of Berbourg from Jean-Nicolas Collart and in 1845 built the Eich foundry. In 1847 they bought their investors' shares, and from then on ran the company " Metz & Cie " as a family business. From 1866 to 1868, the Metz brothers built a modern steel mill in Dommeldange, with four blast furnaces, which processed coke and minette . In 1870, Norbert Metz associated his company with

2135-540: The furnace owners were more and more interested in using minette . From 1854 to 1869, there were 64 requests for a concession to mine minette , mostly from Belgian and Prussian companies. About two-thirds of the mined minette was exported to the Prussian Rhineland and to Belgium . From the 1870s, the influx of German capital, the exploitation of the mines of the Esch-Alzette area in the south of

2196-422: The government. Its goal was to manage the disappearance of thousands of jobs in steel-working as well as possible. In 1977, a Division Anti-Crise , or DAC, was created, where those who had lost their jobs in steel-working could do community work (2,700 people in 1977). Obligatory early retirement at 57 years was introduced for ARBED employees; as well as cash subsidies for those who left voluntarily. In March 1979,

2257-484: The inter-war period, in contrast to the early boom years, were characterised by a level of stagnation, and several crises. The foundry of Rumelange closed down in 1927, as did that of Steinfort in 1931. There were further technological breakthroughs, but none as revolutionary as the Gilchrist-Thomas process. Production in the 1930s was subject to large fluctuations. Luxembourg did not escape the consequences of

2318-492: The iron in their manufactured products which were exported from Dutch ports. In 1841/1842, there were 11 blast furnaces in Luxembourg, which all used wood and whose total annual production amounted to 7,300 tons. The blast furnaces were in the following villages: Luxembourg's steel industry changed radically in the mid-19th century. In 1842, Luxembourg joined the Zollverein (the German customs union), gaining access to

2379-484: The late 18th century. This early industry involved another 8,000-10,000 workers on a seasonal basis: road workers, carriers, lumberjacks, colliers. These were generally farmers temporarily freed up from agricultural work, and earning some extra money. Luxembourgish steel industry generally produced iron bars, wrought iron and cast iron. Due to the weak domestic market, most of this was exported to workshops in Liège, which used

2440-568: The most modern steelworks in Europe, with direct access to the sea. In 1974 the world steel market collapsed due to over-production. The reasons for this were the oil crisis of 1973 , which increased energy prices and caused demand to decrease; competition from Asia , which was growing bigger and bigger; and European steel companies owned by the state, which to some extent brought their products to market at dumping prices. In one year, from 1974 to 1975, sales from Luxembourg fell from 6.4 million tons to 4.6 million tons. It soon became clear that this

2501-400: The plateau of the river Chiers , a tributary of the river Meuse which takes its source in the section of Oberkorn . Differdange has an altitude of 293 meters, the highest point of the municipality being at 427,1m at Koufeld . The commune spreads over 2,215 hectares . Its territory borders France, through the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle in the basin of Longwy . Differdange

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2562-472: The production levels in wartime, there are two periods to be distinguished: From August 1940 to March 1942, production was lower than before the war, due to the collapse of the French export market, the need to retool towards the German market, and the lack of raw materials. In August 1940, there were 14,000 unemployed. But from April 1942 until the liberation, the war industry's demands grew and grew. There were now not enough workers to meet demand. Another reason

2623-511: The remains of a smelting plant from the 13th or 14th century were found and excavated in the Genoeserbusch near Peppange . In the pre-industrial period (17th-18th centuries), there were a number of furnaces throughout the country, located near rivers (for water power) or forests (where charcoal was produced). "Bohnerz" ("bean ore") was used. The furnaces only employed a small number of permanent, specialised workers, estimated at 700 in

2684-622: The role of an honest broker. In September 1926 he managed to hammer out an agreement on the International Steel Agreement . This functioned as a cartel, and put an end to the steel war. Five large steel producers limited their production through a quota system: 40,5% for Germany; 31,9% for France; 12,6% for Belgium; 6,6% for the Saar region; 8,5% for Luxembourg. In 1926, Luxembourg again reached its 1913 level of production (2,560,000 tonnes of cast iron), and surpassed it in 1929 with 2,906,000 tonnes. The following years of

2745-540: The south of the country in 1842. In addition to the opening of the German market, the expansion of the railway network from 1855 to 1875 was another important factor, particularly the construction of the Luxembourg-Thionville railway line, with connections from there to the European industrial regions. As a consequence, it became profitable to use the harder coke instead of charcoal. This meant that

2806-551: The steel industry were found in Britain, Italy, Austria and the Netherlands. In 1923–1925, sold 72-75% of its production in Europe; Belgium (20%) and Germany (11%) were the major clients. America and Asia each absorbed about 12%. Unlike the situation under the Zollverein, the external markets had become highly volatile. The German market, essential to Luxembourg's economy, had been kept open until 1925 by provisional measures of

2867-540: The thirteenth century and Differdange did not deviate from this pattern. In 1235, Alexandre de Soleuvre founded the abbey of Differdange, which he donated to the order of Cîteaux. Initially, the Cistercian abbey welcomed only sisters from the nobility of Luxembourg. Subsequently, women from the Lorraine region of France and the present province of Luxembourg in Wallonia also made their vows at Differdange. In 1552,

