Misplaced Pages

#772227

100-446: Research and education are among the main tasks of tenured and tenure-track professors, with the amount of time spent on research or teaching depending strongly on the type of institution. Publication of articles in conferences, journals, and books is essential to occupational advancement. In 2011, a survey conducted by TIAA-CREF Institute senior researcher Paul J. Yakoboski estimated that 73% of professors with senior tenure ranged between

200-448: A college or university to teach for a limited time is sometimes referred to as a " visiting professor " or "visiting lecturer"; this may be someone who is a professor elsewhere, or a scholar or practitioner who is not. The term may also refer simply to non-tenure track teaching appointments (usually 1 to 3 years) and/or post-doctorate research appointments. The title can mirror the naming conventions used in tenure-track positions, for example

300-449: A common sequence being: A decision to reject a candidate for tenure normally requires that the individual leave the institution within two years (under the AAUP tenure guidelines). Otherwise, tenure is granted along with promotion from assistant to associate professor. Although tenure and promotion are usually separate decisions, they are often highly correlated such that a decision to grant

400-584: A complaint with the UN-supported Principles for Responsible Investment initiative (PRI), asking PRI to remove TIAA from its list of sustainable investors. TIAA is one of the world’s largest fossil fuel investors, with at least $ 78 billion invested in coal, oil and gas industries. After the top two coal investors Vanguard and BlackRock, TIAA is the fifth largest holder of coal bonds worldwide with $ 6.7 billion invested in companies that mine, transport, and burn coal for energy. PRI agreed to review

500-423: A doctorate or other terminal degree. To some extent this is a result of "credential creep" : why hire someone without a doctorate, since there are so many applicants with one? Older faculty, hired when doctorates were less common, are less likely to hold the degree. Most of the full-time tenured or tenure-track professors are paid by a college or university on nine- or ten-month contracts. Salary data for professors

600-449: A financial inducement to attract someone from outside the institution, but who might not yet meet all the qualifications for tenure). If an applicant is appointed to the rank of associate professor without tenure, the position is usually tenure-track with an expectation that the person will soon qualify for tenure. At some institutions, individuals are promoted to the rank of associate professor prior to receiving tenure. In these situations,

700-520: A formal hearing process) or will be terminated from employment. As of 2007, 23.1% of academics held the rank of assistant professor. Competition for assistant professor positions in many fields is rapidly growing; the number of PhD graduates is rising, while the number of assistant professor openings remains roughly constant. The opposite is true, however, in business disciplines, where the anticipated shortfall of business faculty may reach 2,400 openings by 2012. The U.S. Occupation Outlook Handbook notes that

800-428: A framework of norms to guide adaptations to changing times and circumstances." The commentary iterates key points of the 1940 interpretations. The statement does not discourage controversy but emphasizes professionalism, believing that professors should be careful "not to introduce into their teaching controversial matter which has no relation to their subject." Based upon five principles, the statement on academic tenure

900-506: A full professor in legal professions and studies. A 2005 study by the College and University Professional Association for Human Resources found the average salary for all faculty members, including instructors, to be $ 66,407, placing half of all faculty members in the top 15.3% of income earners above the age of 25. Median salaries were $ 54,000 for assistant professors, $ 64,000 for associate professors and $ 86,000 for full professors 2005. During

1000-413: A gross salary of $ 15,000 for the year, less than a professional pet sitter . Universities often treat adjuncts as inexpensive and replaceable when compared to tenure-track faculty, and as additional teaching resources to be called up as necessary. Adjuncts cannot count on employment: classes can be transferred from adjuncts to full-time professors, classes with low enrollment can be summarily canceled; and

1100-522: A lifetime employment agreement and could also serve as a means of protecting faculty whose research may be socially, politically, or scientifically controversial. Rates for achieving tenure vary, depending on the institutions and areas of study; in most places at least 50% of assistant professors will eventually become tenured and promoted to associate professors; however, this number can be as low as 10% in natural sciences departments of top universities or in non-PhD-granting schools. In unusual circumstances, it

SECTION 10

#1732802094773

1200-833: A mandatory retirement age contributes to "graying" of this occupation. The median age of American full professors (in 2006) was around 55 years. Very few people attain this position before the age of 40. The annual salary of full professors averages at $ 99,000, although less so at non-doctoral institutions, and more so at private doctoral institutions (not including side income from grants and consulting , which can be substantial in some fields); in addition, institutions in major cities or high cost of living areas will pay higher salaries. In addition to increasing salary, each promotional step also tends to come with increased administrative responsibilities. In some cases, these changes are offset by reduced teaching or research expectations. A full professor who retires in good standing may be referred to as

