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90-554: In the Rus' Khaganate , a druzhina helped the prince administer his principality and constituted the area's military force. The first members of a druzhina were the Varangians , whose princes established control there in the 9th century. Soon, members of the local Slavic aristocracy and adventurers of a variety of other nationalities became druzhinniki. The druzhina's organization varied with time and survived in one form or another until

180-687: A byvalschina , an oral story about a case that allegedly took place in reality, without focusing on the personal testimony of the narrator. bylichka and byvalschina were often told in the villages to friends or children in order to wean them to walk far from home, and, according to Yevgeny Meletinsky, they became the prototype of "scary fairy tales". Later, a special type of druzhina poetry began to take shape – bylina , Rus' epic poems about heroic or mythological events or remarkable episodes of national history. In some ways, bylina are similar to skaldic poetry : both are divided into songs of praise and blasphemy and glorify some historical event. Bylina, as

270-554: A Khazar khagan named Khan-Tuvan Dyggvi, exiled after losing an internecine war , settled with his Kabar faction in the Norse-Slavic settlement of Rostov , married into the local Scandinavian nobility, and fathered the dynasty of the Rus' khagans. Zuckerman dismisses Pritsak's theory as untenable speculation, and no record of any Khazar khagan fleeing to find refuge among the Rus' exists in contemporaneous sources. Nevertheless,

360-506: A fortress on the Khazar border with Levedia and that only after the Magyars departed for the west in 889 did the middle Dnieper region start to progress economically. A number of historians, the first of whom was Vasily Bartold , have advocated a more northerly position for the khaganate. They have tended to emphasize ibn Rustah's report as the only historical clue to the location of

450-420: A "k(h)aganate". Other scholars have disputed this, as it would have been unlikely for an organisation of Germanic immigrants from the north to adopt such a foreign title. Some historians have criticised the concept of a Rus' Khaganate, calling it a "historiographical phantom", and said that the society of 9th-century Rusʹ cannot be characterised as a state. Still other scholars identify these early mentions of

540-550: A Rus' chacanus is to "the ruler of Kiev ". Some archaeologists have countered that there is no material evidence of a Norse presence in Kiev prior to the 10th century. Troublesome is the absence of hoards of coins which would prove that the Dnieper trade route – the backbone of later Kievan Rus' – was operating in the 9th century. Based on his examination of the archaeological evidence, Zuckerman concludes that Kiev originated as

630-506: A Rus' khaganate had existed, it must have disappeared before 900, as references to a Rus' khagan are last recorded in the 880s, and do not return until the 11th century. Various possible reasons for its disappearance have been suggested. The Primary Chronicle describes the uprising of the pagan Slavs and Chudes (Baltic Finns) against the Varangians, who had to withdraw overseas in 862. The Novgorod First Chronicle , whose account of

720-653: A Rus' political entity headed by a chacanus with the Kievan Rus' state commonly attested in later sources, whose princes such as Vladimir the Great , ( r.  980–1015 ) Yaroslav the Wise ( r.  1019–1054 ), and perhaps Sviatoslav II of Kiev ( r.  1073–1076 ) and Oleg I of Chernigov ( r.  1097–1115 ) were occasionally identified as kagans in Old East Slavic literature until

810-461: A monastery. As if they are just sitting so, knowing nothing,   only how to honor God, how to bow down to Him. Test yourselves with the experience   and at least live in a monastery for a while. Then you will learn how someone stays in a cell,   how they reject thoughts, passions   ... The acrostic form became very popular in Ancient Rus' poetics. It

900-460: A non-nomadic people'. Halperin also found it "highly anomalous" that a Christian prelate like Hilarion would 'laud his ruler with a shamanist title', adding in 2022: "The Christian ethos of the sermon is marred by Ilarion's attribution to Vladimir of the Khazar title kagan , which was definitely not Christian." Hilarion's Sermon on Law and Grace mentions the word kagan ( Old East Slavic : каганъ , romanized:  kaganŭ ) throughout

990-562: A notebook. Notebooks written by one scribe could then be bound by the scribe himself or the bookbinder into a separate book. The bookbinder could collect notebooks of different times and different scribes and connect them because they were of the same format or were combined by them according to content. Such collections are currently called convolutes . Such collections of teachings as Izmaragd , Golden Chain, Bee, Solemn, Zlatostruy (origins), Pchela (of Byzantine origin) were originally intended for home and monastic cell reading. Included in these

