112-581: Oskar Dirlewanger (26 September 1895 – c. 7 June 1945 ) was a German SS commander and habitual offender , convicted for rape of children and other crimes. He is known for committing numerous war crimes and atrocities in German-occupied territories during World War II . Dirlewanger was the founder and commander of the SS penal unit, the Dirlewanger Brigade , considered to be
224-475: A knowledge economy , with the founding of the University of Luxembourg and a national space program . Luxembourg is described as a " full democracy ", with a parliamentary democracy headed by a constitutional monarch . Executive power is exercised by the grand duke and the cabinet, which consists of several members with the titles of minister, minister delegate or secretary of state, who are headed by
336-680: A soviet worker's republic similar to the ones emerging in Germany , but these attempts lasted only 2 days. In November 1918, a motion in the Chamber of Deputies demanding the abolition of the monarchy was defeated narrowly by 21 votes to 19 (with three abstentions). France questioned the Luxembourgish government's, and especially Marie-Adélaïde's, neutrality during the war, and calls for an annexation of Luxembourg to either France or Belgium grew louder in both countries. In January 1919,
448-542: A "sadistic, amoral alcoholic" by Knut Stang. The historian Richard C. Lukas also stated that "Oskar Dirlewanger was one of those degenerates who, in saner days, would have been court-martialed out of the German army" and "a sadist whose brutality was well known." According to Alan Clark , Dirlewanger's "experiments on Polish girls are hardly printable even today, combining as they did the indulgence of both sadism and necrophilia." Professor Nikolaus Wachsmann called him "one of
560-927: A German Neo-Nazi group which was banned by the German government in December 2020, who according to The Sunday Times , used "44" as code for "DD," short for "Division Dirlewanger." SS">SS The requested page title contains unsupported characters : ">". Return to Main Page . Luxembourg – in Europe (green & dark gray) – in the European Union (green) Luxembourg ( / ˈ l ʌ k s əm b ɜːr ɡ / LUK -səm-burg ; Luxembourgish : Lëtzebuerg [ˈlətsəbuəɕ] ; German: Luxemburg [ˈlʊksm̩bʊʁk] ; French: Luxembourg [lyksɑ̃buʁ] ), officially
672-734: A Habsburg possession, the Duchy of Luxembourg became, like many countries in Europe at the time, heavily involved in the many conflicts for dominance of Europe between the Habsburg-held countries and the Kingdom of France . In 1542, the King of France , François I , invaded Luxembourg twice, but the Habsburgs under Charles V managed to reconquer the Duchy each time. Luxembourg became part of
784-414: A Prime Minister. The current Constitution of Luxembourg , the supreme law of Luxembourg, was originally adopted on 17 October 1868. The Constitution was last updated on 1 July 2023. The grand duke has the power to dissolve the legislature , in which case new elections must be held within three months. But since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the nation, exercised by the grand duke in accordance with
896-506: A bank and a knitwear factory. In 1933 after the Nazi seizure of power , Dirlewanger was rewarded by being made director of the Heilbronn employment agency, a strategic post for local-level Nazi leaders. Dirlewanger was repeatedly convicted for illegal arms possession and embezzlement . In 1934, he was convicted and sentenced to two years' imprisonment for "contributing to the delinquency of
1008-521: A company of the Luxembourgish Army rebelled, declaring itself to be the army of the new republic, but French troops intervened and put an end to the rebellion. Nonetheless, the disloyalty shown by her own armed forces was too much for Marie-Adélaïde, who abdicated in favor of her sister Charlotte 5 days later. The same year, in a popular referendum , 77.8% of the Luxembourgish population declared in favor of maintaining monarchy and rejected
1120-415: A consciousness of independence and a national awakening took place in the 19th century. The people of Luxembourg began referring to themselves as Luxembourgers , rather than being part of one of the larger surrounding nations. This consciousness of Mir wëlle bleiwe wat mir sinn (" We want to remain what we are ") culminated in 1890, when the last step towards full independence was finally taken: due to
1232-526: A division), composed originally of a small group of former poachers along with soldiers of a more conventional background. It was believed that the excellent tracking and shooting skills of the poachers could be put to constructive use in the fight against partisans. The unit was created and Dirlewanger was given the task of conducting military training among poachers serving their sentences in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp near Berlin . The unit
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#17327767293821344-731: A founding member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourg's neutral status under the constitution formally ended in 1948, and in April 1949 it also became a founding member of NATO . During the Cold War , Luxembourg continued its involvements on the side of the Western Bloc . In the early fifties a small contingent of troops fought in the Korean War . Luxembourg troops have also deployed to Afghanistan, to support ISAF . In
1456-573: A liaison officer of the Waffen-SS, described Dirlewanger's men as "real hoodlums ". Dirlewanger gained a notorious reputation for his brutality in suppressing the Warsaw Uprising, as he became known as the "Executioner of the Warsaw Uprising". In recognition of his work to crush the uprising and intimidate the population of the city, Dirlewanger received his final promotion, to the rank of SS- Oberführer , on 15 August 1944. In October, he
1568-619: A minor with whom he was sexually involved". Dirlewanger also lost his job, his doctor title and all military honours, and was expelled from the party. Soon after his release from the prison in Ludwigsburg , he was arrested again on the same charge and sent to the Welzheim concentration camp, but more likely it was for creating a disturbance before the Reich Chancellery , demanding the reversal of his criminal charges. Dirlewanger