1300-591: A master's degree; Saul Kripke (philosophy, Rockefeller ) and Andrew Gleason (mathematics, Harvard ) had only a bachelor's degree; Edward Fredkin (computer science, M.I.T. ) and Erik Erikson (psychology, Harvard) did not even have bachelor's degrees. Tenure without a doctorate is somewhat more common in fields with an artistic component, as with Howard Nemerov (poetry, Washington University in St. Louis ) and Colin Rowe (architectural history and theory, Cornell ). Until

1400-820: A median of $ 110,000) and physicians (whose median earnings ranged from $ 137,000 to $ 322,000 depending on speciality). According to the U.S. Department of Labor, [Academic year 2007] salaries for full-time faculty in the U.S. averaged $ 73,207. By rank, the average was $ 98,974 for professors, $ 69,911 for associate professors, $ 58,662 for assistant professors, $ 42,609 for instructors, and $ 48,289 for lecturers. Faculty in 4-year institutions earn higher salaries, on average, than do those in 2-year schools. In 2006–2007, faculty salaries averaged $ 84,249 in private independent institutions, $ 71,362 in public institutions, and $ 66,118 in religiously affiliated private colleges and universities. Salaries vary widely by field and rank, ranging from $ 45,927 for an assistant professor in theology to $ 136,634 for

1500-407: A new marketing and imaging campaign. CMO Connie Weaver explained that the old name was perceived by customers as being complicated, and that the new branding scheme was meant to portray a simpler and friendlier image of the organization. As of February 2018 , TIAA was providing parental leave irrespective of the parent's gender. In May 2021, TIAA announced its net zero by 2050 commitment for

1600-474: A number of reports on contingent faculty : in 2008, a report on accreditors' guidelines pertaining to part-time faculty and a report of an investigation involving alleged violations of the academic freedom and due process rights of a full-time contingent faculty member; and in 2006, an index providing data on the number of contingent faculty at various colleges. Also in 2006, the AAUP adopted a new policy dealing with

1700-489: A position rather than a career rank, because professors of different ranks could hold such a chair. Investment income earned from the chair's endowment is typically used to supplement the professor's salary, to provide a yearly budget that can be used to support the professor's research activities, or both. For non-tenure track teaching positions in the US, academic institutions use a wide array of different job titles depending on if

1800-613: A position title officially bestowed by a university or college to faculty members with a PhD or the highest level terminal degree in a non-academic field (e.g., MFA, MLIS), the common noun "professor" is often used casually to refer to anyone teaching at the college level, regardless of rank or degree. At some junior colleges without a formal ranking system, instructors are accorded the courtesy title of "professor". Although almost all tenured professors hold doctorates, some exceptional scholars without them are occasionally granted tenure: Jay Forrester (electrical engineering, M.I.T. ) had only

1900-426: A professor emeritus for men, or professor emerita for women. This title is also given to retired professors who continue to teach and to be listed. The title may also be given to full professors who have left for another institution but are still working full-time. The concept has in some places been expanded to include also tenured associate professors, or also non-tenure-track faculty. In some systems and institutions

2000-419: A promotion coincides with a decision in favor of tenure, and vice versa. Promotion to associate professor usually results in an increased administrative load and membership on committees that are restricted to tenured faculty. Some people remain at the level of associate professor throughout their careers. However, most will apply for the final promotion to full professor; the timeline for making this application

2100-527: A rank reserved for professors who have established themselves as experts within their academic fields. Contrary to some beliefs, assistant professors, associate professors, and full professors are all, in fact, technically professors. Usually students who have completed their doctoral studies seek positions as assistant professors in colleges and universities. As they progress in their established fields through research, teaching, and service, they can make bids for promotion and tenure, which typically elevates them to

SECTION 20

#1732802094773

2200-515: A significant proportion of any growth in academic professor jobs will be due to "part-time and non tenure-track positions". As of 2003, the average age at which scientists received tenure in the United States was 39, which can make it difficult for professors to balance professional and family obligations. After several years at the rank of assistant professor, individuals are considered for a promotion and tenure . Tenure generally constitutes

2300-404: A study by Robert Lichter , a professor at George Mason University , "The vast majority of professors in the United States identify themselves as liberal , and registered Democrats commonly outnumber registered Republicans ." However, this demographic tendency varies across departments. A 2010 study by Gross and Fosse found that the political persuasions of American professors had changed over

2400-424: A successful program of external research grant support, successful teaching, and/or service to the department); however, the specific requirements vary considerably between institutions and departments. As of 2007, 22.4% of academics hold the rank of associate professor. Alternatively, a person may be hired at the associate professor level without tenure (which is a typical practice at some universities, often done as

