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116-477: Under the Julio-Claudian emperors, a single "universal" or "ecumenical" association of artists was established, which called itself the sacred thymelic synod of ecumenical artists of Dionysus, sacred victors, crown-wearers, and their fellow competitors ( Ancient Greek : ἡ ἱερὰ θυμελικὴ σύνοδος τῶν ἀπὸ τῆς οἰκουμένης περὶ τὸν Διόνυσον τεχνειτῶν ἱερονεικῶν στεφανειτῶν καὶ τῶν τούτων συναγωνιστῶν ), alongside

232-577: A "holy precinct" with neocorate status and a high priest. Archaeological finds suggest that this was in or near the Theatre of Pompey . The priests and officials in Rome had the greatest prestige of all the artists, controlled special funds, and dispatched decrees to the artists elsewhere. This headquarters may have been established immediately after Domitian established the Greek-style festival games,

348-869: A "sanctuary" ( temenos ) dedicated to Dionysus. Their chief officials served as priests of Dionysus. Their meetings included a range of sacrifices and they hosted their own festivals and religious events in honour of Dionysus. The associations of artists were independent political entities. They sent their own envoys to cities, kings, and other states and received embassies from them in turn. They appointed citizens of other communities as their official representatives ( proxenos ). These interactions often focussed on securing safe passage and tax immunities for their members. In addition, they sent their own sacred ambassadors ( theoroi ), as their official representatives, to major festivals. They appointed sacred hosts ( theorodokoi ) to receive foreign sacred ambassadors at their festivals. All of these actions were typical for city-states in

464-652: A Claudian by birth, became Augustus' stepson after the latter's marriage to Livia , who divorced Tiberius' natural father in the process. Tiberius' connection to the Julian side of the Imperial family grew closer when he married Augustus' only daughter, Julia the Elder . He ultimately succeeded Augustus as emperor in AD 14 after becoming his stepfather's adopted son and heir. Caligula ( Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus )

580-408: A daughter or step-daughter, Rubellia Bassa , who married a maternal uncle of the future Roman Emperor Nerva by the name of Gaius Octavius Laenas . Together Laenas and Bassa had at least one child, a surmised son, who was the grandfather of Sergius Octavius Laenas Pontianus , consul in AD 131. The great-uncle/great-nephew blood relationship and/or adopted son relationship was commonly found among

696-458: A deity and shared meals. These associations usually had officers and common meetings, modelled on the magistrates and assemblies of Greek cities . The members of these associations might share a common place of origin and/or a common activity (e.g. merchants, organising festivals for their patron deity). There were several terms for these associations, including koinon ("shared thing") and synodos ("synod" or "meeting"). The first attestations of

812-414: A dossier of letters from a series of emperors (Claudius, Hadrian, Septimius Severus , Caracalla , and Alexander Severus ), confirming the privileges of the association; a letter to association at large announcing that the individual had been admitted and had paid the entrance fee; a dating formula by first archon, secretary archon, law-displaying archon, and the name of the festival at which the certificate

928-518: A governor of Syria who committed suicide after being accused of killing Germanicus, and first husband of Livia Orestilla , Caligula's second wife. The conspiracy failed and its members were executed. Vacancies after the conspiracy allowed Nymphidius Sabinus , a grandson of former imperial freedman Gaius Julius Callistus , who claimed to be an illegitimate son of Caligula, to rise in the Praetorian Guard. In late AD 67 or early 68, Vindex ,

1044-457: A group of performers, who then negotiated a contract with Iasian embassy. In other cases, the festival organisers may have requested specific performers. Theatrical performances at festivals had religious significance and the artists emphasised their devotion to Dionysus and the other gods above all else. In one decree from Delphi, they call themselves "the most pious of the Greeks." In a decree of

1160-535: A natural son. In accordance with Roman naming conventions, the adopted son would replace his original family name with the name of his adopted family. A famous example of this custom is Julius Caesar 's adoption of his great-nephew, Gaius Octavius . Primogeniture is notably absent in the history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Augustus, Caligula and Nero failed to father biological and legitimate sons. Tiberius' own son, Drusus predeceased him. Only Claudius

1276-437: A pillow to hasten Caligula's accession. According to Suetonius, he was known for his cruelty and debauchery through his perversion on the island of Capri where he forced young boys and girls into orgies. On one account when one of the boys complained, Tiberius had his legs broken. Although Augustus' succession plans were all but ruined due to the deaths of more than several family members, including many of his own descendants, in

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1392-435: A portion of the festival taxes. The artists also had various expenses. Their sanctuaries and properties had to be maintained. They paid for honours (crowns, statues, and inscriptions) for the emperors, their benefactors, and members. Sending envoys to the emperors, to cities, and to their members throughout the empire was also expensive. They held various festivals and religious rites of their own, especially in connection with

1508-487: A production runs smoothly. A Stage Manager has to give the cue to the Audio Engineer and Lighting Technician , signal the performers when they are on, ensure that the stage is all set and safe for the performance, etc. The nature of most productions result in the technical crew being on-site for significant periods of time; both leading up to and after a performance. Most often, though not exclusively, members of

1624-450: A public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. Nymphidius Sabinus , who desired to become emperor himself, bribed the Praetorian Guard to betray Nero. Sabinus was later murdered in favour of Galba. Nero reportedly committed suicide with the help of his scribe Epaphroditus . The Senate had been trying to preserve