1680-589: A particularly fatal role here, because this man consciously does not take into account any political needs during his ruthless extermination expedition against the peaceful population. In view of the methods often used, reminiscent of the excesses of the Thirty Years' War , the assurances of the German civil administration about the desired cooperation of the Belarusian people look like a lie. The number of villages destroyed during major police operations exceeds
1792-1086: A pro- NATO , pro-US foreign policy. Luxembourg is considered a European capital, and is the site of the Court of Justice of the European Union , the European Court of Auditors , the European Investment Bank , the Statistical Office of the European Union ( Eurostat ) and other vital EU organs. The Secretariat of the European Parliament is located in Luxembourg, but the Parliament usually meets in Brussels and sometimes in Strasbourg . Luxembourg
1904-477: A profound effect on the historical memory of the country and its citizens. However, many republican ideas of this era continue to have a lasting effect on Luxembourg; one of the many examples features the implementation of the Napoleonic Code Civil which was introduced in 1804 and is still valid today. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the Duchy of Luxembourg was restored. However, as
2016-513: A small circle of friends consisting of members of a Wehrmacht supply unit. Then he made so-called scientific experiments, which involved stripping the victims of their clothes. Then they [the victims] were given an injection of strychnine. Dirlewanger looked on, smoked a cigarette, as did his friends, and they saw how these girls were dying. Immediately after that the corpses were cut into small pieces, mixed with horsemeat, and boiled into soap. According to Peter Longerich , "Dirlewanger's leadership of
2128-583: A succession crisis the Dutch monarchy ceased to hold the title Grand-Duke of Luxembourg. Beginning with Adolph of Nassau-Weilburg , the Grand-Duchy would have their own monarchy , thus reaffirming its full independence. In August 1914, during World War I , Imperial Germany violated Luxembourg's neutrality by invading it in order to defeat France. Nevertheless, despite the German occupation , Luxembourg
2240-636: A succession crisis, precipitated by the lack of a male heir to assume the throne. Since Sigismund and Elizabeth of Görlitz were both heirless, all possessions of the Luxembourg Dynasty were redistributed among the European aristocracy. The Duchy of Luxembourg become a possession of Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy . As the House of Luxembourg had become extinct and Luxembourg now became part of
2352-703: A wealthy sales agent, and his wife Paulina (née Herrlinger). The Dirlewanger family was of Swabian origin. He spent much of his childhood in Esslingen am Neckar after his family moved there in 1906. He attended the Esslinger Gymnasium (known today as the Georgii-Gymnasium) and the Schelztor-Oberrealschule. He completed his Abitur in 1913. Dirlewanger never married and he stood six feet tall. Dirlewanger enlisted in
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#17327767293822464-618: Is also known for having founded the Schueberfouer in 1340 and for his heroic death at the Battle of Crécy in 1346. John the Blind is considered a national hero in Luxembourg. In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three more members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors and Bohemian Kings: John's descendants Charles IV , Sigismund (who also was King of Hungary and Croatia ), and Wenceslaus IV . Charles IV created
2576-890: Is also site of the EFTA Court , which is responsible for the three EFTA members who are part of the European Single Market through the EEA Agreement . The Luxembourgish army is mostly based in its casern, the Centre militaire Caserne Grand-Duc Jean on the Härebierg in Diekirch. The general staff is based in the capital, the État-Major . The army is under civilian control , with the grand duke as Commander-in-Chief . The Minister for Defense , Yuriko Backes , oversees army operations. The professional head of
2688-594: Is considered one of the most cruel and depraved individuals in all of history, with his unit being responsible for the deaths of at least "tens of thousands" in Poland and the Soviet Union . His methods included rape and torture, and he personally kept numerous women as his sex slaves . According to historian Christian Ingrao , Dirlewanger's unit committed the worst atrocities of the Second World War, while
2800-546: Is generally known as the Second Partition of Luxembourg . To compensate the Duchy for this loss, it was decided to elevate the Duchy to a Grand-Duchy , thus giving the Dutch monarchs the additional title of Grand-Duke of Luxembourg . After Belgium became an independent country following the victorious Belgian Revolution of 1830–1831 , it claimed the entire Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg as being part of Belgium, however,
2912-472: Is regarded as the most infamous Waffen-SS unit in both Poland and Belarus, and arguably the worst military unit in modern European history based off of criminality and cruelty. Dirlewanger had an impressive career as a junior officer during World War I , and further fought in the post-World War I conflicts, and the Spanish Civil War . He reportedly died after World War II while in the custody of
3024-681: The Abbey of Echternach in AD 698, and is celebrated annually in the dancing procession of Echternach . For a few centuries the abbey would become one of northern Europe's most influential abbeys. The Codex Aureus of Echternach , an important surviving codex written entirely in gold ink, was produced here in the 11th century. The so-called Emperor's Bible and the Golden Gospels of Henry III were also produced in Echternach at this time. When
3136-712: The Battle of the Ardennes and later fought in France and Luxembourg . While serving on the Western Front, Dirlewanger was wounded several times, as a result of which he became "40 percent disabled." He received the Iron Cross 2nd Class and 1st Class, having been wounded six times, and finished the war with the rank of lieutenant, in charge of a company on the Eastern Front in southern Russia and Romania. At