2500-569: A tax-exempt non-profit organization, a 1997 tax bill removed TIAA's tax exemption. It is now organized as a non-profit organization, the TIAA Board of Governors , with taxable subsidiaries; all profits are returned to policyholders. TIAA bought its Manhattan headquarters building, 730 Third Avenue, in 1955. It has major offices in Denver , Colorado ; Charlotte, North Carolina ; and Dallas , Texas ; as well as 70 local offices throughout

2600-450: A university system, typically department chair that is financially supported by an investment portfolio (i.e., an endowment ) initially created by donated funds from a firm, person, or group of persons. Endowed chairs are typically named for the person or entity who donated these funds, or for a person whom the funds were donated in honor of, such as a distinguished emeritus professor at that institution. Endowed chairs are best classified as

2700-543: A “ fascist .” The remark was in relation to Vance’s conduct during that year's presidential election , during which Vance was the vice presidential nominee. As the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) details the history of their policy on academic freedom and tenure , the association maintains that there "are still people who want to control what professors teach and write." The AAUP's "Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure"

2800-440: Is a title normally granted to those who have contributed significantly to the school and community (for example, by donation for furtherance of research and academic development), but may or may not have earned a PhD. Most professors in the U.S. are male, liberal (in the contemporary American political sense), and upper middle class . A slight majority of professors ranked among the top 15% of wage earners, in 2005. According to

2900-473: Is always tenured; however, this may not be the case in a for-profit private institution or certain church-affiliated universities and colleges. The rank of professor is the highest of the standard academic ranks in the United States, and is held by 29.5% of U.S. academics. Advancement past the rank of professor typically involves administrative duties (e.g., department chair, dean , or provost ) or selection for an honorary title or endowed chair. The absence of

3000-536: Is an American financial services organization that is a private provider of financial retirement services in the academic, research, medical, cultural and governmental fields. TIAA is listed on the Fortune 100 and serves over 5 million active and retired employees participating at more than 15,000 institutions and has $ 1 trillion in combined assets under management with holdings in more than 50 countries (as of December 31, 2017 ). Long organized as

3100-457: Is commonly referred to as having been a professor of law at the University of Chicago , when in fact he formally held the title of senior lecturer, causing some controversy during the 2008 US Presidential Election . The faculty of the University of Chicago Law School eventually published a statement noting that it is common for lecturers to be referred to as professors, and that they support

Professors in the United States - Misplaced Pages Continue

3200-418: Is equally simple and to the point. The first principle maintains that the terms of appointment are to be stated in writing. The second details the conditions and length of time professors are given to attain tenure. The third notes that during the probationary period before attaining tenure, the teacher "should have all the academic freedom that all other members of the faculty have." Detailing terms for appeal of

3300-409: Is less strong than tenure. They may still be referred to casually as "professor" and be described by the common-noun "professor", whether or not they officially designated that position title by the university or college. Likewise, the term "instructor" is very generic and can be applied to any teacher, or it can be a specific title (tenure or tenure-track) depending upon how an institution chooses to use

3400-535: Is more flexible than that for assistant to associate positions and the associate professor does not normally lose his/her job if the application is rejected. As with promotion from assistant to associate professor, promotion from associate to full professor involves review at multiple levels, similar to the earlier tenure/promotion review. This includes external reviews, decisions by the department, recommendations by members of other departments, and high-ranking university officials. Usually, this final promotion requires that

3500-890: Is not a servicing parent organization. All of its affiliates (at least those that are not affiliated with any other labor union ) are independent organizations that completely provide for all their own services, such as staff, attorneys, consultants and organizers. Also, the AAUP does not have the power of receivership in its constitution and so it can not take over any of its affiliates, supplant any of its elected leaders, or dictate policy or bargaining proposals or agenda upon them. Several university chapters have been involved in labor strikes , including at Boston University in 1979, Wright State University and Oregon Tech in 2021, and Rutgers University in 2023. The AAUP censures institutions that violated standards of academic freedom and tenure and sanctions institutions that have infringed university governance standards through "serious departures by

3600-401: Is possible to receive tenure but to remain as an assistant professor, typically when tenure is awarded early. Upon successfully receiving tenure, an assistant professor usually is promoted to the rank of associate professor . The mid-level position is usually awarded after a substantial record of scholarly accomplishment (such as the publication of one or more books, numerous research articles,