1740-485: A similar organisation for athletes. It is unclear whether the impetus for this came from the Roman emperors or the artists themselves. These artists flourished in the second and third centuries AD, when they had a headquarters in Rome and performed in festivals from southern Gaul to Egypt and Syria. They disappear from the record around 300 AD and had certainly died out by the 420s AD. Ancient Greek theatre developed during

1856-537: A single "association of athletes and musicians" ( Latin : synodus xysticorum et thymelicorum ) which might indicate that the artists had merged with the association for athletes or it could have been a copyist's error. It is unclear whether the restriction of privileges was requested by the artists in order to maintain their exclusivity or imposed upon them by the emperors. The artists are not attested again after this rescript, but may have continued to exist (the association of athletes survived until around 400 AD). If so,

1972-533: A year of Nero's suicide in AD 68, the Julio-Claudian dynasty was succeeded by the Flavian emperors following a brief civil war over the vacant Imperial throne. Lacking any male child and heir, Augustus married his only child—a daughter— Julia to his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus . Marcellus, however, died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Augustus then married his widowed daughter to his loyal friend, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , previously married to Augustus' niece,

2088-555: Is not attested in Egypt after the third century BC). The Syracusan associations are last attested in 46-45 BC. The Ionian-Hellespontine branch successfully secured immunity from the indemnities Sulla imposed on Asia Minor later in the war. In 69 BC, they were found at Artaxata , the capital of the Roman enemy Tigranes the Great . Strabo mentions them as still active at Lebedus in

2204-564: Is probably an inscription from Teos from the second half of the first century AD, which honours the organiser of a Dionysia Caesarea festival at which they had performed. It is unclear how or when the universal association of the artists developed. Fauconnier proposes three possibilities: (1) the Hellenistic associations of artists merged together; (2) the Ionian-Hellespontine association claimed universal jurisdiction after

2320-713: The Capitolia at Rome in 86 AD. Fauconnier thinks that the Capitolia was one reason for establishing the Roman headquarters, alongside a desire for easy access to the Imperial court, but thinks it only occurred in the reign of Hadrian . A branch office, with priests and a council chamber, certainly existed in Athens . An inscription probably indicates that the so-called Temple of Diana in the Sanctuaire de la Fontaine in Nîmes

2436-551: The Classical Period , especially in the city of Athens , where competitive performances of tragedy and comedy took place in the Theatre of Dionysus at the Dionysia and Lenaia festivals. Initially, the performers were amateurs, drawn from the citizen body. Already in the fifth century BC, however, plays began to be performed abroad and actors (as opposed to chorus members) became increasingly professionalised. In

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2552-437: The family name of his natural father and initially renamed himself "Gaius Julius Caesar" after his adoptive father. It was also customary for the adopted son to acknowledge his original family by adding an extra name at the end of his new name. As such, Augustus' adopted name would have been "Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus". However, there is no evidence that he ever used the name Octavianus. Following Augustus' ascension as

2668-507: The invasion of Britain in AD 43. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day; however, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position—resulting in the deaths of many senators. Claudius also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life. He married four times (to, in order, Plautia Urgulanilla , Aelia Paetina , Valeria Messalina and, finally, Agrippina

2784-400: The orchestra in a Greek theatre and thus came to mean "dramatic" or "theatrical," while "xystic," literally "sandy," referred to the sandy grounds used for athletic events. "Sacred victors" and "crown-wearers" were terms for victors in different grades of games festival, which were legally defined from the first century AD. It seems that the new titulature of the artists was modelled on that of

2900-438: The senator Claudius Cassius Aggripinus, Claudia Maeciana Alexandra, Claudia Vettia Agrippina, and Claudia Dryantilla Platonis, one of the women who took part in the ludi saeculares of the year AD 204. Tiberius' lineage may have survived into the 2nd century through the offspring of his granddaughter Julia Livia , wife of Gaius Rubellius Blandus . Apart from a son, Rubellius Plautus , executed by Nero in AD 62, Julia had

3016-541: The Amphictyony, they are granted various privileges and freedoms, "so that the honours and sacrifices for which [they] are appointed can be carried out for the gods at the appropriate times, as they are free from all other activities and devoted to the services for the gods." Like other Hellenistic associations, the artists' internal organisation were modelled on contemporary Hellenistic city-states. They had laws ( nomoi ) and passed decrees ( psephismata ). Administration

3132-662: The Athenian association strongly supported Mithridates VI in his conflict with Rome. In the course of the Sulla 's siege of Athens in 87 and 86 BC, the association's facilities at Eleusis were destroyed. Their manager, Philemon, had to repair the damage out of his personal funds. The Isthmian-Nemean association and the Cypriot branch of the Egyptian Association are last attested in the early first century BC (it

3248-695: The Dionysiac artists come in the 270s BC. The Dionysiac artists of Athens are mentioned in an inscribed decree passed by the Amphictyony of Delphi between 279 and 277 BC, which confirmed that they enjoyed "inviolability" ( asylia ), rights to safe travel, freedom from military obligations, and tax exemptions. The Egyptian artists are mentioned in Callixenus of Rhodes ' description of the Grand Procession organised by Ptolemy II at one of

3364-564: The Elder , and Rubellius Plautus , son of Julia Livia along with his wife, children and father-in-law. In AD 64 Rome burned . Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as large reconstruction projects. To fund this, the provinces were heavily taxed following the fire. By AD 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy, led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso , an adoptive descendant of Triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus , grandson of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso ,