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1080-704: A relevant passage. In a legendary story about a siege of the Tsanars in the Caucasus in 854, mention is made of "the overlords ( sahib ) of the Byzantines ( al-Rum ), of the Khazars, and of the Slavs ( al- Saqaliba )", which Zuckerman connected with a supposed Rus' khagan . According to Zuckerman, Ibn Khordadbeh and other Arab authors often confused the terms Rus and Saqaliba when describing Caspian expeditions of

1170-535: A rule, are written in tonic verse with two or four accents. Almost all the literature of Rus' – original and translated – was handwritten. Handwritten works were distributed by copying by scribes or ordinary people. In Rus', the apocrypha about the Last Judgment was especially popular. Among such works, a special place was occupied by the life of Basil the Younger , the second part of which (scenes from

1260-466: A treatise on the calculus of time, combining an essay on mathematics , chronology and Paschalistics . However, later mathematical treatises did not receive a proper development in Kievan Rus'. Among the works equal to the "doctrine of numbers", scientists include the "Charter of military Affairs" created in the 15th and 16th centuries, which set out the tasks of triangulation on the ground, and

1350-461: Is a collection of legal norms of Rus', dated from various years, starting from 1016, the oldest Rus' legal code. The Russkaya Pravda contains the norms of criminal , compulsory , hereditary , family and procedural law . It is the main source for studying the legal, social and economic relations of Kievan Rus'. The Russkaya Pravda is similar to earlier European legal collections, such as Germanic law (the so-called Leges Barbarorum , "laws of

1440-438: Is a collection of literary works of Rus' authors, which includes all the works of ancient Rus' theologians, historians, philosophers, translators, etc., and written in Old East Slavic . It is a general term that unites the common literary heritage of Belarus , Russia , and Ukraine of the ancient period. In terms of genre construction, it has a number of differences from medieval European literature. The greatest influence on

1530-525: Is a name applied by some modern historians to a hypothetical polity suggested to have existed during a poorly documented period in the history of Eastern Europe between c. 830 and the 890s. The fact that a few sparse contemporaneous sources appear to refer to the leader or leaders of Rus' people at this time with the word chacanus , which might be derived from the title of khagan as used by groupings of Asiatic nomads, has led some scholars to suggest that his political organisation can be called

1620-458: Is considerable dispute over the circumstances of this borrowing. Peter Benjamin Golden (1982) rejected the idea that the Rus' could have appropriated the title of Qağan from the Khazars; the ruling Ashina clan would have had to voluntarily appoint a Rus' leader as a vassal Qağan for it to have any legitimacy. Golden concluded that the Rus' Khaganate was a puppet state set up by the Khazars in

1710-467: Is finished (the end of all things will come)". The so-called " fortune-telling books" (also "divinatory books") can probably also be attributed to cosmological works, which are currently not officially assigned to any of the genres of Kievan Rus'. Fortune-telling books ( Volkhovnik , Gromnik , Kolyadnik , Trepetnik , Enchanter , etc.) were mainly distributed secretly: they were copied, sewn into other books, and passed on by inheritance. Officially,

1800-473: Is taken into account in the classification based on the systematics of Dmitry Likhachev , who distinguished between monumental and small genre forms. Nikolai Prokofiev gave the following classification: The most important feature of epic genres is the object of the image and lyrical purpose. In the early period after the Christianization of Kievan Rus' , there was no special church calendar, and

1890-629: Is the Merilo Pravednoye , which is both a collection of church-canonical and civil legal legal nature. The legal basis of the Kievan Rus' state was the Russkaya Pravda , Lithuanian statutes and Moscow Sidebniks . In 1649, the Sobornoye Ulozheniye was added to these written laws. The so-called Russkaya Pravda ("Rus' Justice") is of great importance for the study of Kievan Rus' law . The Russkaya Pravda

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1980-587: Is the Palea , a collection of several interconnected ancient Rus' works that set out Old Testament history, with additions from apocryphal monuments, as well as with theological reasoning. Already in the early period of the development of Rus' literature, one can trace the understanding of Rus' not only as an ethno-political and religious community, but also as the Kingdom of Christ. In the Sermon on Law and Grace of

2070-512: Is today European Russia and Ukraine as a chronological predecessor to the Rurik dynasty and Kievan Rusʹ . The region's population at that time was composed of Slavs, Turkic , Baltic , Finnic , Hungarian and Norse peoples . The region was also a place of operations for Varangians , eastern Scandinavian adventurers, merchants, and pirates. Although since the 19th century various writers (some expressing anti-Normanist views) have asserted

2160-695: The Byzantine Empire , around 839. Fearful of returning home via the steppes , which would leave them vulnerable to attacks by the Magyars , these Rhos travelled through the Frankish kingdom accompanied by Byzantine Greek ambassadors from the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus . When questioned by the Frankish king Louis the Pious at Ingelheim , they stated that their leader was known as chacanus (hypothesized to be either

