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89-536: Dijamant ( Serbian Cyrillic : Дијамант , lit.   'Diamond') is a Serbian edible oil manufacturing company headquartered in Zrenjanin . It is owned by the Fortenova Group . The company was established in 1938 as Oil Factory "Beograd", based in Zrenjanin . Following World War II , in 1946, the company became a government-owned enterprise named "2. oktobar". 1974 A new bottling plant

178-546: A vitamin . Many biological functions have been postulated, including a role as a fat-soluble antioxidant . In this role, vitamin E acts as a radical scavenger, delivering a hydrogen (H) atom to free radicals. At 323 kJ / mol , the O-H bond in tocopherols is about 10% weaker than in most other phenols . This weak bond allows the vitamin to donate a hydrogen atom to the peroxyl radical and other free radicals , minimizing their damaging effect. The thus-generated tocopheryl radical

267-595: A 2016 worldwide review reported a median dietary intake of 6.2 mg per day. Sources rich in vitamin E include seeds, nuts, seed oils , peanut butter , vitamin E-fortified foods and dietary supplements. Symptomatic vitamin E deficiency is rare, is usually caused by an underlying problem with digesting dietary fat rather than from a diet low in vitamin E. Deficiency can cause neurological disorders . Tocopherols and tocotrienols both occur in α (alpha), β (beta), γ (gamma), and δ (delta) forms, as determined by

356-867: A 2S rather than 2R configuration at the molecules' single chiral center, but unlike synthetic dl-alpha-tocopherol, the marketed tocotrienol dietary supplements are extracted from palm oil or rice bran oil. Tocotrienols are not essential nutrients; government organizations have not specified an estimated average requirement or recommended dietary allowance. A number of health benefits of tocotrienols have been proposed, including decreased risk of age-associated cognitive impairment, heart disease and cancer. Reviews of human research linked tocotrienol threatment to improved biomarkers for inflammation and cardiovascular disease , although those reviews did not report any information on clinically significant diease outcomes. Biomarkers for other diseases were not affected by tocotrienol supplementation. Vitamin E may have various roles as

445-635: A 32% decrease in the incidence of prostate cancer, but the SELECT trial of selenium or vitamin E for prostate cancer enrolled men ages 55 or older and reported relative risk 17% higher for the vitamin group. For colorectal cancer , a systematic review of randomized clinical trials and the large SELECT trial reported no statistically significant change in relative risk. The Women's Health Study reported no significant differences for incidences of all types of cancer, cancer deaths, or specifically for breast, lung or colon cancers. Potential confounding factors are

534-539: A challenge in Unicode modeling, as the glyphs differ only in italic versions, and historically non-italic letters have been used in the same code positions. Serbian professional typography uses fonts specially crafted for the language to overcome the problem, but texts printed from common computers contain East Slavic rather than Serbian italic glyphs. Cyrillic fonts from Adobe, Microsoft (Windows Vista and later) and

623-735: A concern that co-administration of vitamin E could counter the mechanisms of anti-cancer radiation therapy and some types of chemotherapy, and so advises against its use in these patient populations. The references it cited reported instances of reduced treatment adverse effects, but also poorer cancer survival, raising the possibility of tumor protection from the intended oxidative damage by the treatments. The U.S. National Academy of Medicine updated estimated average requirements (EARs) and recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for vitamin E in 2000. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. Adequate intakes (AIs) are identified when there

712-472: A dietary supplement in amounts in excess of 300 mg/day may lead to interactions with aspirin , warfarin , tamoxifen and cyclosporine A in ways that alter function. For aspirin and warfarin, high amounts of vitamin E may potentiate anti-blood clotting action. In multiple clinical trials, vitamin E lowered blood concentration of the immunosuppressant medication, cyclosporine A. The US National Institutes of Health , Office of Dietary Supplements, raises

801-512: A few other font houses include the Serbian variations (both regular and italic). If the underlying font and Web technology provides support, the proper glyphs can be obtained by marking the text with appropriate language codes. Thus, in non-italic mode: whereas: Since Unicode unifies different glyphs in same characters, font support must be present to display the correct variant. The standard Serbian keyboard layout for personal computers

890-844: A human trial as 540 mg/day, used an uncertainty factor of 2 to derive an upper limit of half of that, then rounded to 300 mg/day. The People's Republic of China publishes dietary guidelines without specifics for individual vitamins or minerals. The United Kingdom recommends 4 mg/day for adult men and 3 mg/day for adult women. The Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition set adult AIs at 6.5 mg/day (females) and 7.0 mg/day (males), and 650–700 mg/day (females), and 750–900 mg/day (males) for upper limits (amounts depending on age). India recommends an adult intake of 7.5–10 mg/day and does not set an upper limit. The World Health Organization recommends that adults consume 10 mg/day. Consumption tends to be below these recommendations. A worldwide summary reported