3480-477: The Elder , was a granddaughter of Augustus. Through Agrippina, Germanicus' children—including Caligula—were Augustus' great-grandchildren. When Augustus adopted Tiberius, the latter was required to adopt his brother's eldest son as well, thus allowing Germanicus' side of the Imperial family to inherit the Julius nomen . Claudius ( Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ), the younger brother of Germanicus,

3596-428: The Hellenistic period, but not of most other associations. Communities seeking to secure the prestigious status of "crown games" for a new or existing festival, might make overtures to the artists, asking them to recognise that status. They also helped secure recognition from other cities and competitors. However, the diplomatic role of the artists went far beyond theatrical matters. In the second century BC, for example

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3712-527: The Imperial cult. In some cases, they helped meet some of the costs of the festivals that they performed at. They may also have paid for funeral costs of their members. The artists networks of contacts probably allowed them to organise monetary transfers ( permutationes ) to different parts of the empire. The banking system of the Roman Empire left it to individuals and groups to organise these transfers informally for themselves. Epigraphic evidence for

3828-537: The Ionian-Hellespontine artists undertook a diplomatic mission to Crete, for example. The artists often maintained particularly close links with the Hellenistic kings , who often connected themselves closely with the god Dionysus and presented themselves in theatrical fashion. The Egyptian artists seem to have been founded and controlled by the Ptolemaic dynasty. It played a central role in Dionysiac procession at

3944-497: The Ionian-Hellespontine association. The role of the emperors and Roman authorities in the establishment of the universal association is also disputed. Lavagne and Le Guen argue that the emperors created it, because performers were a potential source of opposition to their authority and a single universal association was easier for them to monitor. Fauconnier finds "no evidence that the imperial authorities ever took concerted action to create and develop an agonistic association." He sees

4060-477: The Isthmian and Nemean association was a "loose confederation," with bases in many cities but not dominated by any of them. The Ionian and Hellespontine association, which was based in the city of Teos, became so powerful that it clashed with the civic authorities. Most theatrical performers were not members of the association. The artists were an elite group, who enjoyed special prestige. The different branches of

4176-485: The Ptolemaia festivals of the 270s BC. Both testimonies seem to refer to associations that already existed. Several associations are attested: These associations differed from one another in internal structure and general situation. The Athenian association was dependent on the city of Athens and supported Athenian foreign policy goals. The Egyptian association was similarly tied to the Ptolemaic royal court. By contrast,

4292-676: The Teans appealed this decision to Rome, so they were transferred to Lebedus . In the 130s BC, the Athenian association and the Isthmian-Nemean association came into conflict because their areas of operation overlapped so closely. The associations attempted to collaborate in Thebes and Argos and to establish a common treasury, but the Isthmian artists objected, shutting the Athenians out of their assembly and refusing to pay their money into

4408-680: The Younger ) and is referenced by Suetonius as being easily manipulated. This is particularly evident during his marriage to Agrippina the Younger, his niece. Messalina saw several members of the dynasty eliminated, notably arranging for the executions of Claudius' nieces Julia Livilla , daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, and Julia Livia , daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger, as well as Julia Livilla's husband Marcus Vinicius , her mother's husband Appius Junius Silanus , Gaius Asinius Pollio , son of Tiberius' first wife Vipsania by her second husband and whose brother Servius Asinius Celer

4524-421: The Younger . She saw that the dynasty's numbers dwindle with the execution of Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus , a grandson of Julia the Younger, to strengthen Nero's claim, having previously arranged the death of his brother Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus . In AD 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four times between AD 55 and 60. Nero consolidated power over time through

4640-468: The artists and their sister association of athletes, was adopted by Christians to describe their own meetings in the 320s or 330s AD. Julio-Claudian The Julio-Claudian dynasty comprised the first five Roman emperors : Augustus , Tiberius , Caligula , Claudius , and Nero . This line of emperors ruled the Roman Empire , from its formation (under Augustus, in 27 BC) until the last of

4756-501: The artists as the prime movers, with the emperors, particularly Claudius, playing a supportive role. Most evidence for the artists derives from the second and early third centuries AD, coinciding with the heyday of the Greek festival circuit. This circuit was organised by Hadrian in a set of letters to the artists, known from an inscription found at Alexandria Troas . The circuit comprised dozens of games held across Italy , Greece , and

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4872-465: The artists falls away in the second half of the third century AD, but papyrus evidence from Egypt indicates that the association remained active throughout the century. Between 293 and 305 AD, Diocletian or one of his co-rulers issued a Latin rescript restricted the privileges of the artists to those who had won at least three victories, including at least one in Greece or Rome. This rescript refers to

4988-478: The artists is a papyrus from 43 AD in which the Emperor Claudius (r. 41-54 AD) promises to retain various privileges that the artists had received from Augustus (r. 31 BC-14 AD). It seems that he hired them to perform at the celebrations of the conquest of Britannia in Rome in 44 AD. He reaffirmed their privileges in response to another appeal in 48 AD. The earliest surviving decree of the association

5104-563: The artists themselves. Members of the association paid a membership fee ( entagion ) on enrolment. The amount was the same everywhere in the Empire. In the second century AD, it may have been around 100 denarii . Papyri show that it was 250 denarii by the late third century AD (roughly equivalent to a year's rent for a good house). Members of the association of the artists received a membership certificate. A number of these certificates survive on papyrus recovered from Egypt. They consisted of

5220-480: The artists were and what role was played by the regional branches is the topic of debate. Most scholars have understood it as a confederation of local branches, which reported to the headquarters in Rome. Aneziri argued that local branches played only a minor role in the Imperial-period association, contrasting this with the regional associations of artists in the Hellenistic period. Onno Van Nijf argued that