3700-998: Is professor of linguistics and professor by courtesy of computer science at Stanford University". Usually, the second courtesy appointment carries with it fewer responsibilities and fewer benefits than a single full appointment (for example, affiliated professors rarely have voting rights in their courtesy department). A professor who does not take on all of the classic duties of a professor, but instead focuses on research. At most universities, research professors are not eligible for tenure and must fund their salary entirely through research grants, with no regular salary commitment from internal university sources. In parallel with tenure-track faculty ranks, there are assistant and associate research professor positions. These types of professors focus on teaching, often at higher loads than research faculty, and in departments with graduate students, supervising teaching assistants . They may be ranked assistant, associate, and full. At some institutions (like within

3800-536: Is the "department chair ." Prior to the 1970s, such administrators were called "chairmen" or "chairwomen", but the term in most institutions has since been the gender-neutral "chairperson", or shortened to "chair". While many department chairs also hold endowed chair positions, the two positions are distinct. Educators who hold a formal title of "Professor" (referred to as tenured/tenure-track faculty) typically begin their careers as assistant professors (or "lecturers" and "senior lecturers"), with subsequent promotions to

3900-420: Is the definitive articulation of the principles and practices and is widely accepted throughout the academic community. The association's procedures ensuring academic due process remain the model for professional employment practices on campuses throughout the country. The association suggests that "The principles of Academic Freedom and Tenure" date back to a 1925 conference. R. M. O'Neil's history suggests that

4000-525: Is the largest system in the U.S., with over 11,000 faculty members, had an average full-time faculty salary of $ 74,000 in 2007, which had been scheduled to increase to $ 91,000 by 2011. Unfortunately for these faculty, the ensuing crash of the U.S. economy resulted in temporary pay reductions and total salary stagnation at the 2007 level instead, in spite of ongoing inflation. TIAA-CREF The Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association of America-College Retirement Equities Fund ( TIAA , formerly TIAA-CREF )

4100-439: Is their top priority. Since these positions are usually not tenured, they often are not obligated to do research in their fields, although many of them do publish, research, and consult. Alternatively, at US medical colleges, the title "Instructor" can be given to someone who is full-time faculty and who may conduct research with no teaching obligation. These appointments can be tenured in some universities. An individual hired with

Professors in the United States - Misplaced Pages Continue

4200-417: Is to advance academic freedom and shared governance, to define fundamental professional values and standards for higher education , and to ensure higher education's contribution to the common good . Founded in 1915 by Arthur O. Lovejoy and John Dewey , the AAUP has helped to shape American higher education by developing the standards and procedures that maintain quality in education and academic freedom in

4300-478: Is typically reported as a nine-month salary, not including compensation received (often from research grants) during the summer. In 2006, the overall median 9-month salary for all professors in the U.S. was reported to be $ 73,000, placing a slight majority of professors among the top 15% of earners at age 25 or older. Yet, their salaries remain considerably below that of some other comparable professions (even when including summer compensation) such as lawyers (who earned

4400-604: The 1915 Declaration of Principles on Academic Freedom and Academic Tenure —the AAUP's foundational statement on the rights and corresponding obligations of members of the academic profession. Since 2010 the AAUP has published the Journal of Academic Freedom , an online-only open-access annual journal. In June 2022, the AAUP affiliated with the American Federation of Teachers . In 2024, AAUP president Todd Wolfson referred to United States Senator JD Vance as

4500-630: The American Council on Education (ACE), and the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges (AGB). The statement clarifies the respective roles of governing boards, faculties, and administrations. The document does not provide for a "blueprint" to the governance of higher education . Also, the purpose of the statement was not to provide principles for relations with industry and government although it establishes direction on "the correction of existing weaknesses." Rather,

4600-637: The TIAA Bank name on June 4, 2018. In November 2022, TIAA announced plans to sell TIAA Bank to private investors. TIAA Bank changed its name back to EverBank when the transaction was completed. American Association of University Professors The American Association of University Professors ( AAUP ) is an organization of professors and other academics in the United States . AAUP membership includes over 500 local campus chapters and 39 state organizations. The AAUP's stated mission

4700-520: The University of California system), these are full voting members of the Academic Senate who get tenured and promoted in the same manner as other tenure-track faculty, and have all the powers/rights of other faculty at the same rank (e.g. Principal investigator status, supervising doctoral dissertations, serving in academic leadership roles, etc.). At some institutions, they may be full-time contingent instructors who are not required to meet

4800-484: The "professor" ranking system as well. Candidates for tenure at those institutions would not normally need to hold a PhD, only the degree necessary (usually a master's) for employment as an instructor. Individuals in these positions who typically (though not always) focus on teaching undergraduate courses do not engage in research (except in the case of "research professors"), may or may not have administrative or service roles, and sometimes are eligible for job security that