2250-729: The Kuban River . Neither of these theories has won many adherents, as archaeologists have uncovered no traces of a Slavic-Norse settlement in the Crimea region in the 9th century and there are no Norse sources documenting "khagans" in Scandinavia. The Russian anti-Normanist Stepan Gedeonov (1876) was the first historian to suggest that the Rhos ambassadors mentioned in the Annales Bertiniani sub anno 839 were Swedes in

2340-522: The Latin word for "khagan" or a deformation of Scandinavian proper name Håkan ), that they lived far to the north, and that they were Swedes ( comperit eos gentis esse sueonum ). Thirty years later, in spring 871, the eastern and western Roman Emperors, Basil I and Louis II of Italy , quarrelled over control of Bari , which had been besieged by Arabs. The Byzantine Emperor sent an angry letter to his western counterpart, reprimanding him for usurping

2430-688: The Turkic -speaking steppe peoples as "köl-beki" or "lake-princes", came to dominate some of the region's Finno-Ugric and Slavic peoples, particularly along the Volga trade route linking the Baltic Sea with the Caspian Sea and Serkland . According to Franklin & Shepard (1996, 2014), the account of the 860s Rus' expedition against Constantinople in the Primary Chronicle (which claims

2520-592: The khagan interpretation again, arguing that one cannot just turn the c in the middle of chacanus into a g , adding that 'many Germanic names starting with phonetic h- were transcribed in Frankish sources with ch- ' , and concluding that the word most likely was the Swedish name Håkan , an explanation accepted by Ostrowski (2018). Assuming it reflects the Khazar-derived title khagan , there

2610-412: The "Book of soshny writing", dedicated to land surveying . Later works include an extensive manuscript entitled "Synodal No. 42", the first textbook in Rus' on theoretical geometry . The early cosmological works of Kievan Rus' were partially influenced by apocryphal writings, mixed with pre-Christian ideas about the structure of the world. Thus, much attention is paid to the creation and structure of

2700-601: The "Conversation of the Three Saints", the Earth floats on top of the great sea on three large whales and 30 small whales; the latter cover 30 sea windows; "The Conversation of Jerusalem" and "Depth Book" connect the movement of the whale with the end of the world. According to the "Depth Book" — "The Whale-fish is the mother of all fish. On the Whale-fish the earth is founded; when the Whale-fish turns, then our white light

2790-622: The 11th and 12th centuries, and are "fundamentally different". The Perso-Arabic (Islamic) sources mentioning a khāqān rus or Khāqān-i Rus all appear to follow a single common chain of tradition tracing back to the "Anonymous Note". The earliest claimed reference related to Rus' people ruled by a "khagan" comes from the Frankish Latin Annales Bertiniani , which refer to a group of Norsemen who called themselves Rhos ( qui se, id est gentem suam, Rhos vocari dicebant ) and visited Constantinople , capital of

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2880-407: The 16th century. The druzhina was composed of two groups: the senior members, later known as boyars , and the junior members, later known as boyar scions . The boyars were the prince's closest advisers and performed higher state functions. The junior members constituted the prince's personal bodyguard and were common soldiers. Members were dependent upon their prince for financial support but served

2970-729: The 880s and 890s suggests that the Volga trade route ceased functioning, precipitating "the first silver crisis in Europe". After this economic depression and period of political upheaval, the region experienced a resurgence beginning in around 900. Zuckerman associates this recovery with the arrival of Rurik and his men, who turned their attention from the Volga to the Dnieper, for reasons as yet uncertain. The Scandinavian settlements in Ladoga and Novgorod revived and started to grow rapidly. During

3060-637: The Ice , the army of the Novgorod Republic had about 5000 men in all. Around 3000 men in both the cavalry and the infantry were part of Alexander Nevsky 's druzhina. Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , who traveled in 961–62 in Central Europe , mentions that the drużyna of Duke Mieszko I of Poland had 3000 men, paid by the duke. Unlike his predecessors, Casimir I the Restorer promoted landed gentry over

3150-441: The Khazars. This theory is echoed by Thomas Noonan , who asserts that the Rus' leaders were loosely unified under the rule of one of the "sea-kings" in the early 9th century, and that this " High King " adopted the title "khagan" to give him legitimacy in the eyes of his subjects and neighboring states. According to this theory, the title was a sign that the bearers ruled under a divine mandate. Omeljan Pritsak speculated that