5336-491: The artists were not unified, as is best known from a long-running conflict between the artists of Athens and the artists of Isthmia and Nemea, mentioned in numerous inscriptions and eventually subject of an arbitration by the Roman Republic . The development of the artists of Dionysus in the early Hellenistic period contrasts with competitors in athletic competitions at festivals, who did not develop an association until

5452-475: The artists' Imperial cult . They held office for limited periods and paid a fee for the privilege. An official called the "manager" ( dioiketes ), who appears to have assisted in organising individual festivals at which the artists performed, is attested only in Egypt. On two occasions around AD 200, the emperors appointed curators ( logistai ) to take control of the artists' finances, probably to resolve specific cases of financial mismanagement. How centralised

5568-448: The artists. Some scholars see the emperors as closely controlling the artists and their sister organisation of athletes, in order to use them as a tool in order to monitor and control festival games generally. Fauconnier argues that Imperial interference conforms to the general pattern of "petition-and-response" which characterised most Imperial interactions with their subjects, i.e. emperors usually intervened only in response to appeals from

5684-432: The artists. These often took the form of endowments of funds and real estate. They derived income from loaning the funds at interest and from rent on the real estate. For example, an inscription describes how Titus Aelius Alcibiades donated a set of stables in Rome to the artists, which they rented out to the profit of the artists in Rome and Anatolia. The artists may have charged a fee to festival organisers and/or collected

5800-419: The association was "a rather loose agglomeration of various overlapping groups of performers... who could all claim to be somehow connected to [the] imperially recognised, and centrally located association of Rome." By contrast, Fauconnier emphasises the uniformity of the artists' institutions, officials, and practices across the whole Roman empire and argues for "a fixed organisational structure", in which most of

5916-574: The association would not have survived the collapse of the festival circuits over the course of the fourth century AD. Increasingly, audiences preferred to watch pantomime , rather than the tragedies and comedies that had been the mainstay of the artists. In the 380s, Libanius describes the active theatre scene in Antioch as being run by local troupes of mimes and makes no mention of the artists' association. The term " ecumenical synod " ( Ancient Greek : οἰκουμενικὴ σύνοδος ), which had long been used by

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6032-441: The association's membership, officials, and money were constantly mobile, following the festival circuit and conducting their business in whichever festival they happened to be at at the time. He argues that, while the artists had fixed local headquarters in some cities and some central decisions were taken at Rome, all artists were members of the single ecumenical association and any meeting of artists could make decisions on behalf of

6148-406: The athletes. The transition from a system of several independent regional associations to a single "ecumenical" or "universal" association covering the whole Roman Empire took place in the late first century BC and early first century AD. It is associated with the development of the various Panhellenic festivals into a set "circuit" ( periodos ), in which all competitors were expected to attend all

6264-538: The barbarian Germanic tribes. Agrippa died in 12 BC, and Tiberius was ordered by Augustus to divorce his wife Vipsania Agrippina , daughter of Agrippa by his first marriage, and marry his stepsister, the twice-widowed Julia. Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, died in 9 BC after falling from a horse. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter, in 6 BC, he went into voluntary exile in Rhodes . After

6380-670: The charge of conspiracy. In addition to Cassia Longina, Junia Lepida gave birth to a son called Cassius Lepidus . Around AD 80 Lepidus had a daughter named Cassia Lepida , who married Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus , a descendant of Herod the Great , Ptolemy VI Philometor and Antiochus VIII Gryphus . Julia Cassia Alexandria , Lepida's daughter by Berenicianus, married Gaius Avidius Heliodorus and ultimately gave birth to Gaius Avidius Cassius . Avidius Cassius had three children with his wife (named either Volusia Vettia or Volusia Maeciana ); they were Avidius Heliodorus , Avidius Maecianus and Avidia Alexandra . In AD 175 Cassius

6496-477: The circuit, performing at these festivals. After Alexander the Great 's conquest of Egypt and the Near East, new Panhellenic festivals were established in the conquered territories, as well as in Greece and Asia Minor. Another institution which developed in the fifth century BC and grew increasingly common over the fourth century was the association or club , a collective group, usually centred around worship of

6612-629: The common treasury. The dispute was appealed to the Roman Senate , which ruled in favour of the Athenian association. As Rome expanded into the Eastern Mediterranean in the second century BC, the artists sought to build ties with them. This seems to have initially been successful or at least uneventful. in the first half of the first century BC, however, evidence for the associations becomes sparse and when they do appear, they are often found supporting Roman enemies. In 87 BC,

6728-552: The day-to-day running of the Empire to Lucius Aelius Sejanus . Sejanus created an atmosphere of fear in Rome, controlling a network of informers and spies whose incentive to accuse others of treason was a share in the accused's property after their conviction and death. Treason trials became commonplace; few members of the Roman aristocracy were safe. The trials played up to Tiberius' growing paranoia, which made him more reliant on Sejanus, as well as allowing Sejanus to eliminate potential rivals. Victims of this reign of terror related to

6844-555: The dynastic bloodline by saving Nero's life, and were additionally reluctant to let someone who was not of the family become emperor; however, once he had committed suicide, and with Galba marching on the city, it had no choice but to declare him a public enemy posthumously. With his death, the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos then ensued in the Year of the Four Emperors . The lineage of Augustus endured into