979-625: A lower-level act, for national minorities). It is also an official script in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro , along with Gaj's Latin alphabet . Serbian Cyrillic is in official use in Serbia , Montenegro , and Bosnia and Herzegovina . Although Bosnia "officially accept[s] both alphabets", the Latin script is almost always used in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , whereas Cyrillic

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1068-454: A means of disposing of excess vitamin E. Alpha-tocopherol transfer protein is coded by the TTPA gene on chromosome 8. The binding site for RRR-α-tocopherol is a hydrophobic pocket with a lower affinity for beta-, gamma-, or delta-tocopherols, or for the stereoisomers with an S configuration at the chiral 2 site. Tocotrienols are also a poor fit because the double bonds in the phytic tail create

1157-460: A median dietary intake of 6.2 mg/d for alpha-tocopherol. For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of daily value. For vitamin E labeling purposes 100% of the daily value was 30 international units, but as of 27 May 2016, it was revised to 15 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A table of the old and new adult daily values

1246-600: A median of 22.1 μmol/L for serum α-tocopherol, and defined α-tocopherol deficiency as less than 12 μmol/L. It cited a recommendation that serum α-tocopherol concentration be ≥30 μmol/L to optimize health benefits. In contrast, the U.S. Dietary Reference Intake text for vitamin E concluded that a plasma concentration of 12 μmol/L was sufficient to achieve normal ex vivo hydrogen peroxide-induced hemolysis. A 2014 review defined less than 9 μmol/L as deficient, 9-12 μmol/L as marginal, and greater than 12 μmol/L as adequate. Regardless of which definition

1335-521: A non-significant 2% increase in all-cause mortality when alpha-tocopherol was the only supplement used. The same journal article reported a statistically significant 3% increase for results when alpha-tocopherol was used in combination with other nutrients (vitamin A, vitamin C, beta-carotene, selenium). A Cochrane review concluded that there were no changes seen for risk of developing age-related macular degeneration (AMD) from long-term vitamin E supplementation and that supplementation may slightly increase

1424-1101: A progressive neurodegenerative disorder known as ataxia with vitamin E deficiency (AVED) despite consuming normal amounts of vitamin E. Large amounts of alpha-tocopherol as a dietary supplement are needed to compensate for the lack of α-TTP. Bariatric surgery as a treatment for obesity can lead to vitamin deficiencies. Long-term follow-up reported a 16.5% prevalence of vitamin E deficiency. There are guidelines for multivitamin supplementation, but adherence rates are reported to be less than 20%. Vitamin E deficiency due to either malabsorption or metabolic anomaly can cause nerve problems due to poor conduction of electrical impulses along nerves due to changes in nerve membrane structure and function. In addition to ataxia, vitamin E deficiency can cause peripheral neuropathy , myopathies , retinopathy , and impairment of immune responses. The amounts of alpha-tocopherol, other tocopherols and tocotrienols that are components of dietary vitamin E, when consumed from foods, do not appear to cause any interactions with drugs. Consumption of alpha-tocopherol as

1513-423: A rigid configuration that is a mismatch with the α-TTP pocket. A rare genetic defect of the TTPA gene results in people exhibiting a progressive neurodegenerative disorder known as ataxia with vitamin E deficiency (AVED) despite consuming normal amounts of vitamin E. Large amounts of alpha-tocopherol as a dietary supplement are needed to compensate for the lack of α-TTP. The role of α-TTP is to move α-tocopherol to

1602-607: A short schwa , e.g. /fə/).: Summary tables According to tradition, Glagolitic was invented by the Byzantine Christian missionaries and brothers Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 860s, amid the Christianization of the Slavs . Glagolitic alphabet appears to be older, predating the introduction of Christianity, only formalized by Cyril and expanded to cover non-Greek sounds. The Glagolitic alphabet

1691-433: A significant factor in the agricultural sector, especially in the field of oilseed production, which implies the development of partnership relations with manufacturers, as well as logistical coverage for the purpose of purchase and safe storage of oilseed crops. Dijamant is recognized by its partners and consumers as a socially responsible company, which pays great attention to issues of environmental protection and improving

1780-527: A single chiral center , which exists at the 2' chromanol ring carbon, at the point where the isoprenoid tail joins the ring. The other two corresponding centers in the phytyl tail of the corresponding tocopherols do not exist as chiral centers for tocotrienols due to unsaturation (C-C double bonds) at these sites. Tocotrienols extracted from plants are always dextrorotatory stereoisomers, signified as d-tocotrienols. In theory, levorotatory forms of tocotrienols (l-tocotrienols) could exist as well, which would have