3240-501: The Northmen do not have a khagan. From that, the non-extant letter of Basil I has been thought to have stated that the Northmen had a khagan, but we do not know that. (...) Besides, even if Basil's letter did assert that the ruler of the Northmen was called a khagan, that testimony is negated by the statement of Louis II that their ruler is not called a khagan.' Ahmad ibn Rustah , a 10th-century Persian Muslim geographer , wrote that

3330-525: The Old Slavic calendar was not suitable for calculating church holidays. Therefore, many authors had to make their own calculations in their works, which ranked their works among not only Paschal, but also mathematical treatises. For complex calculations, schoty was often used. The earliest mathematical work of Kievan Rus' is considered to be "the doctrine of numbers" by Kirik the Novgorodian ,

3420-687: The Polish Psalter". Some of the earliest representatives of Old East Slavic syllabic poetry are such poets as Karion Istomin , Simeon of Polotsk , Theophan Prokopovich , Antiochus Kantemir , Sylvester Medvedev and Mardary Khonykov  [ ru ] . The principle of syllabic symmetry was dominant. A twelve-syllable verse with a caesura after the fifth or sixth syllable was used; there are, for example, such complex schemes as: 5-6-8|8-6-5|7-7-4-5-3-5 (12 verses of Irmos " Земьнъ къто слыша таковая "...) or 8|5-5-5|8-8|5-5-5 (9 verses of Irmos " Вьсъ еси желание "...) There were also schemes where

3510-613: The Rus' ( Rhos ) mentioned in the Annales Bertiniani and the other sources possibly mentioning a Rus' khagan were Slavic , the modern scholarly consensus is that the Rus' people originated in Scandinavia , possibly Sweden . According to the prevalent theory, the name Rus ' , like the Proto-Finnic name for Sweden ( *Ruotsi ), is derived from an Old Norse term for "the men who row" ( rods- ) as rowing

3600-630: The Rus' khagan ("khāqān rus") lived on an island in a lake. Constantin Zuckerman comments that Ibn Rustah, using the text of the Anonymous Note from the 870s, attempted to accurately convey the titles of all rulers described by its author, which makes his evidence all the more invaluable. Ibn Rustah mentions only two khagans in his treatise—those of Khazaria and Rus. Hudud al-'Alam , an anonymous geography text written in Persian during

3690-503: The Rusʹ in the 9th and 10th centuries. But Ibn Khordādbeh's Book of Roads and Kingdoms does not mention the title of "khagan" for the ruler of Rus'. The three later Old East Slavic sources mentioning a kagan ( Hilarion of Kiev 's 11th-century Sermon on Law and Grace , and the 11th-century Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv inscription) or kogan (the 12th-century The Tale of Igor's Campaign ) have generally been understood to refer to

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3780-553: The Varangian traders in Rostov helped to raise the latter's prestige, with the consequence that by the 830s a new power center known as the Rus' Kaganate had come into existence." Whatever the accuracy of such estimates may be, there are no primary sources mentioning the Rus' or its khagans prior to the 830s. Omeljan Pritsak noted that the leader of those Kabars was Khan-Tuvan . Golden (1982) and Zuckerman (2000) concluded that if

3870-542: The acrostic is "Alexy Tsarevich live forever" ( Алексий царевич вечно живи ; in the fourth verse in the original, the first letter is the Slavic "xi"). In Kievan Rus', there were a number of canonical and legal statutes and rights. The special charters, judicial books, contractual, spiritual certificates and contribution certificates were common for the people and for the church. Most collections of Kievan Rus' law are strictly divided into civil and ecclesiastical. The exception

3960-567: The barbarians"), for example, the Salic law , a collection of legislative acts of the Frankish state, the oldest text of which dates back to the beginning of the 6th century. The short version consists of the following parts: As many researchers have noted, the most ancient part of the Russkaya Pravda (the oldest pravda) preserves the custom of blood feud , characteristic of the laws of pre-Christian Kievan Rus', although it limits it to

4050-486: The basin of the Oka River to fend off recurring attacks of the Magyars . However, no source records that the Rus' of the 9th century were subjects of the Khazars. For foreign observers (such as Ibn Rustah), there was no material difference between the titles of the Khazar and Rus' rulers. Anatoly Novoseltsev hypothesizes that the adoption of the title "khagan" was designed to advertise the Rus' claims to equality with

4140-740: The blurring of genres and boundaries between the prosaic and the poetic, and the lack of a clear conceptual apparatus. Voluminous works could be copied and intertwined into separate books: some letopises , works on world history, paterics , works of a liturgical nature, prologues, etc. Small compositions, for example, " Praying of Daniel the Immured " or the Tale of the Destruction of the Rus' Land did not make up separate books, but were distributed in collections. The early examples of pre-Christian Old East Slavic Rus' literature should primarily include