3248-507: The Bock rock by Siegfried, Count of the Ardennes , in 963 through an exchange act with St. Maximin's Abbey, Trier . Around this fort , a town gradually developed, which became the center of a state of great strategic value within the Duchy of Lorraine. Over the years, the fortress was extended by Siegfried's descendants and by 1083, one of them, Conrad I , was the first to call himself a " Count of Luxembourg ", and with it effectively creating
3360-699: The Burgundian Netherlands , this would mark the start of nearly 400 years of foreign rule over Luxembourg. In 1482, Philip the Handsome inherited all of what became then known as the Habsburg Netherlands , and with it the Duchy of Luxembourg. For nearly 320 years Luxembourg would remain a possession of the mighty House of Habsburg, at first under Austrian rule (1506–1556), then under Spanish rule (1556–1714) , before going back again to Austrian rule (1714–1794) . With having become
3472-709: The Carolingian Empire was divided many times starting with the Treaty of Verdun in 843, today's Luxembourgish territory became successively part of the Kingdom of Middle Francia (843–855), the Kingdom of Lotharingia (855–959) and finally of the Duchy of Lorraine (959–1059), which itself had become a state of the Holy Roman Empire . The recorded history of Luxembourg begins with the acquisition of Lucilinburhuc (today Luxembourg Castle ) situated on
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3584-530: The Communist Party of Germany militia group of Max Hoelz in one of their raids intended to inspire worker uprisings. An attack by Dirlewanger failed, and the enemy militiamen succeeded in cutting off his force. After the latter was reinforced by pro-government troops during the night, the Communists withdrew from the town. During this operation, Dirlewanger was grazed on the head by a gunshot. After
3696-641: The Court of Justice of the European Union , the highest judicial authority. Luxembourg's culture , people, and languages are greatly influenced by its much larger neighbors France and Germany; for example, Luxembourgish , a Germanic language, is the only national language of the Luxembourgish people and of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, French is the only language for legislation, and all three – Luxembourgish, German and French – are used for administrative matters in
3808-871: The Dalheim Ricciacum and the Vichten mosaic , on display at the National Museum of History and Art in Luxembourg City. The territory was infiltrated by the Germanic Franks from the 4th century, and was abandoned by Rome in AD 406, after which it became part of the Kingdom of the Franks . The Salian Franks who settled in the area are often described as the ones having brought the Germanic language to present-day Luxembourg, since
3920-532: The French Foreign Legion . Ultimately his fate is unknown, but it is generally considered most likely that he died at Altshausen. According to the political scientist Martin A. Lee, as well as the historians Angelo de Boca and Mario Giovana, Dirlewanger survived the war and subsequently lived in Egypt tutoring the guards who provided security to the president Gamal Abdel Nasser . Wolfsbrigade 44 ,
4032-413: The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a small landlocked country in Western Europe . It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France to the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembourg City , is one of the four institutional seats of the European Union (together with Brussels , Frankfurt , and Strasbourg ) and the seat of several EU institutions, notably
4144-406: The King of the Netherlands , would become, in personal union , the head of state. To satisfy Prussia, it was decided that not only the Fortress of Luxembourg be manned by Prussian troops , but also that large parts of Luxembourgish territory (mainly the areas around Bitburg and St. Vith) become Prussian possessions. This marked the second time that the Duchy of Luxembourg was reduced in size, and
4256-414: The Nazi Party gained power, Dirlewanger was celebrated as the town's "liberator from the Red terrorists" and received its honorary citizenship in 1935. Between his militant forays, he studied at the Goethe University Frankfurt and in 1922 obtained a doctorate in political science (Dr. rer. pol.). He wrote his doctoral thesis as an analysis and critique of the planned economy , titled: “Critique of
4368-449: The Nine Years' War in 1684, France invaded Luxembourg again , conquering and occupying the Duchy until 1697 when it was returned to the Spanish in order to garner support for the Bourbon cause during the prelude to the War of the Spanish Succession . When the war broke out in 1701 Luxembourg and the Spanish Netherlands were administered by the pro-French faction under the governor Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria and sided with
4480-449: The Paleolithic Age , about 35,000 years ago. From the 2nd century BC, Celtic tribes settled in the region between the rivers Rhine and Meuse . Six centuries later the Romans named the Celtic tribes inhabiting these exact regions collectively as the Treveri . Many examples of archaeological evidence proving their existence in Luxembourg have been discovered, the most famous being the Oppidum of Titelberg . In around 58 to 51 BC,
4592-399: The Red Lands ' rich iron-ore grounds in the beginning of the 20th century drove Luxembourg's industrialization. After the decline of the steel industry in the 1970s, the country focused on establishing itself as a global financial center and developed into the banking hub it is reputed to be. Since the beginning of the 21st century, its governments have focused on developing the country into
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4704-550: The Sonderkommando was characterized by continued alcohol abuse, looting, sadistic atrocities, rape, and murder—and his mentor Berger tolerated this behaviour, as did Himmler, who so urgently needed men such as the Sonderkommando Dirlewanger in his fight against ' subhumanity '. It was important to the Reichsführer, however, that the detachments within the Sonderkommando did not belong to the Waffen SS , but merely serve it. In his letter to Himmler, SS-Brigadeführer Odilo Globocnik recommended Dirlewanger, who "... when in charge of
