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99-580: Elizabeth I had the pendant created especially for Drake, by a renowned artisan, as a demonstration of gratitude. Drake's Jewel was created by Nicholas Hilliard and given to Drake before 1591, possibly to celebrate England's victory against the Spanish Armada in 1588. Drake was painted by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger in 1591 and is shown wearing the jewel. Drake valued this pendant more than any of his other possessions. After Drake's death in 1596,

198-602: A councillor ) to the Court of Common Council of the corporation. Only electors who are Freemen of the City of London are eligible to stand. The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward. Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards: Portsoken , Queenhithe , Aldersgate and Cripplegate together elect 20 of

297-421: A New Year's day gift in 1584, Hilliard presented Queen Elizabeth with a picture of the story of five wise and foolish virgins. He was in high favour with James I as well as with Elizabeth, receiving from the king a special patent of appointment, dated 5 May 1617, granting him a sole licence for royal portraits in engraved form for twelve years; he had already been producing these, although probably usually using

396-399: A business district, the City has a small resident population of 8,583 based on 2021 census figures, but over 500,000 are employed there (as of 2019) and some estimates put the number of workers in the City to be over 1 million. About three-quarters of the jobs in the City of London are in the financial, professional, and associated business services sectors. The Roman legions established

495-530: A church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals. Alfred the Great , King of Wessex occupied and began the resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-law Earl Æthelred of Mercia over it as part of their reconquest of

594-575: A clergyman. Hilliard may have been a close relative of Grace Hiller (Hilliar), first wife of Theophilus Eaton (1590–1657), the co-founder of New Haven Colony in America . He appears to have been attached at a young age to the household of the leading Exeter Protestant John Bodley, the father of Thomas Bodley who founded the Bodleian Library in Oxford . John Bodley went into exile on

693-601: A courtier, Thomas Lyte, in 1610. The Armada Jewel , given by Elizabeth to Sir Thomas Heneage and the Drake Pendant given to Sir Francis Drake are the best known examples. As part of the cult of the Virgin Queen , courtiers were rather expected to wear the Queen's likeness, at least at Court. Elizabeth had her own collection of miniatures, kept locked in a cabinet in her bedroom, wrapped in paper and labelled, with

792-556: A painting of Elizabeth I and a phoenix . The African figure is wearing a cape, which could be a paludamentum , cape of Roman commanders and emperors. The portraits are watercolour on vellum , surrounded by rubies, diamonds and pearls. The images on the jewel are open to interpretation; David Shields of the Omohundro Institute writes that the images suggest that the joint effort of the African and English will liberate

891-732: A piece of money of the lords and ladies here for his better maintenance in England at his return", carefully reported the English Ambassador in Paris , Sir Amyas Paulet , with whom Hilliard stayed for much of the time. Francis Bacon was attached to the embassy, and Hilliard did a miniature of him in Paris. He remained until 1578–79, mixing in the artistic circles round the court, staying with Germain Pilon and George of Ghent , respectively

990-663: A purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial." At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe , the Middle East, and North Africa. The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225. The boundaries of

1089-427: A representative fashion. Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint 1 voter; those employing 10 to 50 people 1 voter for every 5 employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and 1 additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50. The Act also changed other aspects of an earlier act relating to elections in the city, from 1957. Inner Temple and Middle Temple (which neighbour each other) in

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1188-580: A scheme, or perhaps scam, for gold-mining in Scotland, which he still remembered bitterly twenty-five years later. During a low point in his finances, in July 1601 Hilliard wrote to the Secretary of State Robert Cecil acknowledging the annuity of £40, but asking permission to retire from London and live more cheaply in the countryside. He explained that he had trained apprentices who now competed with him in

1287-569: A settlement known as "Londinium" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into a road nexus and major port , serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century . Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significant pre-Roman presence, "arguments for

1386-733: Is Saturn the ruler of the Golden Age . The woman is the Virgin Astraea who will return Saturn to the throne. V&A also noted this interpretation. Kevin Jackson in Chronicles of London writes that the regal lady is presumably Elizabeth I herself and the African man is presumably a slave. The phoenix in the jewel is one of Elizabeth I's most used images, depicting peace, rebirth and virtue. Nicholas Hilliard Nicholas Hilliard ( c.  1547 – 7 January 1619)

1485-499: Is a world away from that of the early- Baroque Italian artists of his time, or his close contemporary El Greco (1541–1614). In the Art of Limning he cautioned against all but the minimal use of chiaroscuro modelling that we see in his works, reflecting the views of his patron Elizabeth: "seeing that best to show oneself needeth no shadow of place but rather the open light ... Her Majesty .. chose her place to sit for that purpose in

1584-474: Is located at Smithfield , and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s. The city is the third largest UK patron of the arts. It oversees the Barbican Centre and subsidises several important performing arts companies. The London Port Health Authority, which is the responsibility of the corporation, is responsible for all port health functions on