4230-465: The church. From the translated Byzantine collections of ecclesiastical law in Kievan Rus', nomocanons , Eclogue  [ sr ; de ; fr ] , Proheiron  [ sr ; de ; fr ] , and Zanon books (translation of Byzantine laws) were used. However, despite the widespread existence in the written tradition, Byzantine law did not have a significant application in legal practice, and its full reception did not occur. Rus' ecclesiastical law

4320-728: The circle of closest relatives. The lengthy version includes about 121 articles and consists of two parts-the Charter of Yaroslav Vladimirovich and the Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh . According to most researchers, the Lengthy Truth is based on the Short text, which was amended and supplemented, including those adopted during the Kiev reign of Vladimir II Monomakh . With the Christianization of Kievan Rus' , church law arose. The most important source of church law in Kievan Rus'

4410-549: The diplomatic service of a Rusʹ ( Rhos ) khagan ( chacanus ), and thus that there was Rus' khaganate, and that these Rus' people were Slavic . Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen (1877) instead concluded "that Rhos was the Greek designation for the Scandinavians or Northmen, who in this case happened to be Swedes." According to Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky (1904), the Rhos envoys were "northern Germanic", but in

4500-452: The distribution of such literature was persecuted by the church; lists of forbidden (so-called renounced) books of Kievan Rus' were compiled, in which divinatory literature was equated with apocrypha . Very popular in ancient Rus' were the lives of saints ( zhytie ), a kind of genre of hagiography that describes the life, deeds and miracles of ancient Rus' saints, martyrs and miracle workers. The scientist Alexander Panchenko refers to

4590-533: The drużyna as his base of power. [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  "Дружина"  . Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (in Russian). 1906. [REDACTED] Media related to Druzhina at Wikimedia Commons Rus%27 Khaganate Rusʹ Khaganate ( Russian : Русский каганат , Russkiy kaganat , Ukrainian : Руський каганат , Ruśkyj kahanat ), or kaganate of Rus

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4680-482: The earliest forms of Old East Slavic versification as the so-called "penitential poems" (the metrical nature of which is not yet clear), single poetic texts written by the monk of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Efrosin, as well as separate chapters The Tale of Igor's Campaign and the Tale of the Destruction of the Rus' Land containing a metric constant. Despite this, versification in Kievan Rus'

4770-599: The events Shakhmatov considered more trustworthy, does not pinpoint the pre-Rurikid uprising to any specific date. The 16th-century Nikon Chronicle attributes the banishment of the Varangians from the country to Vadim the Bold . The Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Braychevskiy labelled Vadim's rebellion "a pagan reaction" against the Christianization of the Rus'. A period of unrest and anarchy followed, dated by Zuckerman to c. 875–900. The absence of coin hoards from

4860-602: The first circle of hell, and there are a number of anti-Semitic statements in the text itself. According to the philosopher Sergei Bulgakov , the special popularity of apocryphal literature in Rus' is indicated by the fact that of the seven most important monuments of the Jewish apocalyptic (except for the books of the prophet Daniel ), three were preserved exclusively in Old Slavonic translations. Presumably, both epics and folk tales were not recorded by contemporaries for

4950-485: The first decade of the 10th century, a large trade outpost was formed on the Dnieper in Gnezdovo , near modern Smolensk . Another Dnieper settlement, Kiev, developed into an important urban centre roughly in the same period. The location of the purported khaganate, more specifically the residence of the supposed khagan , has been actively disputed since the late 19th century. Sites proposed by scholars have included

5040-484: The following sources has been taken by several scholars as evidence indicating either that there had never been a Rus' khaganate (Tolochko 2015, Ostrowski 2018), or that it must have disappeared by 911 (Zuckerman 2000), probably already before 900 (Golden 1982). The dating of the Khaganate's existence has been the subject of debates among scholars and remains unclear. Paul Robert Magocsi and Omeljan Pritsak date

5130-434: The following: Soviet historiography , as represented by Boris Rybakov and Lev Gumilev , advanced Kiev as the residence of the khagan, assuming that Askold and Dir were the only khagans recorded by name. Mikhail Artamonov became an adherent of the theory that Kiev was the seat of the Rus' Khaganate, and continued to hold this view into the 1990s. Halperin (1987) also stated that the 839 Annales Bertiniani reference to

5220-548: The foundation of the Khaganate to be around the year 830. According to Magocsi, "A violent civil war took place during the 820s. ... The losers of the internal political struggle, known as Kabars , fled northward to the Varangian Rus' in the upper Volga region , near Rostov , and southward to the Magyars , who formerly had been loyal vassals of the Khazars . The presence of Kabar political refugees from Khazaria among