4900-480: The "working poor". In 2014, a national news story described the situation of adjuncts as "Juggling multiple part-time jobs, earning little-to-no benefits, depending on public assistance: This is the financial reality for many adjunct professors across the nation." In 2015, an adjunct professor of law writing in The Guardian provided an anecdotal example of the low pay some adjuncts earn: teaching five courses with

5000-428: The 1940 interpretations of the statement and a 1970 interpretation, which codified evaluation of the principles since the time they were adopted. The statement is straightforward, based on three principles of academic freedom. Briefly summarized, the first principle states that teachers are entitled to "full freedom in research and in publication of the results" and that the issue of financial gains from research depends on

5100-594: The 1940 statement and a later documents on standards for faculty dismissal. In Sweezy v. New Hampshire (1957), the Supreme Court of the United States acknowledged the essential role of academic freedom as a protected right under the First Amendment . This case set a precedent that significantly influenced university policies across the United States, affirming the importance of academic discourse and inquiry without governmental interference. However, "at

SECTION 50

#1732802094773

5200-535: The 2005–2006 year, salaries for assistant professors ranged from $ 45,927 in theology to $ 81,005 in law. For associate professors, salaries ranged from $ 56,943 in theology to $ 98,530 in law, while salaries among full professors ranged from $ 68,214 in theology to $ 136,634 in law. During the 2010–2011 year, associate professor salaries vary from $ 59,593 in theology to $ 93,767 in law. Full professors at elite institutions commonly enjoy six-figure incomes, such as $ 123,300 at UCLA or $ 148,500 at Stanford . The CSU system , which

5300-479: The 20th century. In the 1800s professors were often clergymen and tended towards conservatism, gradually becoming more liberal with the Progressive Era and Great Depression. By the mid-20th century, the humanities and social sciences were dominated by liberal or Democratic professors, with Republicans or conservatives showing a slight majority in departments of business , agriculture and engineering . From

5400-534: The AAUP formed as the "Association of University Professors" after a series of meetings held at the Chemists' Club in New York City. John Dewey would serve as President of the organization, with Lovejoy, who had by then moved on to Johns Hopkins , serving as Secretary. In February 1915, the dismissals of two professors and two instructors at the University of Utah by President Joseph T. Kingsbury —and

5500-434: The AAUP offered up another interpretation, stating that the "1970 de-endorsement clause" requires a religious institution to forfeit its "right to represent itself as an 'authentic seat of higher learning.'" But the AAUP's Committee A did not endorse it, thus the issue on whether a religious institution can place limits on academic freedom if those limitations are clearly stated appears to be unresolved. The AAUP has released

5600-410: The AAUP's stance regarding academic freedom in religious institutions as contradicting its 1940 statement on academic freedom, which permits religious institutions to place limits on academic freedom if those limitations are clearly stated. In 1970, the AAUP criticized its 1940 statement, positing that most religious institutions "no longer need or desire" to place limits on academic freedom. In 1988,

5700-677: The College Retirement Equities Fund (CREF) a variable annuity , in order to diversify its retirement funds. In 1995, TIAA introduced the TIAA Real Estate account, also a variable annuity, but more stable than equity investments and more flexible than TIAA Traditional. On June 15, 2007, TIAA became one of the first U.S. companies to voluntarily adopt, and the first to implement, a policyholder advisory vote on executive compensation policy. On February 22, 2016, TIAA-CREF rebranded as simply TIAA as part of

5800-558: The General Account. In 2022, TIAA’s annual climate report, “Ensuring Our Future,” stated that TIAA views climate risk as investment risk. A November 2022 report from the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA) asserts that TIAA’s failure to divest its fossil fuel holdings to clear its portfolio of financial and environmental risk is strategically unsound. On October 19, 2022, nearly 300 TIAA clients filed

5900-485: The National Center for Education Statistics counted 189,692 professors, 162,095 associate professors, 166,543 assistant professors, 96,627 instructors, 44,670 lecturers, and 164,720 other full-time faculty. The term "professors" in the United States refers to a group of educators at the college and university level . In the United States, while "Professor" as a proper noun (with a capital "P") generally implies

6000-701: The TIAA board so that educators would have a role in running the organization. TIAA's namesake and signature investment/insurance product is the TIAA Traditional, which offers a contractually guaranteed return on principal and, at the discretion of the board of trustees on a periodic basis, additional profit/dividend interest over and above the guaranteed return. From the relatively illiquid and stable, long-term investments of its general account, TIAA has been able to consistently add some dividends to TIAA Traditional contributions since 1948. In 1952, TIAA created

6100-519: The U.S. In 2018, TIAA ranked 84th on Fortune's list of the 500 largest corporations in America. As of 2017 , TIAA is the largest global investor in agriculture, the second-largest grower of wine grapes in the United States (by acreage), and the third-largest commercial real estate manager in the world. In 1918, Andrew Carnegie and his Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching , under