1869-415: A variety of health conditions is mixed. Vitamin E can also interact with some medications and other supplements. Vitamin E has been studied as a treatment for skin health and skin ageing, immune function, and managing conditions like cardiovascular disease or Alzheimer's disease (AD), or certain types of cancer. Most studies have found limited or inconclusive benefits and the potential for some risks. It

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1958-497: A vitamin E dietary supplement , had lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases , cancer , dementia , and other diseases. However, placebo -controlled clinical trials using alpha-tocopherol as a supplement, with daily amounts as high as 2,000 mg per day, could not always replicate these findings. In the United States vitamin E supplement use peaked around 2002, but had declined by more than half by 2006. Declining use

2047-434: A vitamin E dietary supplement reported an increased risk of lung cancer for those consuming more than 215 mg/day. For prostate cancer , there are also conflicting results. A meta-analysis based on serum alpha-tocopherol content reported an inverse correlation in relative risk, but a second meta-analysis of observational studies reported no such relationship. A large clinical trial with male tobacco smokers and reported

2136-461: Is RRR-alpha tocopherol, referred to as d-alpha-tocopherol. The synthetic has 73.5% of the potency of the natural. Manufacturers of dietary supplements and fortified foods for humans or domesticated animals convert the phenol form of the vitamin to an ester using either acetic acid or succinic acid because the esters are more chemically stable, providing for a longer shelf-life. A worldwide summary of more than one hundred human studies reported

2225-415: Is a lipid-soluble antioxidant functioning within the glutathione peroxidase pathway, and protecting cell membranes from oxidation by reacting with lipid radicals produced in the lipid peroxidation chain reaction . This removes the free radical intermediates and prevents the oxidation reaction from continuing. The oxidized α-tocopheroxyl radicals produced in this process may be recycled back to

2314-526: Is a variation of the Cyrillic script used to write the Serbian language that originated in medieval Serbia . Reformed in 19th century by the Serbian philologist and linguist Vuk Karadžić . It is one of the two alphabets used to write modern standard Serbian , the other being Gaj's Latin alphabet . Reformed Serbian based its alphabet on the previous 18th century Slavonic-Serbian script, following

2403-522: Is about 7 mg/d but plasma concentrations are in the range of 11–37 μmol/L. Affinity of α-TTP for vitamin E vitamers Vitamin E has been suggested as a supplement for helping many health conditions, mostly due to its antioxidant activity and potential to protect cells from oxidative damage. In the US, the vitamin is widely available as an over-the-counter supplement, however, medical evidence supporting its effectiveness and safety for treating or preventing

2492-477: Is as follows: Vitamin E The term Vitamin E refers to a group of eight molecular-structure related compounds that include four tocopherols and four tocotrienols . The tocopherols function as fat-soluble antioxidants which may help protect cell membranes from reactive oxygen species . Vitamin E is classified as an essential nutrient for humans. Various government organizations recommend that adults consume between 3 and 15 mg per day, while

2581-432: Is created and from that the beta- compounds. Biosynthesis takes place in the plastids . As to why plants synthesize tocochromanols, the major reason appears to be for antioxidant activity. Different parts of plants, and different species, are dominated by different tocochromanols. The predominant form in leaves, and hence leafy green vegetables, is α-tocopherol. Location is in chloroplast membranes, in close proximity to

2670-432: Is excreted by the liver via bile into the intestinal lumen, where it will either be reabsorbed or excreted via feces, and all of the vitamin E vitamers are metabolized and then excreted via urine. Upon reaching the liver, RRR-alpha-tocopherol is preferentially taken up by alpha-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP). All other forms are degraded to 2'-carboxethyl-6-hydroxychromane (CEHC), a process that involves truncating

2759-593: Is in everyday use in Republika Srpska . The Serbian language in Croatia is officially recognized as a minority language; however, the use of Cyrillic in bilingual signs has sparked protests and vandalism . Serbian Cyrillic is an important symbol of Serbian identity. In Serbia, official documents are printed in Cyrillic only even though, according to a 2014 survey, 47% of the Serbian population write in

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2848-403: Is more γ-tocopherol than α-tocopherol, but for safflower, sunflower and olive oils the reverse is true. Of the commonly used food oils, palm oil is unique in that tocotrienol content is higher than tocopherol content. Seed tocochromanols content is also dependent on environmental stressors. In almonds, for example, drought or elevated temperature increase α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol content of