5310-492: The individual tastes and interests of one or another scribe who selected materials for himself or for his customer. Unlike other traditionalist literatures, the Old East Slavic literature is characterized by syncretism , lack of clearly expressed poetological reflection, conscious rejection of rationalism and specification of theoretical knowledge. It differs from Byzantine literature by its emphasized irregularity,

5400-534: The khagan's residence. Recent archaeological research, conducted by Anatoly Kirpichnikov and Dmitry Machinsky , has raised the possibility that this polity was based on a group of settlements along the Volkhov River , including Ladoga, Lyubsha , Duboviki , Alaborg , and Holmgard (modern Rurikovo Gorodische ). "Most of these were initially small sites, probably not much more than stations for re-fitting and resupply, providing an opportunity for exchange and

5490-579: The late 10th century ( c. 982–983 ), refers to the Rus' king as "Khāqān-i Rus". The unknown author of Hudud al-Alam relied on several 9th-century and 10th-century sources. Abu Said Gardizi , an 11th-century Persian Muslim geographer, mentioned "khāqān-i rus" in his work Zayn al-Akhbār . Ibn Rustah, the Hudud al-Alam and Gardizi all copied their information from the same late 9th-century source. Zuckerman (2000) argued that Ya'qubi , Kitab al-Buldan ("The Book of Countries", c. 889–890), also has

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5580-426: The late 12th century. The word khagan for a leader of some groups of Rus' people is mentioned in several historical sources. According to Constantin Zuckerman (2000), these sources are divided into two chronological groups: three or four Latin and Arabic sources from c. 839 to c. 880 (which he labelled "1a, 1b, 1c"), while three Old East Slavic sources (labelled "2a, 2b, 2c") date from 200 years later in

5670-459: The literature of ancient Rus' was exerted by old Polish and old Serbian literature . Most of the monuments of Old East Slavic literature have been preserved in the form of manuscripts . The most common type of manuscript was literary collections. Notebooks written by a single scribe could then be bound by the scribe or binder himself. Such collections can be of a certain ("Zlatostruy", " Izmaragd ", "Solemn", etc.) or indefinite content, reflecting

5760-512: The middle of the 11th century (the future Metropolitan, Hilarion of Kiev ), the newly baptized Rus' people are called new. The perception of the people who were baptized in the "last times" (before the Last Judgment ) as new, endowed with special grace, was characteristic of Rus'. The widespread idea of an imminent dreadful judgment was strongly reflected in the Old East Slavic literature of that period; ascetic creations and instructive literature became an introduction to soteriology (the doctrine of

5850-547: The name of a genre, could mean a didactic teaching, a chapter of a book, a conversation, a speech, articles of various content, etc. Nevertheless, Nikita Tolstoy made an attempt to classify ancient Rus' literature; later, the classification was edited by Evgeny Vereshchagin (the latter version is somewhat different from Tolstoy's): This classification does not distinguish between primary genres (for example, hagiographies) and unifying genres that include small works as source material (prologue, menaiat-chets, etc.). This difference

5940-690: The number of syllables in each verse was a multiple of three (from St. Trinity, the sacred number "three" for Christians). The detailed life in the monastery can be judged by the syllabic poem by Karion Istomin "About speaking from people, how monks live in the monastery": Мънози глаголют, что монахи деют,   где в монастыре дела не имеют. Бутто так сидят, ничего не знают,   како ли Богу честь, поклон взношают. Надобно кому себе искусити   и в монастыре хоть время прожити. Узнает, как кто в кельи пребывает,   како помыслы, страсти отвергеет   ... Many say that monks are idle   that they have no tasks in

6030-401: The oral epic: legends , myths and fairy tales . Most of the Old East Slavic oral folklore was recorded only in the 18th and 19th centuries. Among the oral works, stories about the meeting of a person with an otherworldly force were particularly distinguished. Such a story by genre was divided into a bailichka , where a meeting with evil spirits is told on behalf of an "eyewitness", and

6120-495: The possible Khazar connection to early Rus' monarchs is supported by the use of a stylized trident tamga , or seal, by later Rus' rulers such as Sviatoslav I of Kiev ; similar tamgas are found in ruins that are definitively Khazar in origin. The genealogical connection between the 9th-century Khagans of Rus' and the later Rurikid rulers, if any, is unknown at this time. Old East Slavic literature Old East Slavic literature , also known as Old Russian literature ,