SECTION 60

#1732802094773

6200-624: The United States in such institutions as University of Connecticut , Portland State University , University of Alaska , the California State University system , Rutgers , University of Oregon , Eastern Michigan University , University of Illinois Chicago , University of Rhode Island , State University of New York , and many others in both the public and private sector. Unlike the American Federation of Teachers and other more traditional labor unions, AAUP

6300-466: The University states that "the expectations at each rank are similar to those for the same rank on the tenure track". Since the 1990s, the nature of adjunct professorship in the United States and other nations has shifted for some adjunct professors and institutions to refer mainly to persons hired to teach courses on a short-term contractual basis. Such adjuncts generally have a teaching load below

6400-523: The administration and/or governing board from generally accepted standards of college and university government". In 1930, the University of Mississippi , Mississippi State University and Mississippi University for Women , were placed on a list of "non-recommended" institutions, after Mississippi Governor Theodore Bilbo and member of the Ku Klux Klan fired the presidents of all three institutions as well as 179 faculty members. The censure list

6500-402: The ages of 60 and 66 and that the remaining 27% were above the age of 66. Yakoboski estimated that 75% of these professors have acknowledged that they have made no preparations for retirement due to the ongoing financial crisis and reluctance to leave their profession. A 2013 survey conducted by Fidelity Investments would echo similar results when the question about retirement came up. In 2020,

6600-533: The complaint but dismissed it after internal review. In March of 2024, a group of TIAA clients and university student activists published their response to TIAA sponsoring the Big 10 while utilizing harmful investing practices. The activists stated that land grabs, the spraying of toxic chemicals, and fossil fuel investments are contributing to the climate crisis. Nearly a year after the acquisition of EverBank, TIAA began rebranding all of its banking activities under

6700-463: The country's colleges and universities . In the 1890s and early 1900s, there were a number of attempts to dismiss college faculty members from their academic posts, including a failed attempt to dismiss Richard Ely at the University of Wisconsin in 1894. The following year Edward Bemis was dismissed from a post at the University of Chicago and George D. Herron from one at Grinnell College in 1899. Perhaps most prominent of these incidents

6800-435: The decision to deny tenure, the fourth point notes that both faculty and the institution's governing board should judge whether tenure is to be granted or denied. The final point suggests that if the faculty member is not granted tenure appointment for reasons of financial restraint upon the university, the "financial exigency should be demonstrably bona fide." The interpretive statement also maintains that while professors have

6900-414: The declaration, but that today the statement remains "almost as nearly inviolate as the U.S. Constitution." The AAUP notes that following a series of conferences beginning in 1934, the association officially adopted the "1925 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure," which started to become institutionalized in universities only in the 1940s. The AAUP offers the original principles, including

7000-486: The formal origins of the statement of academic freedom in the United States begins with an earlier 1915 "declaration of principles," when the "fledgling" AAUP first convened. While it seems common sense that academic freedom aligns with the values of democratic rights and free speech, O'Neil also notes the ideas of academic freedom at the time were not entirely well received, and even the New York Times criticized

7100-729: The full title (e.g., "professor of medicine, emeritus".) Often specific to one institution, titles such as "president's professor", "university professor", "distinguished professor", "distinguished research professor", "distinguished teaching professor", "distinguished university professor", or "regents professor" are granted to a small percentage of the top tenured faculty who are regarded as particularly important in their respective fields of research. Some institutions grant more university-specific, formal titles such as M.I.T. 's " Institute Professor ", Yale University 's " Sterling Professor ", or Duke University 's " James B. Duke Professor ". Some academic and/or scholarly organizations may also bestow

7200-400: The importance of faculty involvement in personnel decisions, selection of administrators, preparation of the budget, and determination of educational policies. Refinements to the statement were introduced in subsequent years, culminating in the 1966 "Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities." The statement was jointly formulated by the American Association of University Professors,

7300-567: The individual has maintained an active research program and excellent teaching, in addition to taking a leadership role in important departmental and extra-departmental administrative tasks. Full professor is the highest rank that a professor can achieve (other than in a named position) and is seldom achieved before a person reaches their mid-40s. The rank of full professor carries additional administrative responsibilities associated with membership on committees that are restricted to full professors. Two-year community colleges that award tenure often use

7400-401: The individual may eventually apply for tenure at that institution or, optionally, seek a tenured position elsewhere. Upon a sustained and distinguished track record of scholarly achievement within one's university and academic discipline, an associate professor may be promoted to professor (sometimes referred to as "full professor"). In most traditional colleges and universities, this position