2937-504: Is most often recommended to obtain vitamin E through a balanced diet because high-dose supplementation may have health risks. There is evidence that the sale of dietary supplement vitamin E has decreased by up to 33% following a report showing little or no effect of vitamin E in preventing cancer or cardiovascular disease. Two meta-analyses concluded that as a dietary supplement, vitamin E neither improved nor impaired all-cause mortality. A meta-analysis of long-term clinical trials reported

3026-424: Is no discrimination among the vitamin E vitamers during absorption. Bile is necessary for chylomicron formation, so disease conditions such as cystic fibrosis result in biliary insufficiency and vitamin E malabsorption. When consumed as an alpha-tocopheryl acetate dietary supplement, absorption is promoted when consumed with a fat-containing meal. Unabsorbed vitamin E is excreted via feces. Additionally, vitamin E

3115-401: Is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs. The EAR for vitamin E for women and men ages 14 and up is 12 mg/day. The RDA is 15 mg/day. As for safety, tolerable upper intake levels ("upper limits" or ULs) are set for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. Hemorrhagic effects in rats were selected as the critical endpoint to calculate the upper limit via starting with

3204-411: Is provided at Reference Daily Intake . European Union regulations require that labels declare energy, protein, fat, saturated fat, carbohydrates, sugars, and salt. Voluntary nutrients may be shown if present in significant amounts. Instead of daily values, amounts are shown as percent of reference intakes (RIs). For vitamin E, 100% RI was set at 12 mg in 2011. The international unit measurement

3293-423: Is recycled to tocopherol by a redox reaction with a hydrogen donor, such as vitamin C . Vitamin E affects gene expression and is an enzyme activity regulator, such as for protein kinase C (PKC) – which plays a role in smooth muscle growth – with vitamin E participating in deactivation of PKC to inhibit smooth muscle growth. Photosynthesizing plants, algae and cyanobacteria synthesize tocochromanols,

3382-418: Is seen in observational studies. A large clinical trial reported no difference in bladder cancer cases between treatment and placebo. An inverse relationship between dietary vitamin E and lung cancer was reported in observational studies, but a large clinical trial in male tobacco smokers reported no impact on lung cancer between treatment and placebo, and a trial which tracked people who chose to consume

3471-443: Is synthesized from a mixture of toluene and 2,3,5-trimethyl-hydroquinone that reacts with isophytol to all-rac-alpha-tocopherol, using iron in the presence of hydrogen chloride gas as catalyst. The reaction mixture obtained is filtered and extracted with aqueous caustic soda. Toluene is removed by evaporation and the residue (all rac-alpha-tocopherol) is purified by vacuum distillation." The natural alpha tocopherol extracted from plants

3560-446: Is the most biologically active. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Services, maintains a food composition database. The last major revision was Release 28, September 2015. In addition to the naturally occurring sources shown in the table, certain ready-to-eat cereals, infant formulas, liquid nutrition products and other foods are fortified with alpha-tocopherol. Tocotrienols occur in some foods sources,

3649-477: Is the only one in official use. The ligatures : were developed specially for the Serbian alphabet. Serbian Cyrillic does not use several letters encountered in other Slavic Cyrillic alphabets. It does not use hard sign ( ъ ) and soft sign ( ь ), particularly due to a lack of distinction between iotated consonants and non-iotated consonants, but the aforementioned soft-sign ligatures instead. It does not have Russian/Belarusian Э , Ukrainian/Belarusian І ,

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3738-436: Is used, vitamin E deficiency is rare in humans, occurring as a consequence of abnormalities in dietary fat absorption or metabolism rather than from a diet low in vitamin E. Cystic fibrosis and other fat malabsorption conditions can result in low serum vitamin E. One example of a genetic abnormality in metabolism is mutations of genes coding for alpha-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP). Humans with this genetic defect exhibit

3827-586: The Fortenova Group was registered, which made the Fortenova Group the only owner of the company with a 100% of share. The decision to change the legal form of the company from a joint stock company to a limited liability company was made on August 23, 2021. year, and the decision was registered by the Decision of the APR on August 26, 2021. yr. Today, as a leading manufacturer in the edible oil industry,

3916-687: The Kingdom of Yugoslavia and later in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Due to the shared cultural area, Gaj's Latin alphabet saw a gradual adoption in the Socialist Republic of Serbia since, and both scripts are used to write modern standard Serbian. In Serbia , Cyrillic is seen as being more traditional, and has the official status (designated in the constitution as the " official script ", compared to Latin's status of "script in official use" designated by

4005-672: The Latin alphabet whereas 36% write in Cyrillic. The following table provides the upper and lower case forms of the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, along with the equivalent forms in the Serbian Latin alphabet and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) value for each letter. The letters do not have names, and consonants are normally pronounced as such when spelling is necessary (or followed by