4816-413: The Spanish Civil War . Through Berger he transferred to the German Condor Legion where he served from 1936 to 1939 and was wounded three times. Following further intervention on his behalf by his patron Berger, he successfully petitioned to have his case reconsidered in light of his service in Spain. Dirlewanger was reinstated into the NSDAP, albeit with a higher party number (No. 1,098,716). His doctorate
4928-420: The Spanish Netherlands in 1556, and when France and Spain went to war in 1635 it resulted in the Treaty of the Pyrenees , in which the first partition of Luxembourg was decided. Under the Treaty, Spain ceded the Luxembourgish fortresses of Stenay , Thionville, and Montmédy , and the surrounding territory to France, effectively reducing the size of Luxembourg for the first time in centuries. In context of
5040-409: The Western Allies . According to the historian Timothy Snyder, "in all the theaters of the Second World War, few could compete in cruelty with Oskar Dirlewanger." He has also been described as the "most evil man in the SS " and as "perhaps the most sadistic of all commanders of World War II." According to military historian Tim Heath, Dirlewanger was "a living embodiment of evil and depravity and all
5152-404: The Württemberg Army on 1 October 1913, and served as a machine gunner in the "König Karl" Grenadier Regiment 123, a part of the XIII (Royal Württemberg) Corps and as a one-year volunteer . With the outbreak of the First World War , on 2 August 1914, Dirlewanger, as part of the regiment, which was part of Crown Prince Wilhelm 's 5th Army , was sent to the Western Front , where he took part in
5264-441: The old Frankish language spoken by them is considered by linguists to be a direct forerunner of the Moselle Franconian dialect , which later evolved into, among others, the modern-day Luxembourgish language . The Christianization of Luxembourg is usually dated back to the end of the 7th century. The most famous figure in this context is Willibrord , a Northumbrian missionary saint, who together with other monks established
5376-437: The "resulting organization was so vicious – enthusiastically extorting, raping, torturing and murdering Poles and Jews – that it even disgusted men like Globocnik , who had it transferred out of the General Government and into Byelorussia to fight partisans". In February 1942, the unit was assigned to "anti-gang" operations ( Bandenbekämpfung ) in Belarus. Historian Timothy Snyder described how "Dirlewanger's preferred method
5488-409: The 1950s, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the European Communities , following the 1952 establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community , and subsequent 1958 creations of the European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community . In 1993, the former two of these were incorporated into the European Union . With Robert Schuman (one of the founding fathers of
5600-419: The Battle of Worringen helped the Counts of Luxembourg to achieve military glory, which they had previously lacked, as they had mostly enlarged their territory by means of inheritances, marriages and fiefdoms. The ascension of the Counts of Luxembourg culminated when Henry VII became King of the Romans , King of Italy and finally, in 1312, Holy Roman Emperor . With the ascension of Henry VII as Emperor,
5712-495: The Bourbons. The duchy was subsequently occupied by the pro-Austrian allied forces during the conflict and was awarded to Austria at its conclusion in 1714. As the Duchy of Luxembourg repeatedly passed back and forth from Spanish and Austrian to French rule, each of the conquering nations contributed to strengthening and expanding the Fortress that the Castle of Luxembourg had become over the years. One example of this includes French military engineer Marquis de Vauban who advanced
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#17327767293825824-475: The Constitution and the law. Legislative power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies , a unicameral legislature of sixty members, who are directly elected to five-year terms from four constituencies . A second body, the Council of State ( Conseil d'État ), composed of 21 ordinary citizens appointed by the grand duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation. Luxembourg has three lower tribunals ( justices de paix ; in Esch-sur-Alzette ,
5936-421: The Dutch King who was also Grand Duke of Luxembourg, as well as Prussia, did not want to lose their grip on the mighty fortress of Luxembourg and did not agree with the Belgian claims. The dispute would be solved at the 1839 Treaty of London where the decision of the Third Partition of Luxembourg was taken. This time the territory was reduced by more than half, as the predominantly francophone western part of
6048-455: The EU), Pierre Werner (considered the father of the Euro ), Gaston Thorn , Jacques Santer and Jean-Claude Juncker (all former Presidents of the European Commission ), Luxembourgish politicians contributed substantially to the EU's formation and establishment. In 1999, Luxembourg joined the eurozone . Thereafter, the country was elected non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council (2013–14). The steel industry exploiting
6160-464: The First World War, under the German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II , the country was treated as German territory and informally annexed to the adjacent province of Nazi Germany , Gau Moselland . This time, Luxembourg did not remain neutral as Luxembourg's government in exile based in London supported the Allies , sending a small group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion , and multiple resistance groups formed inside
6272-433: The French army. Their sacrifices have been commemorated at the Gëlle Fra . After the war, Grand-Duchess Marie-Adélaïde was seen by many people (including the French and Belgian governments) as having collaborated with the Germans and calls for her abdication and the establishment of a Republic became louder. After the retreat of the German army , communists in Luxembourg City and Esch-sur-Alzette tried to establish