7500-446: The institution expected of tenure-track professors, nor are adjuncts paid for their research. Traditionally the majority of adjuncts held full-time jobs outside academia, while still having relevant qualifications for teaching, and taught one or two classes in their respective fields of expertise to provide a practical perspective to the often theoretical coursework taught by full-time professors. In some cases, an adjunct may hold one of

7600-696: The job protections that should be afforded to part-time faculty members. In 2003, it had released its major policy statement Contingent Appointments and the Academic Profession. The statement makes new recommendations in two areas: increasing the proportion of faculty appointments that are on the tenure line as well as improving job security and due process protections for those with contingent appointments. In 2009, AAUP began its reorganization amongst its thinktank, its non-organized advocacy chapters and its support for collective bargaining chapters. AAUP currently represents approximately 70 affiliates across

7700-401: The late 1970s to the mid 1980s there was a trend towards conservatism amongst professors (paralleling a national shift to the right with the " Reagan Revolution "): about 5% of professors identified themselves as strongly left-wing, about a third identifying themselves as liberals, about 25% identifying themselves as moderates, 25% as conservative, and 5% as strongly conservative. Since the 1980s,

7800-500: The leadership of Henry S. Pritchett , created the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association of America (TIAA), a fully funded system of pensions for professors. Funding was provided by a combination of grants from the foundation and Carnegie Corporation of New York , as well as ongoing contributions from participating institutions and individuals. The policyholders voted in 1921 to implement policyholder representation on

7900-528: The middle of the 20th century, professors without doctorates were more common. These full-time faculty members with PhDs or other highest-level terminal degrees (designated as acceptable by a university or college, including the "professional equivalent" to the doctorate at institutions such as Columbia University ), engage in both undergraduate and graduate teaching, mentoring, research, and service. Only faculty in these positions are eligible for tenure . The top administrative post in many academic departments

8000-586: The minimum required to earn employment benefits such as health insurance or access to retirement accounts. In contrast with tenure-track professors, adjuncts do not usually have individual offices or a place to store possessions. Adjuncts are not funded to maintain currency in their fields of expertise, nor to interact with students other than within the course(s) they are hired to teach. Often, adjuncts will work for several universities simultaneously, as working at one school often fails to provide adequate income to support oneself. These adjuncts have been called part of

8100-404: The percentage of liberal professors has grown steadily, with nationwide research consistently finding somewhere between 7 and 9 liberals for each professor of another political persuasion. In terms of education , the vast majority of professors hold doctorate degrees . Professors at community colleges may only have a master's degree while those at four-year institutions are often required to hold

8200-465: The position is temporary or permanent, if the work is full-time or part-time, and numerous other factors. Adding to the confusion over the formal names of non-tenure track positions, in almost every case the common-noun descriptor "professor" is used informally for people who teach at a college or university, regardless of their formal job title, and the terms are often loosely interchanged by faculty and administrators. For example, US President Barack Obama

8300-427: The professor in question could be called a "Visiting Assistant Professor", "Distinguished Visiting Professor", etc. An adjunct professor is a professor who does not hold a permanent or full-time position at that particular academic institution. Adjunct professors usually have no expectation of tenure as a part of their contract. An adjunct is generally not required to participate in the administrative responsibilities at

8400-429: The rank is bestowed on all professors who have retired in good standing, while at others it needs a special act or vote. Depending on local circumstances, professors emeriti may retain office space or other privileges. The word is typically used as a postpositional adjective ("professor emeritus") but can also be used as a preposition adjective ("emeritus professor"). There is a third, somewhat less common usage, following

8500-637: The rank of associate professor. Associate professors who continue to establish high profiles and become experts in their fields of study may bid for a promotion to full professor, which is considered an esteemed position reserved for the most successful professors working in their fields. College and university teachers who hold the rank of lecturer or instructor are typically not tenured/tenure-track faculty, usually focus on teaching undergraduate courses, and are generally not involved in research, nor are they typically involved in department and university decision-making. (Note that in other English-speaking countries,

8600-783: The ranks of associate professor and finally professor . The titles are historical traditions; for example, it is not implied that an assistant professor "assists" more senior faculty. There is often a strict timeline for application for promotion from assistant to associate professor, most often 5 or 6 years following the initial appointment. Applicants are evaluated based on their contributions to research, teaching, and administration. The relative weightings of these contributions differ by institution, with PhD-granting universities usually placing more emphasis on research and liberal arts colleges placing more emphasis on teaching. The decision to grant tenure and promotion from assistant to associate professor usually requires numerous levels of approval, with