6960-604: The dynasty's Ptolemaia festival in Alexandria and its official title included the "sibling gods", King Ptolemy II and Queen Arsinoe II, alongside Dionysus. The Ionian and Hellespontine artists maintained a ruler cult for the Attalid dynasty : the organiser of their Dionysia festival was ex officio priest of the Attalid kings. Paola Ceccarelli proposes that the Athenian branch was founded by King Demetrius Poliorcetes , who

7076-469: The early Imperial period, and competitors in equestrian events, who never developed an association. Remijsen suggests that theatrical performers formed an association early because of their greater level of professionalisation. Bram Fauconnier emphasises the fact that theatrical performers had to collaborate on a performance as part of a team, unlike athletes who always competed as individuals. The artists were able to organise theatrical performances, providing

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7192-413: The early deaths of both Lucius (AD 2) and Gaius (AD 4) and the exile of both Julia the Elder and Younger for adultery, a turn of events which saw the elder Julia's half brother Publius Cornelius Scipio exiled for treason, Mark Antony's son Iullus Antonius committing suicide and Julia the Younger's husband Lucius Aemilius Paullus being executed for conspiracy, Augustus was forced to recognize Tiberius as

7308-458: The early first century AD. Continued survival into the second century AD is shown by their appearance in three inscriptions from Tralleis , Ephesus , and Magnesia on the Maeander . These inscriptions refer to them as the "local association" ( Ancient Greek : τοπικὴ σύνοδος ) to distinguish them from the universal association that developed in the Imperial period. In the Imperial period, there

7424-401: The end, Tiberius remained faithful to his predecessor's wishes that the next emperor would hail from the Julian side of the Imperial family. Thus, Tiberius was succeeded by Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, the sole-remaining son of his nephew and adopted son Germanicus. The new emperor was a great grandson of Augustus through his mother Agrippina the Elder thus making him a Julian but he

7540-561: The era of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty , the house that succeeded the Flavians . Augustus' bloodline outlived his dynasty through the descendants of his first granddaughter, Julia the Younger , who married Lucius Aemilius Paullus and gave birth to Aemilia Lepida . After marrying Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus , Aemilia gave birth to several children, including Junia Calvina and Junia Lepida . Although Calvina died childless, she

7656-651: The execution and banishment of his rivals and slowly usurped authority from the Senate. He reportedly arranged the death of his own mother and after divorcing his wife Claudia Octavia , daughter of Claudius' and Messalina, he had her killed. Other relatives whom Nero was believed to have had killed were Claudius' daughter by Aelia Paetina, Claudia Antonia , her husband and half-brother of Messalina, Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix , Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus , brother of Marcus and Lucius Junius Silanus Torquantus, as well as Marcus' son, also named Lucius, his aunt Domitia Lepida

7772-526: The father of Caligula and brother of Claudius. Caligula adopted his cousin Tiberius Gemellus (grandson of the emperor Tiberius) shortly before executing him. Claudius adopted his great-nephew and stepson Nero, who, lacking a natural or adopted son of his own, ended the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty with his fall from power and subsequent suicide. Augustus ( Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus ), as Caesar's adopted son and heir, discarded

7888-485: The festival circuit. Almost all surviving decrees name the festival at which they were passed. The Sebasta festival in Naples was especially important, since it was the usual venue at which the artists petitioned the emperor. Assemblies seem to have been presided over by three officials, who usually appear in the dating formulae of the decrees: the first archon ( archon protos ), the secretary archon ( archon grammateus ), and

8004-545: The first emperor of the Roman Empire in 27 BC, his family became a de facto royal house , known in historiography as the "Julio-Claudian dynasty". For various reasons, the Julio-Claudians followed in the example of Julius Caesar and Augustus by utilizing adoption as a tool for dynastic succession. The next four emperors were closely related through a combination of blood relation, marriage and adoption. Tiberius ( Tiberius Caesar Divi Augusti Filius Augustus ),

8120-483: The first year. In the first year of his reign, Nero had left all of the day-to-day running of the Empire to his mother Agrippina the Younger . He was made Emperor over his step-brother, Claudius' son Britannicus , who he had killed. Agrippina was believed to have poisoned Claudius, having allegedly poisoned her second husband Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus . She had also arranged the deaths of Caligula's third wife, Lollia Paulina and Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida

8236-537: The fourth century BC, these processes accelerated. Performances of "old tragedies" and "old comedies", as opposed to newly composed works, which are first attested in Athens in 386 BC, became an important part of the theatre scene. Theatrical and musical performances became part of the competition at many Panhellenic games festivals, notably the Pythian and Isthmian games , and mobile theatrical troupes would travel

8352-516: The governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul , rebelled against Nero's tax policies. Lucius Virginius Rufus , the governor of superior Germany, was sent to put down the rebellion. To gain support, Vindex called on Galba , the governor of Hispania Citerior (in the Iberian Peninsula ), to become emperor. Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide. Galba was declared

8468-530: The image of the Julio-Claudian court presented in Robert Graves's I, Claudius as a dangerous world where scheming family members were all too ready to murder the direct heirs so as to bring themselves, their own immediate families, or their lovers closer to the succession. Technical crew The technical crew , often abbreviated to the " tech crew " or simply the " crew " (individually often known as " techies ", " techs ", or " technicians "), are

8584-491: The imperial family included Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus , second husband of Tiberius' first wife Vipsania, who had since died, and Decimus Haterius Agrippa , grandson of Agrippa and husband of Augustus' great-niece. Tiberius, perhaps sensitive to this ambition, rejected Sejanus's initial proposal to marry Livilla , Germanicus' sister and the widow of Tiberius' son Drusus the Younger, who had since died, in AD 25, but later had withdrawn his objections so that, in AD 30, Sejanus