6384-402: The Holy Roman Empire and elsewhere, Wenceslaus, annexed the County of Chiny in 1364, and with it, the territories of the new Duchy of Luxembourg reached its greatest extent. During these 130 years, the House of Luxembourg was contending with the House of Habsburg for supremacy within the Holy Roman Empire and Central Europe. It all came to end in 1443, when the House of Luxembourg suffered
6496-518: The Jewish camp of Dzikow ... was an excellent leader." During the Ministries Trial after the war, Berger said: "Now Dr. Dirlewanger was hardly a good boy. You can't say that. But he was a good soldier, and he had one big mistake that he didn't know when to stop drinking." He was brutal towards his own men, bringing them into line by involving himself in the murderous deeds of the soldiers, otherwise using draconian methods which disregarded military criminal law, and arbitrarily beat and killed his own men. He
6608-423: The Old Town – where about 30,000 civilians were killed – several thousand wounded in field hospitals overrun by the Germans were shot and set on fire with flamethrowers. In the defeat of the Uprising, it was reported that the "Dirlewanger Brigade burned prisoners alive with gasoline, impaled babies on bayonets and stuck them out of windows and hung women upside down from balconies". The brutality of Dirlewanger himself
6720-493: The Romans invaded the country when Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and part of Germania up to the Rhine border, thus the area of what is now Luxembourg became part of the Roman Empire for the next 450 years, living in relative peace under the Pax Romana . Similar to those in Gaul, the Celts of Luxembourg adopted Roman culture, language, morals and a way of life, effectively becoming what historians later described as Gallo-Roman civilization . Evidence from that period includes
6832-467: The Warsaw Uprising, and quickly committed such unspeakable crimes that both Army and SS commanders successfully demanded the unit's withdrawal." In Warsaw, Dirlewanger participated in the Wola massacre , together with police units rounding up and shooting some 40,000 civilians, most of them in just two days. The role of Dirlewanger in the beginning days of the Wola massacre may have been limited, and Dirlewanger himself may not have arrived until 7 August. It
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#17327767293826944-454: The cessation of hostilities, Dirlewanger's battalion was supposed to be interned in Romania, but Dirlewanger decided to return his unit to Germany, and led 600 men from his company and other battalion units home. According to German biographer Knut Stang, the war was a contributing factor that determined Dirlewanger's later life and his "terror warfare" methods, as "his amoral personality, with his alcoholism and his sadistic sexual orientation ,
7056-450: The city of Luxembourg , and Diekirch ), two district tribunals (Luxembourg and Diekirch), and a Superior Court of Justice (Luxembourg), which includes the Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation. There is also an Administrative Tribunal and an Administrative Court, as well as a Constitutional Court, all of which are located in the capital. Luxembourg is divided into 12 cantons , which are further divided into 100 communes . Twelve of
7168-425: The city's nickname the Gibraltar of the North . Luxembourg was annexed by France, becoming the département des forêts (department of forests), and the incorporation of the former Duchy as a département into France was formalised at the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797. From the start of the occupation the new French officials in Luxembourg, who spoke only French, implemented many republican reforms, among them
7280-404: The communes have city status ; the city of Luxembourg is the largest. Luxembourg has long been a prominent supporter of European political and economic integration . In 1921, Luxembourg and Belgium formed the Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) to create a regime of inter-exchangeable currency and a common customs . Luxembourg is a member of the Benelux Economic Union and was one of
7392-402: The competing County of Vianden (and with it St Vith and Schleiden ) had either been incorporated directly or become vassal states to the County of Luxembourg. The only major setback during their rise in power came in 1288, when Henry VI and his three brothers died at the Battle of Worringen while trying unsuccessfully to add the Duchy of Limburg to their realm. But despite the defeat,
7504-416: The country (but also the then Luxembourgish-speaking part of Arelerland ) was transferred to the new state of Belgium, thereby giving Luxembourg its modern-day borders. The treaty of 1839 also established full independence of the remaining Germanic-speaking Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg. In 1842, Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union ( Zollverein ). This resulted in the opening of the German market,
7616-451: The country. With an area of 2,586 square kilometers (998 sq mi), Luxembourg is Europe's seventh-smallest country . In 2024, it had a population of 672,050, which makes it one of the least-populated countries in Europe , albeit with the highest population growth rate ; foreigners account for nearly half the population. Luxembourg is a representative democracy headed by a constitutional monarch , Grand Duke Henri , making it
7728-406: The defeat of Napoleon , it regained independence in 1867 after the Luxembourg Crisis . Luxembourg is a developed country with an advanced economy , and has one of the world's highest GDP (PPP) per capita as per IMF and World Bank estimates. The nation's levels of human development and LGBT equality are ranked among the highest in Europe. The historic city including its fortification
7840-407: The development of Luxembourg's steel industry , and expansion of Luxembourg's railway network from 1855 to 1875. After the Luxembourg Crisis of 1866 nearly led to war between Prussia and France, as both were unwilling to see the other taking influence over Luxembourg and its mighty fortress, the Grand Duchy's independence and neutrality were reaffirmed by the Second Treaty of London and Prussia