4094-566: The Nazi puppet Independent State of Croatia banned the use of Cyrillic, having regulated it on 25 April 1941, and in June 1941 began eliminating " Eastern " (Serbian) words from Croatian, and shut down Serbian schools. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was used as a basis for the Macedonian alphabet with the work of Krste Misirkov and Venko Markovski . The Serbian Cyrillic script was one of

4183-495: The djerv (Ꙉꙉ) for the Serbian reflexes of Pre-Slavic *tj and *dj (* t͡ɕ , * d͡ʑ , * d͡ʒ , and * tɕ ), later the letter evolved to dje (Ђђ) and tshe (Ћћ) letters . Vuk Stefanović Karadžić fled Serbia during the Serbian Revolution in 1813, to Vienna. There he met Jernej Kopitar , a linguist with interest in slavistics. Kopitar and Sava Mrkalj helped Vuk to reform Serbian and its orthography. He finalized

4272-503: The 3 and 13 October 1914 banned the use of Serbian Cyrillic in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia , limiting it for use in religious instruction. A decree was passed on January 3, 1915, that banned Serbian Cyrillic completely from public use. An imperial order on October 25, 1915, banned the use of Serbian Cyrillic in the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina , except "within the scope of Serbian Orthodox Church authorities". In 1941,

4361-562: The Dijamant brand in the categories of edible oil, mayonnaise, table and spreadable margarine was confirmed by the global agency Nielsen, based on data collected for the retail market, which declared Dijamant the number one brand in Serbia in 2021. Through agricultural and food production and through their own retail network, they continuously provide consumers with fresh, healthy and domestic products of controlled origin and quality. They are

4450-409: The active reduced form through reduction by other antioxidants , such as ascorbate , retinol or ubiquinol . Other forms of vitamin E have their own unique properties; for example, γ-tocopherol is a nucleophile that can react with electrophilic mutagens . The four tocotrienols (alpha, beta, gamma, delta) are similar in structure to the four tocopherols, with the main difference being that

4539-576: The alphabet in 1818 with the Serbian Dictionary . Karadžić reformed standard Serbian and standardised the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet by following strict phonemic principles on the Johann Christoph Adelung ' model and Jan Hus ' Czech alphabet . Karadžić's reforms of standard Serbian modernised it and distanced it from Serbian and Russian Church Slavonic , instead bringing it closer to common folk speech, specifically, to

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4628-612: The chances of developing late AMD. Two meta-analyses reported lower vitamin E blood levels in AD people compared to healthy, age-matched people. However, a review of vitamin E supplementation trials concluded that there was insufficient evidence to state that supplementation reduced the risk of developing AD or slowed the progression of AD. In a 2022 update of an earlier report, the United States Preventive Services Task Force recommended against

4717-438: The chemical family of compounds made up of four tocopherols and four tocotrienols; in a nutrition context this family is referred to as Vitamin E. Biosynthesis starts with formation of the closed-ring part of the molecule as homogentisic acid (HGA). The side chain is attached (saturated for tocopherols , polyunsaturated for tocotrienols ). The pathway for both is the same, so that gamma- is created and from that alpha-, or delta-

4806-403: The company continuously invests in the improvement of products, as well as in the development of the production processes themselves, in accordance with the latest world trends in food technology. Numerous domestic and international recognitions are proof of the leadership position that Dijamant has in the production of oils, vegetable fats and margarine. The long-standing leadership position of

4895-563: The dialect of Eastern Herzegovina which he spoke. Karadžić was, together with Đuro Daničić , the main Serbian signatory to the Vienna Literary Agreement of 1850 which, encouraged by Austrian authorities, laid the foundation for Serbian, various forms of which are used by Serbs in Serbia , Montenegro , Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia today. Karadžić also translated the New Testament into Serbian, which

4984-576: The exquisite taste of their favorite mayonnaise, which is a welcome guest of salads and sandwiches. The company Dijamant is on the market a synonym for one of the earliest domestic producers of mayonnaise unique flavor, perfect texture and natural ingredients. Production of Dijamant mayonnaise started in 1988.Dijamant mayonnaise is produced using the traditional recipe of fresh egg yolk and no preservatives. The wide range includes delicatessen, salad and light mayonnaise, which are welcome guests in all salads, sandwiches, and celebration dining tables (celebration of

5073-401: The form of vitamin E used in prospective studies and the amounts. Synthetic, racemic mixtures of vitamin E isomers are not bioequivalent to natural, non-racemic mixtures, yet are widely used in clinical trials and as dietary supplement ingredients. One review reported a modest increase in cancer risk with vitamin E supplementation while stating that more than 90% of the cited clinical trials used