1683-425: Is not clear to what extent Hilliard was given similar studies. Hilliard painted a portrait of himself at the age of 13 in 1560 and is said to have executed one of Mary, Queen of Scots , when he was eighteen years old. Hilliard apprenticed himself to the Queen's jeweller Robert Brandon (d. 1591), a goldsmith and city chamberlain of London, and Sir Roy Strong suggests that Hilliard may also have been trained in

1782-596: Is sometimes called the "great refusal", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present. By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce. The Royal Exchange was founded in 1565 by Sir Thomas Gresham as a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571. Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at

1881-645: Is superior to the other. They stand side by side, as equals, allies perhaps, or friends." Karen Dalton, reinterpreting the concept of visual culture to the English Renaissance and defining the otherness of race, ethnicity and gender in the essay "Art For the Sake of Dynasty: The Black Emperor in the Drake Jewel and Elizabethan Imperial Imagery", writes that the jewel is a manifestation of the queen herself and of her imperial aspirations. The black emperor

1980-429: Is testified to by John Donne , who in a poem called The Storm (1597) praises the work of this artist. He died on 7 January 1619 and was buried in the church of St Martins-in-the-Fields , Westminster , leaving in his will twenty shillings to the poor of the parish, thirty between his two sisters, some goods to his maidservant, and all the rest of his effects to his son, Lawrence Hilliard, his sole executor. By far

2079-482: Is the case for all other wards in Great Britain . Particular churches, livery company halls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral with Castle Baynard , and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed some of these historic connections. Each ward elects an alderman to the Court of Aldermen , and commoners (the City equivalent of

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2178-403: The 1993 Bishopsgate bombing ( IRA ) and the 7 July 2005 London bombings ( Islamist ). In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the " ring of steel " has been maintained to control entry points to the city. The 1970s saw the construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storey NatWest Tower ,

2277-477: The Bodleian Library . Although it was once believed that the author of that treatise was John de Critz , Serjeant Painter to James I, from instructions by Hilliard for the benefit of one of his pupils, perhaps Isaac Oliver, more recent scholarship holds that the Art "can be dated rather closely and established convincingly" as the work of Hilliard. The masters mentioned in The Art of Limning are Hans Holbein

2376-748: The City of London Police —the Common Council (the main body of the corporation) is the police authority . The corporation also run the Hampstead Heath Constabulary , Epping Forest Keepers and the City of London market constabularies (whose members are no longer attested as constables but retain the historic title). The majority of Greater London is policed by the Metropolitan Police Service , based at New Scotland Yard . The city has one hospital, St Bartholomew's Hospital , also known as 'Barts'. Founded in 1123, it

2475-653: The Crown . Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen. It is administered by the City of London Corporation , headed by the Lord Mayor of London (not to be confused with

2574-546: The Great Fire. After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into a renaissance -style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards. These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact. In the 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas. In what

2673-558: The London Stock Exchange based in the City. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the world's primary business centre, and it continues to be a major meeting point for businesses. London was ranked second (after New York) in the Global Financial Centres Index , published in 2022. The insurance industry is concentrated in the eastern side of the city, around Lloyd's building . Since about

2772-480: The ceremonial county of Greater London , and is the smallest ceremonial county in England. The City of London is known colloquially as the Square Mile , as it is 1.12 sq mi (716.80 acres; 2.90 km ) in area. Both the terms the City and the Square Mile are often used as metonyms for the UK's trading and financial services industries, which continue a notable history of being largely based in

2871-469: The ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of London . Within the city, the Corporation owns and runs both Smithfield Market and Leadenhall Market . It owns land beyond its boundaries, including open spaces (parks, forests and commons) in and around Greater London, including most of Epping Forest and Hampstead Heath . The Corporation owns Old Spitalfields Market and Billingsgate Fish Market , in

2970-400: The 'square mile' and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards: The city has a unique electoral system. Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city. Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters. In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of

3069-433: The 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners. 2003 and 2013 boundary changes have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards. Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population. Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of

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3168-513: The 1570s of £1 for a head-and-shoulders portrait and £5 for a full-length. A portrait of the Earl of Northumberland cost £3 in 1586. Around the year 1574 Hilliard invested in a gold mine in Scotland with Cornelius de Vos and lost money. In 1599 Hilliard secured an annual allowance from the Queen of £40, and in 1617 managed to obtain a monopoly on producing miniatures and engravings of James I, something Elizabeth had refused in 1584. Nonetheless, he

3267-503: The 1590s on, his old pupil Isaac Oliver was a competitor, who was appointed as Limner to the new Queen Anne of Denmark in 1604, and then to Henry, Prince of Wales when he established his own household in 1610. Oliver had travelled abroad and developed a more modern style than his master, and was certainly better at perspective drawing, though he could not match Hilliard in freshness and psychological penetration. Elizabeth I City of London The City of London , also known as