7952-437: The dynasty of the House of Luxembourg not only began to rule the Holy Roman Empire , but rapidly began to exercise growing influence over other parts of Central Europe as well. Henry's son, John the Blind , in addition to being Count of Luxembourg, also became King of Bohemia . He remains a major figure in Luxembourgish history and folklore and is considered by many historians the epitome of chivalry in medieval times. He
8064-499: The establishment of a republic. During this time, Belgium pushed for an annexation of Luxembourg. However, all such claims were ultimately dismissed at the Paris Peace Conference , thus securing Luxembourg's independence. In 1940, after the outbreak of World War II , Luxembourg's neutrality was violated again when Nazi Germany 's Wehrmacht entered the country , "entirely without justification". In contrast to
8176-414: The forefront of the massacre. Rounded-up civilians were routinely used as human shields and marched over minefields. At least 30,000 Belarusian civilians were killed, with up to 200 villages destroyed and more than 120,000 killed under Dirlewanger's orders. Dirlewanger also kept a private harem of multiple women for his own use. Despite Himmler being aware of Dirlewanger's reputation and record, nonetheless he
8288-707: The fortifications around and on the heights of the city, fortification walls that are still visible today. During the War of the First Coalition , Revolutionary France invaded the Austrian Netherlands, and with it, Luxembourg. In the years 1793 and 1794 most of the Duchy was conquered relatively quickly and the French Revolutionary Army committed many atrocities and pillages against the Luxembourgish civilian population and abbeys,
8400-624: The founding members of the European Economic Community (now the European Union). It also participates in the Schengen Group (named after the Luxembourg village of Schengen where the agreements were signed). At the same time, the majority of Luxembourgers have consistently believed that European unity makes sense only in the context of a dynamic transatlantic relationship, and thus have traditionally pursued
8512-572: The front in Romania to Germany with his men became for him the defining experience. Henceforth he adopted an unrestrained mode of life, characterized by contempt for the laws and rules of civil society. In 1919, he joined various Freikorps paramilitary militias and fought against German communists in Thuringia , Ruhr , and Saxony , and against Poles in Upper Silesia . He participated in
8624-525: The front lines of Hungary and eastern Germany to fight against the advancing Red Army. In February 1945, the unit was expanded again and re-designated as the 36th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS. That same month, Dirlewanger was shot in the chest while fighting against Soviet forces near Guben in Brandenburg and sent to the rear. It was his twelfth and final injury in the war. On 22 April, he went into hiding. Despite being an accomplished soldier who
8736-485: The historian Timothy Snyder stated that they committed more atrocities than any other. In Belarus alone, he was responsible for up to 200 villages destroyed and over 120,000 people killed. His unit is also noted to have committed the worst crimes of the Warsaw Uprising , alongside the notorious and brutal Kaminski Brigade , with his unit's behavior and conduct reported as having been far worse. Dirlewanger's unit
8848-649: The idea of a planned management of the economy." The following year, he joined the Nazi Party and its SA militia, and later also the SS . From 1928 to 1931 he was an executive director of a textile factory owned by a Jewish family in Erfurt where he renounced active service in the SA but financially donated to the SA, possibly obtaining the money by embezzling from his company. Dirlewanger held various jobs, which included working at
8960-607: The independent County of Luxembourg (which was still a state within the Holy Roman Empire). By the middle of the 13th century, the counts of Luxembourg had managed to gain considerable wealth and power and had expanded their territory from the river Meuse to the Moselle . By the time of the reign of Henry V the Blonde , Bitburg , La Roche-en-Ardenne , Durbuy , Arlon , Thionville , Marville , Longwy , and in 1264
9072-530: The long-lasting Golden Bull of 1356 , a decree which fixed important aspects of the constitutional structure of the Empire. Luxembourg remained an independent fief (county) of the Holy Roman Empire, and in 1354, Charles IV elevated it to the status of a duchy with his half-brother Wenceslaus I becoming the first Duke of Luxembourg . While his kin were occupied ruling and expanding their power within
9184-511: The most brutal and notorious Waffen-SS unit. His unit epitomized the expansion of the war of terror in its most brutal form within the SS, and with Dirlewanger himself regarded as perhaps the Nazi regime's "most extreme executioner," indulging himself in sadistic acts of violence, rape and murder. While serving in Poland and Belarus , Dirlewanger has been closely linked to many atrocities, and
9296-522: The most infamous being the massacres of Differdange and Dudelange , as well as the destruction of the abbeys of Clairefontaine , Echternach and Orval . However the Fortress of Luxembourg resisted for nearly 7 months before the Austrian forces holding it surrendered. Luxembourg's long defense led Lazare Carnot to call Luxembourg "the best fortress in the world, except Gibraltar", giving rise to
9408-623: The most odious characters in the pantheon of SS villains". Military historian Samuel W. Mitcham Jr wrote that Oskar Dirlewanger was "a sexually perverted drunkard who enjoyed performing unnatural acts with the dead bodies of his victims, especially the younger ones." However, there has been some skepticism pointed towards the accusations of Dirlewanger's necrophilia with military historian Tim Heath saying that despite his career being characterized by "child rape, murder, perversion, sadism and alcoholism," there has been no proven evidence of necrophilia and that "one can only assume that such assumptions are