5162-457: The former have hydrophobic side chains with three carbon-carbon double bonds, whereas the tocopherols have saturated side chains. For alpha(α) -tocotrienol each of the three "R" sites has a methyl group (CH 3 ) attached. For beta(β) -tocotrienol: R1 = methyl group, R2 = H, R3 = methyl group. For gamma(γ) -tocotrienol: R1 = H, R2 = methyl group, R3 = methyl group. For delta(δ) -tocotrienol: R1 = H, R2 = H, R3 = methyl group. Tocotrienols have only

5251-519: The hydrophobic tail which differs between tocopherol and tocotrienol. The synthesis of the specific tail is dependent on which molecule it originates from. In a tocopherol, its prenyl tail emerges from the geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGDP) group, while the phytyl tail of a tocotrienol stems from a phytyl diphosphate. The synthetic product is all-rac-alpha-tocopherol, also referred to as dl-alpha tocopherol. It consists of eight stereoisomers (RRR, RRS, RSS, RSR, SRR, SSR, SRS and SSS) in equal quantities. "It

5340-486: The lowest-observed-adverse-effect-level. The result was a human upper limit set at 1000 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes . The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as dietary reference values, with population reference intakes (PRIs) instead of RDAs, and average requirements instead of EARs. AIs and ULs are defined

5429-585: The number and position of methyl groups on the chromanol ring. All eight of these vitamers feature a chromane double ring, with a hydroxyl group that can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals , and a hydrophobic side chain that allows for penetration into biological membranes. Both natural and synthetic tocopherols are subject to oxidation, so dietary supplements are esterified , creating tocopheryl acetate for stability purposes. Population studies have suggested that people who consumed foods with more vitamin E, or who chose on their own to consume

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5518-661: The nuts. The same article mentions that drought increases the tocopherol content of olives, and heat likewise for soybeans. Vitamin E biosynthesis occurs in the plastid and goes through two different pathways: the Shikimate pathway and the Methylerythritol Phosphate pathway (MEP pathway). The Shikimate pathway generates the chromanol ring from the Homogentisic Acid (HGA) and the MEP pathway produces

5607-532: The patron saint of the household – Slava). Omegol oil and margarine are products rich in ALA omega-3 fatty acid, which contributes to the maintenance of normal blood cholesterol levels. They contain an optimal ratio of omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids and are a natural source of vitamin E . Serbian Cyrillic alphabet The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet ( Serbian : Српска ћирилица азбука , Srpska ćirilica azbuka , pronounced [sr̩̂pskaː tɕirǐlitsa] )

5696-480: The photosynthetic process. The function is to protect against damage from the ultraviolet radiation of sunlight. Under normal growing conditions the presence of α-tocopherol does not appear to be essential, as there are other photo-protective compounds, and plants that through mutations have lost the ability to synthesize α-tocopherol demonstrate normal growth. However, under stressed growing conditions such as drought, elevated temperature or salt-induced oxidative stress,

5785-421: The phytic tail of the molecule, then either sulfated or glycuronidated. This renders the molecules water-soluble and leads to excretion via urine. Alpha-tocopherol is also degraded by the same process, to 2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-2-(2'-carboxyethyl)-6-hydroxychromane (α-CEHC), but more slowly because it is partially protected by α-TTP. Large intakes of α-tocopherol result in increased urinary α-CEHC, so this appears to be

5874-481: The plants' physiological status is superior if it has the normal synthesis capacity. Seeds are lipid-rich, to provide energy for germination and early growth. Tocochromanols protect the seed lipids from oxidizing and becoming rancid. The presence of tocochromanols extends seed longevity, and promotes successful germination and seedling growth. Gamma-tocopherol dominates in seeds of most plant species, but there are exceptions. For canola, corn and soy bean oils, there

5963-415: The plasma membrane of hepatocytes (liver cells), where it can be incorporated into newly created very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) molecules. These convey α-tocopherol to cells in the rest of the body. As an example of a result of the preferential treatment, the US diet delivers approximately 70 mg/d of γ-tocopherol and plasma concentrations are on the order of 2–5 μmol/L; meanwhile, dietary α-tocopherol

6052-423: The prefixes alpha- (α-), beta- (β-), gamma- (γ-), and delta- (δ-). For alpha(α)-tocopherol each of the three "R" sites has a methyl group (CH 3 ) attached. For beta(β)-tocopherol: R1 = methyl group, R2 = H, R3 = methyl group. For gamma(γ)-tocopherol: R1 = H, R2 = methyl group, R3 = methyl group. For delta(δ)-tocopherol: R1 = H, R2 = H, R3 = methyl group. The same configurations exist for the tocotrienols, except that