8700-412: The relationship with the institution. The second principle of academic freedom is that teachers should have the same freedom in the classroom. The third asserts that college and university professors are citizens and should be free to speak and write as citizens "free from institutional censorship." The 1970 interpretation believes that the statement is not a "static code but a fundamental document to set

8800-431: The research requirements of the tenure track. A clinical professor engages in practical instruction (of professional students) typically with an emphasis on practical skills as opposed to theory. This generally is not a "tenure track" position, but can be either full- or part-time. These types of appointments are common in law, medicine, and business schools, and are sometimes referred to as 'professor of practice'. This

8900-478: The rights of citizens, both scholars and educational officers "should remember that the public may judge their profession and their institution by their utterances," noting that every effort should be made "to indicate they are not speaking for the institution." The comments provide for further insights into the evaluation for tenure appointment and direct to the "1968 Recommended Institutional Regulations on Academic Freedom and Tenure," which recommends policy based upon

9000-463: The standard academic ranks in another department, and be recognized with adjunct rank for making contributions to the department in question. Thus, one could be an "associate professor of physics and adjunct professor of chemistry". In some universities, there are different ranks of adjunct faculty. For example, at the University of Iowa , the ranks are adjunct instructor, adjunct assistant professor, adjunct associate professor, and adjunct full professor;

9100-505: The statement aimed to establish a shared vision for the internal governance of institutions. Student involvement is not addressed in detail. The statement concerns general education policy and internal operations with an overview of the formal roles for governing structures in the organization and management of higher education. The AAUP has censured numerous religious institutions, including The Catholic University of America in 1990 and Brigham Young University in 1998. Some have criticized

9200-578: The subsequent resignations of 14 faculty members in protest—launched the AAUP's first institutional academic freedom inquest. An earlier 1911 controversy at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, had involved some of these same professors. The AAUP published, in December 1915, its inaugural volume of the Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors , including the document now known as

9300-403: The teaching schedule from one semester to the next can be unpredictable. A professor who is primarily and originally associated with one academic department, but has become officially associated with a second department, institute, or program within the university and has assumed a professor's duty in that second department as well, could be called a "professor by courtesy." Example: "Dan Jurafsky

9400-550: The term lecturer might have a different meaning. For example, in the United Kingdom and in Ireland, the position of lecturer is equivalent to that of assistant professor in the US system.) The rank of assistant professor generally is held for a probationary period of five to seven years, after which the individual will either be promoted to associate professor and granted tenure (i.e., cannot be fired without cause and

9500-574: The term. Positions typically temporary and/or part-time : Retired faculty may retain formal or informal links with their university, such as library privileges or office space. At some institutions, faculty who have retired after achieving the rank of professor are given the title "professor emeritus " (male) or "professor emerita" (female). Although the term "professor" is often used to refer to any college or university teacher, there are different 'tiers' of professorship ranging from an entry-level position as an "assistant professor" to "full professor",

9600-619: The time of the Sweezy decision, the AAUP was deeply ambivalent about the constitutionalization of academic freedom, because some members feared the long-term consequences of having judges rather than professors elaborate and apply the protective rules of academic life." In Keyishian v. Board of Regents (1967), the constitutionality and legal basis for AAUP's principles of academic freedom were established. The American Association of University Professors published its first "Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities" in 1920, "emphasizing

9700-510: The title "distinguished professor" in recognition of achievement over the course of an academic career. For example, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture annually recognizes up to five faculty at architecture schools in the United States and Canada with the ACSA Distinguished Professor Award. The incumbent of a "named chair" or "endowed chair" is a professor who holds a specific position within

9800-435: The use of the term professor to describe Obama's role with the university. " Lecturers " and "instructors" in the US can work full-time or part-time and may be referred to as "professor" by their classes, but they often don't mind when students refer to them as college teachers, so they are technically teachers, but in a college setting. This is especially common at community colleges and teaching universities, in which teaching

9900-461: Was officially created in 1938. Between that year and 2002, 183 colleges and universities were placed on the list at various times. As of 2024, there are 59 institutions on AAUP's censure list. Fourteen colleges in the United States are currently on AAUP's list of sanctioned institutions for violations of shared governance. Apart from the elected leadership, the AAUP has been led in its day to day operations by what has been at various times called

10000-628: Was the 1900 dismissal of eugenicist , economics professor, and sociologist Edward Alsworth Ross from Stanford University . Ross's work criticizing the employment of Chinese laborers by the Southern Pacific Railroad , run by Stanford's founder Leland Stanford , led Leland's widow, Jane Stanford , to intervene and, over the objections of the president and the faculty, to succeed in getting Ross eventually dismissed. A number of faculty colleagues resigned in protest, including Arthur O. Lovejoy . Fifteen years later, In January 1915,

#772227