9520-548: The number of villages burned by partisans. In the summer of 1944, during Operation Bagration , Dirlewanger's unit suffered heavy losses while fighting against the Red Army . It was then hastily rebuilt and reformed into a Sturmbrigade (assault brigade) and used in the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising . Author Martin Windrow wrote that "in summer '44 Dirlewanger led his 4,000 butchers, rapists and looters into action against
9632-643: The occupied country. With 2.45% of its prewar population killed, and a third of all buildings in Luxembourg being destroyed or heavily damaged (mainly due to the Battle of the Bulge ), Luxembourg suffered the highest such loss in Western Europe, but its commitment to the Allied war effort was never questioned. Around 1,000–2,500 of Luxembourg's Jews were murdered in the Holocaust . The Grand Duchy became
9744-418: The officers' mess. He would often rape children, whether boy or girl, and then shoot them afterwards. The Jewish girls which Dirlewanger raped were taken away and shot by his men so they could not report him nor testify. One day Dirlewanger poisoned 57 Jews by his own initiative. He encouraged his soldiers to rape dying women. Raul Hilberg noted that this camp was where "one of the first instances that reference
9856-541: The one to kick the chair out from underneath them according to Schenck. Schenck described another incident involving the massacre of children, stating that: We blew up the doors, I think of a school. Children were standing in the hall and on the stairs. Lots of children. All with their small hands up. We looked at them for a few moments until Dirlewanger ran in. He ordered to kill them all. They shot them and then they were walking over their bodies and breaking their little heads with butt ends. Blood and brain matter streamed down
9968-588: The principle of laicism , which led to an outcry in strongly Catholic Luxembourg. Additionally French was implemented as the only official language and Luxembourgish people were barred access to all civil services. When the French Army introduced military duty for the local population, riots broke out which culminated in 1798 when Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion. Even though the French managed to rapidly suppress this revolt called Klëppelkrich , it had
10080-529: The proof that anyone could need that monsters do exist". Historian Alexandra Richie stated how the murder "of partisans and civilians was carried out on a grand scale in Byelorussia" but said that "one person who stood out even in that terrible time was Oskar Dirlewanger" and labeled him as "the very face of evil". Dirlewanger was born in Würzburg on 26 September 1895. He was the son of August Dirlewanger,
10192-485: The result of literary fabrication." Despite this, Heath declares that Dirlewanger was "a living embodiment of evil and depravity and all the proof that anyone could need that monsters do exist." Dirlewanger was arrested on 1 June 1945 near the town of Altshausen in Upper Swabia by French occupation zone authorities while he was wearing civilian clothes, using a false name, and hiding in a remote hunting lodge. He
10304-473: The stairs. There is a memorial plaque in that place stating that 350 children were killed. I think there were many more, maybe 500. SS-Obergruppenführer Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski , overall commander of the forces pacifying Warsaw – and Dirlewanger's former superior officer in Belarus – described Dirlewanger as having "a typical mercenary nature". Hermann Fegelein , a member of Adolf Hitler 's entourage and
10416-795: The suppression of the German Revolution of 1918–19 with the Freikorps in multiple German cities in 1920 and 1921. At the same time, he studied at the Higher Commercial School in Mannheim , but was expelled from it for antisemitism . Later, he commanded an armed formation of students which was set up by him under the Württemberg "Highway Watch". On Easter Sunday 1921, Dirlewanger commanded an armoured train that moved towards Sangerhausen , which had been occupied by
10528-667: The territory had been part of the Holy Roman Empire as well as the Habsburgian Netherlands in the past, both the Kingdom of Prussia and the United Kingdom of the Netherlands now claimed possession of the territory. At the Congress of Vienna the great powers decided that Luxembourg would become a member state of the newly formed German Confederation , but at the same time William I of the Netherlands ,
10640-537: The world's only remaining sovereign grand duchy . The County of Luxembourg was established in the 11th century, as a state within the Holy Roman Empire . Its ascension culminated in its monarch, Henry VII , becoming the Holy Roman Emperor in the 14th century. Luxembourg came under Habsburg rule in the 15th century, and was annexed by France in the 18th century. Luxembourg was partitioned three times, reducing its size. Having been restored in 1815 after
10752-476: Was additionally shattered by the front experiences of the First World War and its frenzied violence and barbarism." By the end of World War I, Dirlewanger was described in one police report as "a mentally unstable, violent fanatic and alcoholic, who had the habit of erupting into violence under the influence of drugs". The fact that he had succeeded, even after the ceasefire, in fighting his way back from
10864-512: Was allowed to maintain much of its independence and political mechanisms. Unaware of the fact that Germany secretly planned to annex the Grand-Duchy in case of a German victory (the Septemberprogramm ), the Luxembourgish government continued to pursue a policy of strict neutrality. However, the Luxembourgish population did not believe Germany had good intentions, fearing that it would annex Luxembourg. Around 1,000 Luxembourgers served in
10976-527: Was also restored by the University of Frankfurt. At the beginning of World War II, Dirlewanger volunteered for the Waffen-SS and received the rank of Obersturmführer . On 4 June 1940, Berger proposed to Himmler that Dirlewanger be appointed commander of a special SS unit: the so-called Dirlewanger Brigade (at first designated as a battalion, later expanded to a regiment and a brigade, and eventually