6141-409: The principle of "write as you speak and read as it is written", removing obsolete letters and letters representing iotated vowels , introducing ⟨J⟩ from the Latin alphabet instead, and adding several consonant letters for sounds specific to Serbian phonology . During the same period, linguists led by Ljudevit Gaj adapted the Latin alphabet, in use in western South Slavic areas, using

6230-463: The quality of life in the community. They are especially dedicated to the "Follow the Sunflower" projects, which is focused on the needs of people with Down syndrome and their inclusion in social processes, as well as "Young Pastry Chefs", which is dedicated to talented high school students. Edible refined sunflower oil, for decades was the main product of Dijamant. Products that are procedure from

6319-475: The refined oil obtained are the highest quality sunflower seeds from domestic arable land. Apart from sunflower oil, now under the brand Dijamant, we offered Mediterranean oil and palm oil for frying. First margarine for spreading, was produced in the domestic market, in the distant 1980, it was a Dobro Jutro, a favorite product of many generations of consumers. Over time, the Dobro Jutro grown in line of

6408-486: The responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority . Tocotrienols and tocopherols, the latter including the stereoisomers of synthetic alpha-tocopherol, are absorbed from the intestinal lumen, incorporated into chylomicrons , and secreted into the portal vein , leading to the liver. Absorption efficiency is estimated at 51% to 86%, and that applies to all of the vitamin E family – there

6497-1467: The richest being palm oil , but to a lesser extent rice bran oil , barley , oats , and certain seeds, nuts and grains, and the oils derived from them. Vitamin E is fat soluble, so dietary supplement products are usually in the form of the vitamin, esterified with acetic acid to generate tocopheryl acetate , and dissolved in vegetable oil in a softgel capsule. For alpha-tocopherol, amounts range from 100 to 1000 IU per serving. Smaller amounts are incorporated into multi-vitamin/mineral tablets. Gamma-tocopherol and tocotrienol supplements are also available from dietary supplement companies. The latter are extracts from palm oil. The World Health Organization does not have any recommendations for food fortification with vitamin E. The Food Fortification Initiative does not list any countries that have mandatory or voluntary programs for vitamin E. Infant formulas have alpha-tocopherol as an ingredient. In some countries, certain brands of ready-to-eat cereals, liquid nutrition products and other foods have alpha-tocopherol as an added ingredient. Various forms of vitamin E are common food additive in oily food, used to deter rancidity caused by peroxidation. Those with an E number include: These E numbers include all racemic forms and acetate esters thereof. Commonly found on food labels in Europe and some other countries, their safety assessment and approval are

6586-452: The same as in the United States. For women and men ages 10 and older, the PRIs are set at 11 and 13 mg/day, respectively. PRI for pregnancy is 11 mg/day, for lactation 11 mg/day. For children ages 1–9 years the PRIs increase with age from 6 to 9 mg/day. The EFSA used an effect on blood clotting as a safety-critical effect. It identified that no adverse effects were observed in

6675-470: The same principles. As a result of this joint effort, Serbian Cyrillic and Gaj's Latin alphabets have a complete one-to-one congruence, with the Latin digraphs Lj, Nj, and Dž counting as single letters. The updated Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was officially adopted in the Principality of Serbia in 1868, and was in exclusive use in the country up to the interwar period . Both alphabets were official in

6764-768: The semi-vowels Й or Ў , nor the iotated letters Я (Russian/Bulgarian ya ), Є (Ukrainian ye ), Ї ( yi ), Ё (Russian yo ) or Ю ( yu ), which are instead written as two separate letters: Ја, Је, Ји, Јо, Ју . Ј can also be used as a semi-vowel, in place of й . The letter Щ is not used. When necessary, it is transliterated as either ШЧ , ШЋ or ШТ . Serbian italic and cursive forms of lowercase letters б , г , д , п , and т (Russian Cyrillic alphabet) differ from those used in other Cyrillic alphabets: б , г , д , п , and т (Serbian Cyrillic alphabet). The regular (upright) shapes are generally standardized among languages and there are no officially recognized variations. That presents

6853-454: The spreading margarine which now make up Dobro Jutro Dairy, Diet Dobro Jutro, Dobro Jutro Light and Dobro Jutro with butter. The natural source of essential fatty acids and vitamins, and the absence of cholesterol and trans fatty acids constitute Dobro Jutro margarine, nutritious, highly valuable food. Not only the French should take the credit, for many generations of consumers that today enjoy

6942-413: The synthetic form ( all-racemic or all-rac vitamin E, also dl-tocopherol) is equal parts of eight stereoisomers RRR, RRS, RSS, SSS, RSR, SRS, SRR and SSR with progressively decreasing biological equivalency, so that 1.36 mg of dl-tocopherol is considered equivalent to 1.0 mg of d-tocopherol, the natural form. Rephrased, the synthetic has 73.5% of the potency of the natural. Alpha-tocopherol