3366-511: The 1980s, a secondary financial district has existed outside the city, at Canary Wharf, 2.5 miles (4 km) to the east. The legal profession has a major presence in the northern and western sides of the City, especially in the Temple and Chancery Lane areas where the Inns of Court are located, two of which ( Inner Temple and Middle Temple ) fall within the City of London boundary. Primarily

3465-623: The 19th century, with London growing in all directions. To the East the Port of London grew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade. The arrival of the railways and the Tube meant that London could expand over a much greater area. By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area,

3564-819: The Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy , the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms of Essex , Mercia , and later Wessex , though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including the Vikings . Bede records that in AD 604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht . Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht , king of Kent , built

3663-604: The Blitz . Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to a firestorm called the Second Great Fire of London . There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at the Barbican) dramatically altering the urban landscape. But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed

3762-561: The City , is a city , ceremonial county and local government district that contains the ancient centre, and constitutes, along with Canary Wharf , the primary central business district (CBD) of London and one of the leading financial centres of the world. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages , but the modern area referred to as London has since grown far beyond

3861-474: The City and Middlesex were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city). London's sheriffs continued to serve Middlesex until the county was given its own sheriffs again following the Local Government Act 1888 . By 1141 the whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community. This ' commune '

3960-489: The City during Jack Cade's Rebellion before being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge. In 1550, the area south of London Bridge in Southwark came under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward of Bridge Without . The city was burnt severely on a number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in the Great Fire of London in 1666. Both of these fires were referred to as

4059-532: The City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis. An attempt was made in 1894 with the Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London to end the distinction between the city and the surrounding County of London, but a change of government at Westminster meant the option was not taken up. The city as a distinct polity survived despite its position within

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4158-457: The City of London boundary. The City is now only a small part of the metropolis of Greater London , though it remains a notable part of central London . The City of London is not one of the London boroughs , a status reserved for the other 32 districts (including Greater London's only other city, the City of Westminster ). It is also a separate ceremonial county, being an enclave surrounded by

4257-705: The City today is the Barbican Estate , constructed between 1965 and 1976. The Museum of London was based there until March 2023 (due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026), whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate. The city has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with

4356-406: The City vote. The City of London Corporation was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become a freeman without being a liveryman . In 1801, the city had a population of about 130,000, but increasing development of

4455-594: The City, the adjacent Tower of London , built to dominate the City, is part of its old defensive perimeter. The City has responsibility for five bridges across the Thames in its capacity as trustee of the Bridge House Estates : Blackfriars Bridge , Millennium Bridge , Southwark Bridge , London Bridge and Tower Bridge . The City is a major business and financial centre, with both the Bank of England and

4554-405: The City. The name London is now ordinarily used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 Greater London boroughs, in addition to the City of London itself. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation , is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council, such as being

4653-519: The Conqueror marched on London, reaching as far as Southwark , but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames at Wallingford , pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war, Edgar the Ætheling , Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria surrendered at Berkhamsted . William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075;

4752-512: The Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London . The city is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of a Lord-Lieutenant and has two Sheriffs instead of a High Sheriff (see list of Sheriffs of London ), quasi-judicial offices appointed by the livery companies , an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades ( guilds ). Senior members of

4851-652: The London conurbation and numerous local government reforms . Supporting this status, the city was a special parliamentary borough that elected four members to the unreformed House of Commons , who were retained after the Reform Act 1832 ; reduced to two under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 ; and ceased to be a separate constituency under the Representation of the People Act 1948 . Since then

4950-635: The Queen is dated 1572, and already in 1573 he was granted the reversion of a lease by the Queen for his "good, true and loyal service." In 1571 he had made "a booke of portraitures" for the Earl of Leicester , the Queen's favourite , which is likely to be how he became known to the Court; several of his children were named after Leicester and his circle. Despite this patronage, in 1576 the recently married Hilliard left for France "with no other intent than to increase his knowledge by this voyage, and upon hope to get

5049-465: The Queen's sculptor and painter, and meeting Ronsard , who perhaps paid him the rather double-edged compliment later quoted by Hilliard: "the islands indeed seldom bring forth any cunning man, but when they do it is in high perfection". He appears in the papers of the duc d'Alençon , a suitor of Queen Elizabeth, under the name of "Nicholas Belliart, peintre anglois", in 1577, receiving a stipend of 200 livres. The miniature of Madame de Sourdis, certainly

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5148-408: The Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium's Ludgate , and the Thames was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the city's present shoreline. The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge. By the time the London Wall was constructed,