8700-434: The law-displaying archon ( archon nomodeiktes ). These officials held office for a limited time and apparently for a limited geographic area. The latter two officials might have played a role in negotiating the artists' contracts for individual festivals. One of them was probably responsible for finances, since no separate treasurers of the association are attested. The artists had several high priests ( archiereis ) who operated

8816-534: The line, Emperor Nero , committed suicide (in AD 68). The name Julio-Claudian is a historiographical term, deriving from the two families composing the imperial dynasty: the Julii Caesares and Claudii Nerones. Julius and Claudius were two Roman family names ; in classical Latin, they came second. Roman family names were inherited from father to son, but a Roman aristocrat could—either during his life or in his will—adopt an heir if he lacked

8932-497: The main actors, supporting actors, technical crew , props, and costumes. Kings, cities, and sanctuaries would contract them to provide these services for a given festival. This included major Panhellenic events, like the Pythian Games, at which multiple branches of the artists might perform, and smaller local events. However, membership of the artists was a prestigious status, enjoyed by only a minority of attested performers in

9048-593: The mother or maternal grandmother of Lucius Fundanius Lamia Aelianus . Fundanius married Rupilia, sister of Rupilia Faustina , and had a son, Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus , consul in AD 145, as well as a daughter, Fundania, married to Marcus Annius Libo , consul in AD 128. Fundania's offspring included Marcus Annius Libo , suffect consul in AD 161, and Annia Fundania Faustina (d. AD 192), wife of Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio . Faustina and both of her children, Titus Fundanius Vitrasius Pollio (d. AD 182) and Vitrasia Faustina , were executed by Commodus on

9164-460: The mutiny there and led the formerly restless legions on campaigns against Germanic tribes from AD 14 to 16. Germanicus died in Syria in AD 19 and, on his deathbed, accused the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso , of murdering him at Tiberius's orders. With Germanicus dead, Tiberius began elevating his own son Drusus to replace him as the Imperial successor. By this time Tiberius had left more of

9280-405: The name of the reigning emperor alongside Dionysus as a "new Dionysus". A sister association represented competitors and organisers of the athletic events at festivals, which was known as the "sacred xystic association of athletes, sacred victors and crown-wearers of Heracles from the inhabited world." The adjective "thymelic," literally "smoky," referred to the smoke from the altar in the centre of

9396-472: The nature of an event, and often evolves as the production does. In a small scale production, the technical crew might consist of a single person, operating the lights and controlling the volume of the sounds and music. In a large scale productions, the technical crew can consist of dozens of different departments and may run into the hundreds of individuals. Each department has their own specific job that pertains to their area of expertise, but they are all part of

9512-624: The next Roman emperor. Augustus banished his grandson Postumus Agrippa, who was adopted after the death of his brothers, to the small island of Planasia (around AD 6 or 7) where he was later executed, and Tiberius was recalled to Rome and officially adopted by Augustus. By Augustus' request, Tiberius adopted his nephew Germanicus, son of his late brother Drusus and biological great-nephew of Augustus through his mother. Germanicus subsequently married Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina. On 19 August AD 14, Augustus died. Tiberius had already been established as Princeps in all but name, and his position as heir

9628-517: The other Hellenistic associations died out; (3) the Imperial-period association was a totally new phenomenon. He prefers the last of these hypotheses, and suggests that the founding moment was in 31 BC, shortly before the Battle of Actium , when Mark Antony gathered the artists of Dionysus on Samos and then gave them a "dwelling place" in Priene . However, Le Guen interprets this as a late attestation of

9744-435: The people employed behind the scenes ("backstage") to control all the technical aspects of creating a concert , play , musical , opera or other live performance . The technical crew can consist of only a few individuals, or be divided up into a multitude of positions depending on the scale and needs of a particular production. The roles, composition and number of workers in a tech crew can change significantly depending on

9860-429: The period. Festivals could always employ the leaders of independent theatrical troupes ( ergolaboi ). However, these troupes were less prestigious and festival organisers thus preferred to employ the artists of Dionysus if they could afford it. Various procedures for contracting the artists are attested. A decree from Iasos , records that the city sent an embassy to the artists, who held an assembly at which they selected

9976-509: The province of Asia over the course of a four-year cycle, from one Olympic Games to the next. The artists are also attested at festivals outside the circuit in Asia, Bithynia et Pontus , Galatia , Lycia et Pamphylia , Syria , Arabia Petraea , the Aegean islands , Egypt , Thrace , Moesia Inferior , and Gallia Narbonensis . By 130 AD, the artists had a headquarters in Rome, where they had

10092-476: The rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The other recurring relationship between emperor and successor is that of stepfather/stepson, a relationship not by blood but by marriage: The uncle/nephew relationship is also prominent: There were several instances of Emperors being father-in-law and son-in-law to each other: The following bullet points illustrate the lineage of Julio-Claudian emperors (adoptions included; emperors in bold ): No Julio-Claudian emperor

10208-541: The same day. After Caligula's death, the Senate attempted and failed to restore the Republic. Claudius , Caligula's paternal uncle, became emperor by the instigation of the Praetorian Guards. Despite his lack of political experience, and the disapproval of the people of Rome, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including