6210-400: The prince freely and had the right to leave him and join the druzhina of another prince. As a result, a prince was inclined to seek the goodwill of his druzhina by paying the druzhinniki wages, sharing his war booty and taxes with them and eventually rewarding the boyars with landed estates that were complete with rights to tax and administer justice to the local population. At the Battle on

6300-455: The raid originated in Kiev) was largely borrowed by the authors from a 10th-century Greek source, the Continuation of the Chronicle of George the Monk , which does not identify a point of departure. Since the 18th century, the debate on the word chacanus / Chacanus in the Annales Bertiniani has had two sides: it must either be understood as the title of the rex , namely khagan (first proposed by Siegfried Bayer in 1736), or that it

6390-446: The reason that Rus' inherited from the Byzantine Empire a ban on literary fiction and the presence of a purely artistic function in the works. Back in 1073, the compilers of the Izbornik Svyatoslav warned against worldly writings based on artistic imagination. Fiction developed only in the late period. However, despite some limitations, scientific and artistic works had to answer questions related to natural history (the origin of

6480-674: The redistribution of items passing along the river and caravan routes". If the anonymous traveller quoted by ibn Rustah is to be believed, the Rus of the Khaganate period made extensive use of the Volga route to trade with the Near East , possibly through Bulgar and Khazar intermediaries. His description of the Rus' island suggests that their center was at Holmgard, an early medieval precursor of Novgorod whose name translates from Old Norse as "the river-island castle". The First Novgorod Chronicle describes unrest in Novgorod before Rurik

6570-454: The ruler of Kievan Rus'. According to Halperin (1987), the title kagan in the Annales Bertiniani sub anno 839, Hilarion's Sermon , and in The Tale of Igor's Campaign all apply to "the ruler of Kiev ". He agreed with Peter B. Golden (1982) that this reflected Khazar influence on Kievan Rus', and argued that the use of a "steppe title" in Kiev 'may be the only case of the title's use by

6660-498: The salvation of the soul). As most modern researchers note, there is no clear division of literature into genres in ancient Rus'. There were only a few authors who clearly defined the genre of their works (among such were the monk Phoma, Nil Sorsky , Metropolitan Macarius , and the nameless author of "The Tale of Mikhail Tverskoy"). Thus, the lexeme Word ( Old East Slavic : Слово , romanized:  Slovo , also translatable as Tale , Lay or Discourse ) often perceived as

6750-517: The service of a "Rus' khagan", that was to be identified as the Slavic Rus' prince of Kiev . Vasil’evskii (1915) thought the Rhos were an indigenous people living near the mouth of the Dnieper into the Black Sea , and that the khagan was their Khazar master. Still others presume a Rus' khagan reigning over a state , or a cluster of city-states , set up by Rus' people somewhere in what

6840-518: The site of "Holmgard" trace back to 880(±20). According to one fringe theory, the Rus' khagan resided somewhere in Scandinavia or even as far west as Walcheren . In stark contrast, George Vernadsky believed that the khagan had his headquarters in the eastern part of the Crimea or in the Taman Peninsula and that the island described by Ibn Rustah was most likely situated in the estuary of

6930-441: The text, a total of five times. A colophon preserved in a 15th-century manuscript, at the end of a set of works usually attributed to Hilarion, adds one more mention: Быша же си въ лѣто 6559 (1051), владычествующу благовѣрьному кагану Ярославу, сыну Владимирю. Аминь. ("These things came to pass in the year 6559 (1051), during the reign of the pious kagan Jaroslav , the son to Volodimer, Amen." ) The absence of any khagan in

7020-539: The title of emperor. He argued that the Frankish rulers are simple reges , while the imperial title properly applied only to the overlord of the Romans, that is, to Basil himself. He also pointed out that each nation has its own title for the supreme ruler: for instance, the title of chaganus is used by the overlords of the Avars ( Avari ), Khazars ( Gazari ), and " Northmen " ( Nortmanni ). To that, Louis replied that he

7110-727: The vision of Vasily Gregory's pupil about the Last Judgment and a lengthy story about Theodore) spread as independent works. Later, the original Old East Slavic apocrypha began to be created, the most famous of which is "The Walking of the Virgin through the Torments". Its plot is similar to the Greek "Revelation of the Most Holy Theotokos", but it also has many original features: for example, pagans who worship Troyan  [ ru ; de ] , Veles and Perun are in

7200-571: The world in two of the most significant early works: the Dove Book and " About the whole creation ". Both works have a complex structure and are probably based on Old East Slavic apocryphal legends that existed for the early period after the Christianization of Kievan Rus' . It is also interesting that in the "Depth Book", as in two other ancient Rus' monuments – "The Conversation of the Three Saints" and "The Conversation of Jerusalem" – for some reason, whales are endowed with supernatural power. In