2928-774: The town during the reign of Louis XIV , having demolished the medieval Château de Longwy , of which one tower remains. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, almost all of the Moselle department, along with Alsace and portions of the Meurthe and Vosges departments, was ceded to the German Empire by the Treaty of Frankfurt on the ground that the population in those areas spoke German dialects . Only one fifth of Moselle, including Longwy,

2989-495: The volume of cast iron produced increased from 100,000 tons to 2,5 million, and steel production, started only in 1886, reached 1,5 million tons in 1913. The number of blast furnaces increased from 14 in 1871 to 47 in 1913. Just before World War I, Luxembourg was the sixth-largest cast iron producer worldwide, and the eighth-largest producer of steel. During World War I, industrial production continued in Luxembourg, now under German occupation . The social crisis brought about by

3050-443: The war caused the workers in the metallurgy industry to found trade unions: the politically neutral Luxemburger Berg- und Hüttenarbeiter-Verband was founded on 1 September 1916, and the socialist Metallarbeiterverband was created on 3 September. Yet the big break for the industry came later: as a consequence of the German defeat, Luxembourg had to withdraw from the Zollverein in 1919. The steel industry, amongst others, advocated

3111-464: The whole range of products, only the most profitable site for each would remain in existence. Thus, the Steckel mill at Dudelange was closed. 1979 showed that these measures would not be enough: the steel crisis intensified, through increased inflation, which increased interest levels on loans, the second oil crisis , which caused energy and raw material prices to shoot up, and over-production, which

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3172-556: Was allocated 4 out of 78 seats in the Common Assembly. The period from World War II to 1974, known as the Trente Glorieuses , was characterised by stable growth. In 1958, 25,700 people were employed in the Luxembourg steel industry, rising to 27,200 in 1974. Steel production rose from 3 million tons in 1951, to 4 million in 1960, to 6,4 million in 1974. Between 1946 and 1967, 30,2 billion francs were invested in

3233-601: Was allowed to continue its existence; it received a German trustee as its head, and was renamed the " Eisenhüttenwerke Rodingen ". Several German steel companies, including the Reichswerke Hermann Göring , were eager to take over ARBED. Gustav Simon would not allow this: he recognised the key role that ARBED played in Luxembourg, and was reluctant to lose control over it. ARBED's management was not changed - Aloyse Meyer remained managing director - due to fears that this would affect its productivity. However,

3294-772: Was founded in Esch, by the brothers Dominique-Alexis and Pierre Brasseur . The following year, the Steinfort foundry owners Charles and Jules Collart set up a foundry in Rodange, with other investors. The same year, the SA Gonner, Munier et Helson built blast furnaces in Rumelange. In the 1880s, there was a further change: the Metz brothers acquired the rights to the process invented in 1879 by Sidney Thomas and Percy Gilchrist , allowing cast iron to be made into steel. They first used this process in Eich, but soon after opened

3355-677: Was imported from the Ruhr , and up to 70% of its produce was sold to Germany. The machinery and technology came from Germany, as did the skilled personnel and the engineers. The decision-making centre was in the Ruhr, whereas Luxembourg was a kind of periphery, where raw materials and semi-finished goods were made, to be processed in the Ruhr. After the German annexation of Lorraine in 1871, Luxembourgish steel products were subject to intense competition. Germany's suppression of customs rights in 1873 and overproduction provoked an economic downturn amplified by

3416-411: Was not a short-term incident, but a structural steel crisis . ARBED faced the challenge of modernising itself as quickly as possible to become profitable again with declining sales and income. In 1975 a law was enacted that prevented lay-offs for economic reasons. On 18 August 1975 a Tripartite economic committee was created, that is, a committee involving representatives of employers, trade unions and

3477-425: Was passed, which tied new concessions to mine minette under the condition that it had to be processed in Luxembourg. This enabled certain Luxembourg families to play a key role in the furnaces. The brothers Charles , Norbert and Auguste Metz founded the " Société en commandite Auguste Metz & Cie " in 1838, with the help of Belgian investments holding group " Société d'industrie luxembourgeoise ". They rented

3538-686: Was spared annexation. Otto von Bismarck later bitterly regretted his decision when it was discovered that the region of Briey and Longwy was rich with iron ore, exploited by the Aciéries de Longwy among other members of the cartel Comptoir Métallurgique de Longwy . After the Battle of the Ardennes in August 1914, Longwy was occupied by the Imperial German army until the 1918 Armistice . At

3599-465: Was still a factor in different steel-producing countries, despite the Davignon Plan . ARBED had received relatively little government money at this point, compared to its competitors: from 1976 to 1982 it invested 25.8 billion francs, of which only 10% were from the state. The DAC cost 5.1 billion in the same period, of which the state covered 1.6 billion. In other areas, where people were simply made redundant, these costs did not exist. From 1975 to 1979,

3660-462: Was that from September 1942, 1,200 foundry workers were forcibly conscripted into the Wehrmacht . Thus, from Autumn 1942 onwards, hundreds of so-called Ostarbeiter were taken from the occupied territories of Eastern Europe to Luxembourg and forced to work in the foundries and mines. They were not qualified to work in the foundries, and therefore production levels never reached those of the inter-war period. Other prisoners were also forced to work in

3721-402: Was to remain until the 1970s, was laid at the end of World War I. The steel war between France and Germany, of which the occupation of the Ruhr area was a part, was highly damaging to Luxembourg. The head of ARBED, Émile Mayrisch, sought to bring about a Franco-German rapprochement. His knowledge of both countries and their languages, and many contacts in the business world, allowed him to play

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