11088-499: Was assigned to security duties first in the General Government (occupied Poland), where Dirlewanger served as an SS-TV commandant of a labour camp at Stary Dzików . The camp was the subject of an abuse investigation by SS judge Georg Konrad Morgen , who accused Dirlewanger of wanton acts of murder, corruption, and Rassenschande or race defilement with a Jewish woman named Sarah Bergmann.(Morgen consequently himself
11200-581: Was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 5 December 1943, for his unit's actions such as during Operation Cottbus (May–June 1943), during which Dirlewanger reportedly killed more than 14,000 alleged partisans. Wilhelm Kube , the Generalkommissar for Generalbezirk Weißruthenien , noted the effects of that Dirlewanger and others had in Belarus, stating that: The name of Dirlewanger plays
11312-746: Was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross , recommended for it by his superior officer in Warsaw, SS-Gruppenführer Heinz Reinefarth (after the war, Reinefarth lied about his role in Warsaw, even denying Dirlewanger had been under his command). Dirlewanger then led his men in joining the efforts to put down the Slovak National Uprising in October 1944, where similar atrocities were committed. Eventually he and his men were posted on
11424-414: Was considered quite brave, Dirlewanger is invariably described as an extremely cruel person by historians and researchers, such as being called "a psychopathic killer and child molester" by Steven Zaloga , "a professional killer, fully malefic" by Richard Rhodes, "a sadist and necrophiliac" by Bryan Mark Rigg , "an expert in extermination and a devotee of sadism and necrophilia " by J. Bowyer Bell , and as
11536-561: Was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994 due to the exceptional preservation of its vast fortifications and historic quarters. Luxembourg is a founding member of the European Union , OECD , the United Nations , NATO , and the Benelux . It served on the United Nations Security Council for the first time in 2013 and 2014. The first traces of settlement in what is now Luxembourg are dated back to
11648-495: Was described by Mathias Schenck, a Belgian national who was serving in the area as a German Army sapper , saying that "There is also that small child in Dirlewanger’s hands. He took it from a woman who was standing in the crowd in the street. He lifted the child high and then threw it into the fire. Then he shot the mother." Dirlewanger also had a habit of hanging people every Thursday, whether it be Poles or his own men, often being
11760-549: Was described by the American historian Richard C. Lukas as "an ascetic-looking man who treated his own men as brutally as he treated the Poles. Beating them with clubs to maintain discipline was not uncommon. He even casually shot men he did not like." Another one of Dirlewanger's punishments included the "Dirlewanger coffin", in which a soldier could be locked up in a narrow box for days. American historian Richard Rhodes wrote how
11872-495: Was finally willing to withdraw its troops from the Fortress of Luxembourg under the condition that the fortifications would be dismantled. That happened the same year. At the time of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, Luxembourg's neutrality was respected, and neither France nor Germany invaded the country. As a result of the recurring disputes between the major European powers, the people of Luxembourg gradually developed
11984-415: Was made to the ' soap-making rumor ". According to the rumor, Dirlewanger "cut up Jewish women and boiled them with horse meat to make soap." Georg Konrad Morgen, who investigated the conduct of Dirlewanger, testified after the end of the war that: Dirlewanger had arrested people illegally and arbitrarily, and as for his female prisoners — young jewesses — he did the following against them: he called together
12096-635: Was recognised by a Jewish former concentration camp inmate and brought to a detention centre. He reportedly died around 5–7 June 1945 in a prison camp at Altshausen, probably as a result of ill treatment. There are numerous conflicting reports of the nature of his death: the French said that he died of a heart attack and was buried in an unmarked grave; or he was taken by armed Poles, presumably former forced laborers; or French military prisoners (of Polish descent); or Polish soldiers ( 29 Groupement d'Infanterie polonaise ), who were mistreated in custody; or former inmates and prison guards; or that he escaped and joined
12208-524: Was reduced in rank and sent to the Eastern Front). According to Morgen, "Dirlewanger was a nuisance and a terror to the entire population. He repeatedly pillaged the ghetto in Lublin , extorting ransoms." Atrocities committed by Dirlewanger include burning the genitals of women he abused with a petrol lighter, whipping and then injecting strychnine into Jewish girls and watching their death agonies in
12320-531: Was released and reinstated in the general reserve of the SS following personal intervention of his wartime companion and local NSDAP cadre comrade Gottlob Berger , who was also a long-time personal friend of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler and had become the head of the SS Main Office ( SS-Hauptamt , SS-HA). Dirlewanger next went to Spain, where he enlisted into the Spanish Legion during
12432-555: Was reported in the same Wola district that Dirlewanger burned three hospitals with patients inside while the nurses were "whipped, gang-raped and finally hanged naked, together with the doctors" to the accompaniment of the popular song "In München steht ein Hofbräuhaus". Later on, the soldiers "drank, raped, and murdered their way through the Old Town , slaughtering civilians and fighters alike without distinction of age or sex." In
12544-440: Was to herd the local population inside a barn, set the barn on fire, and then shoot with machine guns anyone who tried to escape." One incident recounted by Hans-Peter Klausch described how a village of around 2,500 were put into several barns, with Dirlewanger ordering his men to shoot them all after opening the barns, and then setting the barns on fire, shooting and killing everyone who was able to escape, with Dirlewanger himself at
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