7031-428: The synthetic tocopheryl acetate, is sold as a popular dietary supplement, either by itself or incorporated into a multivitamin product, and in oils or lotions for use on skin. The nutritional content of vitamin E is defined by equivalency to 100% RRR-configuration α-tocopherol activity. The molecules that contribute α-tocopherol activity are four tocopherols and four tocotrienols, within each group of four identified by

7120-545: The two official scripts used to write Serbo-Croatian in Yugoslavia since its establishment in 1918, the other being Gaj's Latin alphabet ( latinica ). Following the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, Serbian Cyrillic is no longer used in Croatia on national level, while in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro it remained an official script. Under the Constitution of Serbia of 2006, Cyrillic script

7209-442: The unsaturated side chain has three carbon-carbon double bonds whereas the tocopherols have a saturated side chain. In addition to distinguishing tocopherols and tocotrienols by position of methyl groups, the tocopherols have a phytyl tail with three chiral points or centers that can have a right or left orientation. The naturally occurring plant form of alpha-tocopherol is RRR-α-tocopherol, also referred to as d-tocopherol, whereas

7298-410: The use of vitamin E supplements for the prevention of cardiovascular disease or cancer, concluding there was insufficient evidence to assess the balance of benefits and harms, yet also concluding with moderate certainty that there is no net benefit of supplementation. As for literature on different types of cancer, an inverse relationship between dietary vitamin E and kidney cancer and bladder cancer

7387-630: Was based on the Slavic dialect of Thessaloniki . Part of the Serbian literary heritage of the Middle Ages are works such as Miroslav Gospel , Vukan Gospels , St. Sava's Nomocanon , Dušan's Code , Munich Serbian Psalter , and others. The first printed book in Serbian was the Cetinje Octoechos (1494). It's notable extensive use of diacritical signs by the Resava dialect and use of

7476-504: Was built with a line for filling oil in PVC bottles. In 2005, the Croatian conglomerate Agrokor Group became the majority shareholder of Dijamant. With the purchase, Agrokor came to own two large edible oil manufacturers, " Zvijezda d.d. Zagreb " in Croatia and "Dijamant a.d. Zrenjanin" in Serbia. In 2021, by the decision of APR, the transfer of Agrokor's share in the Dijamant company to

7565-631: Was gradually superseded in later centuries by the Cyrillic script, developed around by Cyril's disciples, perhaps at the Preslav Literary School at the end of the 9th century. The earliest form of Cyrillic was the ustav , based on Greek uncial script, augmented by ligatures and letters from the Glagolitic alphabet for consonants not found in Greek. There was no distinction between capital and lowercase letters. The standard language

7654-553: Was originally started in 2000, when forms of Vitamin E other than alpha-tocopherol was dropped from dietary calculations by the IOM. The UL amount disregards any conversion. The EFSA has never used an IU unit, and their measurement only considers RRR-alpha-tocopherol. Of the different forms of vitamin E, gamma-tocopherol ( γ-tocopherol ) is the most common form found in the North American diet, but alpha-tocopherol ( α-tocopherol )

7743-582: Was published in 1868. He wrote several books; Mala prostonarodna slaveno-serbska pesnarica and Pismenica serbskoga jezika in 1814, and two more in 1815 and 1818, all with the alphabet still in progress. In his letters from 1815 to 1818 he used: Ю, Я, Ы and Ѳ. In his 1815 song book he dropped the Ѣ. The alphabet was officially adopted in 1868, four years after his death. From the Old Slavic script Vuk retained these 24 letters: He added one Latin letter: And 5 new ones: He removed: Orders issued on

7832-534: Was theorized to be due to publications of meta-analyses that showed either no benefits or actual negative consequences from high-dose vitamin E. Vitamin E was discovered in 1922, isolated in 1935, and first synthesized in 1938. Because the vitamin activity was first identified as essential for fertilized eggs to result in live births (in rats), it was given the name "tocopherol" from Greek words meaning birth and to bear or carry . Alpha-tocopherol, either naturally extracted from plant oils or, most commonly, as

7921-429: Was used by the United States in 1968–2016. 1 IU is the biological equivalent of about 0.667 mg d (RRR)-alpha-tocopherol (2/3 mg exactly), or of 0.90 mg of dl-alpha-tocopherol, corresponding to the then-measured relative potency of stereoisomers. In May 2016, the measurements have been revised, such that 1 mg of "Vitamin E" is 1 mg of d-alpha-tocopherol or 2 mg of dl-alpha-tocopherol. The change

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