10324-507: The sister of Marcellus. This marriage produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar , Lucius Caesar , Julia the Younger , Agrippina the Elder , and Agrippa Postumus . Gaius and Lucius, the first two children of Julia and Agrippa, were adopted by Augustus and became heirs to the throne; however, Augustus also showed great favour toward his wife Livia's two children from her first marriage: Tiberius and Drusus . They were successful military leaders who had fought against

10440-557: The son of Drusus the Younger and grandson of Tiberius, co-heirs. Drusus III's wife Aemilia Lepida was later forced to commit suicide after being accused of adultery. Rome's second Emperor died at the port town of Misenum on 16 March AD 37, at the age of 78 years, having reigned for 23 years. Suetonius writes that the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard Naevius Sutorius Macro smothered Tiberius with

10556-506: The technical crew. The technical crew on a performance fall into different categories based on area of expertise and responsibilities. The most common categories (those encountered on the largest variety of productions) include: Stage Manager , Production Manager , Rigging , Lighting , Sound , and Technical Directors . Each of these departments have sub-categories, often breaking down tasks in more detail. Theatre technical crew have significant responsibilities in regards to ensuring that

10672-488: The throne, over Claudius' own son Britannicus . Claudius died on 13 October AD 54, and Nero became emperor. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of poisoning Claudius, but details on these private events vary widely. These events are recounted in book 12 of the Annals of Tacitus, book 61 of Cassius Dio's Roman History, and in the biographies of Nero and Claudius by Suetonius. Nero became emperor in AD 54 at sixteen,

10788-534: The top-ranking events. This, in turn, was part of the development of the Mediterranean into a unified network under Roman authority in the first century BC. The athletic association first appears in a letter of Mark Antony from the 30s BC, confirming various privileges granted at an early date (perhaps by the Roman Senate or Julius Caesar ). The first clear attestation of the universal association of

10904-461: The tribunician power. Instead, however, Tiberius' letter to the Senate, completely unexpectedly, requested the destruction of Sejanus and his faction. A purge followed, in which Sejanus and his most prominent supporters were killed. With Drusus dead and having had Germanicus' elder two sons Nero and Drusus convicted of treason and killed, along with their mother Agrippina, Tiberius appointed Caligula, Germanicus' youngest son, and Tiberius Gemellus ,

11020-420: The whole organisation. The artists had a close relationship with the emperors. They carried out sacrifices and other rituals for the Imperial cult. Emperors wrote to the artists regularly and often interfered in their affairs, setting their membership fees and sometimes appointing curators to oversee their finances. Hadrian rearranged the timings of festivals throughout the Roman Empire in response to appeals from

11136-496: The youngest emperor yet. Like his maternal uncle Caligula before him, Nero was also a direct descendant of Augustus, a fact which made his ascension to the throne much easier and smoother than it had been for Tiberius or Claudius. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina the Younger , his tutor Seneca , and the Praetorian Prefect Burrus , especially in

11252-472: Was a Claudian on the side of his father, Nero Claudius Drusus, younger brother of Tiberius. However, he was also related to the Julian branch of the Imperial family through his mother, Antonia Minor. As a son of Antonia, Claudius was a great-nephew of Augustus. Moreover, he was also Augustus' step-grandson due to the fact that his father was a stepson of Augustus. Unlike Tiberius and Germanicus, both of whom were born as Claudians and became adopted Julians, Claudius

11368-454: Was a blood descendant of his immediate predecessor. Although Tiberius and Claudius had potential heirs ( Tiberius Gemellus , grandson of Tiberius through his son Drusus, and Britannicus , son of Claudius, respectively) available for the succession, both were, in turn, ultimately succeeded by their great-nephews Caligula and Nero, respectively. The fact that ordinary father-son (or grandfather-grandson) succession did not occur has contributed to

11484-559: Was a precinct of the artists. Another precinct is attested at Side and a "local association" is attested at Miletus , Magnesia on the Maeander , and Sardis . But there is no evidence for such branches in most of the locations where the artists performed. The artists held assemblies, called synedria ("sitting together") or syllogoi ("speaking together"), at which they made decisions by show of hands. The resulting decrees were closely modelled on those passed by cities and leagues. These assemblies took place wherever they happened to meet on

11600-472: Was a single association of artists of Dionysus which covered the entire Roman empire. Its exact title varies. In a number of early second century AD inscriptions it calls itself: "the sacred thymelic association of ecumenical artists of Dionysus, sacred victors, crown-wearers, and their fellow competitors" ( Ancient Greek : ἡ ἱερὰ Θυμελικὴ σύνοδος τῶν ἀπὸ τῆς οἰκουμένης περὶ τὸν Διόνυσον τεχνειτῶν ἱερονεικῶν στεφανειτῶν καὶ τῶν τούτων συναγωνιστῶν ), often inserting

11716-434: Was accused of having affairs with Caligula's other sisters Agrippina the Younger and Julia Livilla and he was executed. He had previously had Drusilla's first husband Lucius Cassius Longinus killed and upon the death of Agrippina's husband Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus , he seized his inheritance. Several unsuccessful assassination attempts were made on Caligula's life. The successful conspiracy that ended Caligula's life

11832-809: Was also a Claudian through his father Germanicus being the son of Livia 's younger son Drusus the Elder . More commonly remembered in history by his childhood nickname Caligula , he was the third Roman Emperor ruling from AD 37 to 41. When Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, Caligula was well-positioned to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius's will, which named him and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus as joint heirs. Caligula ordered Gemellus killed within his first year in power. Backed by Naevius Sutorius Macro, Caligula asserted himself as sole princeps, though he later had Macro disposed of as well. . Following Gemellus' death, Caligula marked his brother-in-law, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , husband of his sister Julia Drusilla , as his heir. However, after Drusilla's death, Lepidus