7290-511: The world, cosmology ) and the development of human society (the settlement of peoples, the origin of power, the state, the meaning and purpose of human history). The first original works in Kievan Rus' were instructive collections, which are the most common type of manuscripts (even after the beginning of printing in Russia in 1569, manuscripts have not lost their popularity). The scribe copied various works according to some attribute or genre in

7380-692: Was a Scandinavian proper name, namely Håkon (first suggested by Stroube de Piermont in 1785). In 2004, Duczko stated: 'At present there is almost total unity of opinion that the title of the ruler of Rus is of Khazarian origin and that the word chacanus is a Latin form of the Turk word khagan , a title of a prime ruler in the nomadic societies in Eurasia.' He claimed that the Old Norse personal name interpretation 'was abandoned (though its supporters still appear from time to time).' Garipzanov (2006) challenged

7470-1022: Was also widely developed there. The earliest work in the genre of acrostic in ancient Russia is considered to be the Azbuchna Prayer  [ ru ] , translated from Old Bulgarian. The acrostic in the Old East Slavic book poetry was also known in later times. Thus, the acrostic is found in one of the "greetings" of Karion Istomin to Tsarevich Alexey Petrovich : А минь буди слава, Л юбовь чиста, права Е диному Богу, К себе в слогах многу. И сраиль нелестный, И збранный и честный Ц арев сын, царевичь А лексий Петровичь, Р адуйся блаженно, Е мли жизнь спасенно, В Господе изрядствуй, И злестно отрадствуй, Ч еловеком в ползе, В златых летах долзе. Е зди умне в книгах, Ч ти мудрость в веригах: Н ости она златы, О бщит в любовь браты. Ж ити с нею благо, И мство всем предраго. В зрасти тя Бог в славе, И мети ю здраве! Here

7560-585: Was aware only of the Avar khagans, and had never heard of the khagans of the Khazars and Normans. The content of Basil's letter, now lost, is reconstructed from Louis's reply, quoted in full in the Chronicon Salernitanum ("Salerno Chronicle]"). According to Dolger, it indicates that at least one group of Scandinavians had a ruler who called himself "khagan", but Ostrowski (2018) countered: 'The letter of Louis II to Basil I states specifically that

7650-433: Was based primarily on the ecclesiastical statutes issued by the knyazes, based on local law and only limited borrowing of Byzantine law. Later, in 1551, the comprehensive religious collection Stoglav was created, combining the norms of judicial , criminal and ecclesiastical law . Stoglav tried to solve the following pressing issues: "Books of law" and " Merilo Pravednoye ", one of the first Kievan Rus' collections of

7740-457: Was invited to come to rule the region in the 860s. This account prompted Johannes Brøndsted to assert that Holmgard-Novgorod was the khaganate's capital for several decades prior to the appearance of Rurik, including the time of the Byzantine embassy in 839. Machinsky accepts this theory but notes that, before the rise of Holmgard-Novgorod, the chief political and economic centre of the area

7830-400: Was located at Aldeigja-Ladoga. However, Nosov (1990) stated that archaeological evidence recovered at Rurikovo Gorodische puts the terminus post quem for the hill-fort's establishment decades later: dendrochronological analysis showed that trees used in construction at the site were felled between the years 889 and 948, and radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples collected from a ditch at

7920-618: Was most often not approved, because was considered inherent only in " Latins ". This position was most consistently expressed by Archpriest Avvakum : “Do not look for rhetoric and philosophy, or eloquence, but live with a sound true verb. Therefore, а rhetorician and philosopher cannot be a Christian. Alexander Panchenko pointed out that the Old East Slavic church poetry was strongly influenced by West Slavic, especially Polish literature . Simeon Polotsky , releasing his "Rhymed Psalter" (1680), wrote that in Moscow they loved "the consonant singing of

8010-606: Was the sudebniki , the most famous of which is the Zakon Sudnyi Liudem (the South Slavic legal Code of the 9th and 10th centuries, although some scholars consider it a reworking of some Byzantine and Jewish laws ). However, most often in the ecclesiastical sphere of Kievan Rus', they used kormchaia books, legal collections that contained both church rules and the decisions of the Roman and Byzantine emperors on

8100-512: Was the main method of navigating the rivers of Eastern Europe , and that it could be linked to the Swedish coastal area of Roslagen ( Rus-law ) or Roden , as it was known in earlier times. The name Rus ' would then have the same origin as the Finnish and Estonian names for Sweden: Ruotsi and Rootsi . Around 860, a group of Rus' Vikings began to rule the area under their leader Rurik . Gradually, Norse warlords, known to

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