11948-439: Was also killed around this time, Claudius' son-in-law Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus , and his parents Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi and Scribonia . Messalina herself was finally executed after being charged with adultery. Claudius' reign also included several attempts on his life. In order to gain political support, he married Agrippina and adopted his great-nephew Nero . With his adoption on 25 February AD 50, Nero became heir to

12064-487: Was awarded; and a statement by the officials that the individual had been admitted. These certificates entitled their bearers to various privileges in their hometown. The artists derived funding from various sources. Individual artists paid membership fees when they were enrolled and fines when they broke the association's rules. Officials and priests of the association paid a fee (like the summa honoraria ) on appointment. Officials, members, and others also made donations to

12180-463: Was betrothed to Julia Livia , daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger. Sejanus' family connection to the Imperial house was now imminent, and in AD 31 Sejanus held the Consulship with the emperor as his colleague, an honour Tiberius reserved only for heirs to the throne. When he was summoned to a meeting of the Senate later that year on 18 October AD 31, he probably expected to receive a share of

12296-418: Was born into the Julian and Claudian branches of the Imperial family, thereby making him the first actual "Julio-Claudian" emperor. His father, Germanicus , was the son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor , the son of Livia and the daughter of Octavia Minor respectively. Germanicus was also a great-nephew of Augustus on his mother's side and nephew of Tiberius on his father's side. His wife, Agrippina

12412-400: Was carried out by priests managers ( epimeletai ), treasurers ( tamiai ), magistrates ( archontes ), and secretaries ( grammateis ). Decisions were made at assemblies ( synodoi ) of all members of the association. On one occasion in the second century BC, the Ionian-Hellespontine association minted its own coinage. Each association of artists had one or more headquarters, which took the form of

12528-439: Was confirmed in Augustus' will. Despite his difficult relationship with the Senate, Tiberius' first years were generally good. He stayed true to Augustus's plans for the succession and favoured his adopted son and nephew Germanicus over his natural son, Drusus , as did the Roman populace. On Tiberius' request, Germanicus was granted proconsular power and assumed command in the prime military zone of Germania, where he suppressed

12644-605: Was hatched by the disgruntled Praetorian Guard with backing by the Senate. The historian Josephus claims that the conspirators wished to restore the Republic while the historian Suetonius claims their motivations were mostly personal. On 24 January AD 41, the Praetorian tribune Cassius Chaerea and his men stopped Caligula alone in an underground passage leading to a theater. They stabbed him to death. Together with another tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, he killed Caligula's wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla on

12760-468: Was married to Lucius Vitellius , whose elder brother was the short-lived emperor Vitellius . Her younger sister, Junia Lepida, married Gaius Cassius Longinus and produced a daughter called Cassia Longina. The Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo married Cassia, who provided him with two daughters, including Domitia Longina , later wife of the emperor Domitian . By her first husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus , Domitia Longina may have been

12876-492: Was not adopted into the Julian family. Upon becoming emperor, however, he added the Julian-affiliated cognomen Caesar to his full name. Nero ( Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ) was a great-great-grandson of Augustus and Livia through his mother, Agrippina the Younger . The younger Agrippina was a daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, as well as Caligula's sister. Through his mother, Nero

12992-487: Was outlived by his son, Britannicus , although he opted to promote his adopted son Nero as his successor to the throne. Adoption ultimately became a tool that most Julio-Claudian emperors utilized in order to promote their chosen heir to the front of the succession. Augustus—himself an adopted son of his great-uncle, the Roman dictator Julius Caesar —adopted his stepson Tiberius as his son and heir. Tiberius was, in turn, required to adopt his nephew Germanicus ,

13108-410: Was proclaimed emperor after he received erroneous news of the death of Marcus Aurelius , whose survival made Cassius a usurper of the empire. Cassius' rebellion ended three months into his bid for the throne when one of his centurions assassinated him in favour of Marcus Aurelius. Cassius' daughter, Avidia, is known to have had four children with her husband, Titius Claudius Dryantianus Antonius :

13224-468: Was related by blood to the Julian and Claudian branches of the Imperial family. However, he was born into the Domitii Ahenobarbi on his father's side. Nero became a Claudian in name as a result of Agrippina's marriage to her uncle, Claudius, who ultimately adopted her son as his own. He succeeded Claudius in AD 54, becoming the last direct descendant of Augustus to rule the Roman Empire. Within

13340-560: Was strong, but operating independently of it elsewhere. In the second century BC, the Ionian and Hellespontine artists took to organising a Dionysia festival with theatrical performances in their home base of Teos. They insisted on collecting and keeping the tax revenues arising from the festival and the Teans objected, eventually appealing to the Attalid king, who ruled in their favour. Subsequently, they were expelled from Teos and fled to Ephesus . Attalus II resettled them at Myonessus , but

13456-454: Was venerated at Athens as the "New Dionysus" after 306 BC. They awarded divine honours to Ariarathes V of Cappadocia in the 130s BC and acclaimed Mithridates VI as the "new Dionysus" in 88 BC, in both cases acting in support of Athenian foreign policy goals. Jane Lightfoot argued that the artists helped "to inscribe royal power into the cycle of city life." By contrast, Bram Fauconnier presents them as conciliating royal power where it

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