5247-459: The Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the city became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited. The centre of trade and population moved away from the walled Londinium to Lundenwic ("London market"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-day Strand / Aldwych / Covent Garden area. During

5346-563: The Thames, and laying a new city street plan. Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of the Viking occupation and raids. While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation,

5445-462: The Viking occupied parts of England. The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known as Lundenburh ("London Fort", a borough ). The historian Asser said that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more." Alfred's "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along

5544-511: The Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections. Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is similar to a residents' association . The wards are ancient and their number has changed three times since time immemorial : Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of the business vote in the city, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of

5643-418: The Younger , Henry VIII 's court painter, and Albrecht Dürer , who he probably only knew from his prints . Both were dead by the time of Hilliard's birth, and in many respects he is more conservative even than Holbein. He also learned from French art, including their chalk drawings, and refers to the artist and theoretical writer Gian Paolo Lomazzo . English art was distinctly provincial, and Hilliard's art

5742-638: The accession of the Catholic Queen Mary I of England , and on 8 May 1557 Hilliard, then ten years old, was recorded in Geneva as one of an eleven-strong Bodley family group at a Calvinist service presided over by John Knox . Calvinism does not seem to have struck with Hilliard, but the fluent French he acquired abroad was later useful. Thomas Bodley, two years older, continued an intensive classical education under leading scholars in Geneva, but it

5841-436: The afternoon ... My Lady ... telleth me, when she is well, that she will see if Hilliard will come and teach me, if she can by any means, she will". He continued to work as a goldsmith, and produced some spectacular "picture boxes" or jewelled lockets for miniatures, worn round the neck, such as the Lyte Jewel in the British Museum , which, typically, was given by James I (more generous in this respect than Elizabeth) to

5940-449: The area, particularly in Lime Street . In 1708, Christopher Wren 's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral , was completed on his birthday. The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier. It replaced the original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture . The 18th century

6039-430: The art of limning by Levina Teerlinc during this period. She was the daughter of Simon Bening , the last great master of the Flemish manuscript illumination tradition, and became court painter to Henry VIII after Holbein's death. After his seven years' apprenticeship, Hilliard was made a freeman of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths in 1569. He set up a workshop with his younger brother John; another brother

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6138-597: The city as a central business district led to this falling to below 5,000 after the Second World War. It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate . In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters. As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous. Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated. The business or " non-residential vote "

6237-506: The city is a minority (in terms of population and area) of the Cities of London and Westminster . The city's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vast suburbs , and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks. Like many areas of London and other British cities, the City fell victim to large scale and highly destructive aerial bombing during World War II , especially in

6336-425: The city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority. The city was not covered by the Domesday Book . William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued: Around 1132 the City was given the right to appoint its own sheriffs rather than having sheriffs appointed by the monarch. London's chosen sheriffs also served as the sheriffs for the county of Middlesex . This meant that

6435-413: The city's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of plague and fire. The Roman Empire entered a long period of instability and decline , including the Carausian Revolt in Britain. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the city was under attack from Picts , Scots, and Saxon raiders. The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain. Many of

6534-426: The city. Each ward has an Alderman , who until the mid-1960s held office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every 6 years, and are the only directly elected Aldermen in the United Kingdom . Wards continue to have a Beadle , an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial whose main remaining function is the running of an annual Wardmote of electors, representatives and officials. At

6633-439: The clientele for miniatures from the Court to the gentry, and by the end of the century to well-off city merchants. Apart from Laurence, who continued in a "feeble" version of his father's style, his pupils included Isaac Oliver , by far the most important, and Rowland Lockey . He appears to have given lessons to amateurs also; a letter from a young lady being "finished" in London in 1595 says: "For my drawing, I take an hour in

6732-438: The construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings. The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of the post-war modernist changes made, such as at Paternoster Square . The City suffered terrorist attacks including

6831-445: The corner of Cornhill and Threadneedle Street continues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with the Bank of England moving to its present site in 1734, opposite the Royal Exchange. Immediately to the south of Cornhill, Lombard Street was the location from 1691 of Lloyd's Coffee House , which became the world-leading insurance market. London's insurance sector continues to be based in

6930-435: The establishment of the City of London and the Kingdom of England prevailed. In the 10th century, Athelstan permitted eight mints to be established, compared with six in his capital, Winchester , indicating the wealth of the city. London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following the Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms. As

7029-403: The first skyscraper in the UK. By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including 30 St. Mary Axe ("the Gherkin"'), Leadenhall Building ("the Cheesegrater"), 20 Fenchurch Street ("the Walkie-Talkie"), the Broadgate Tower , the Heron Tower and 22 Bishopsgate . The main residential section of

7128-462: The focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name of Ealdwic (the "old settlement"). The name survives today as Aldwych (the "old market-place"), a name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster between Westminster and the City of London. Following the Battle of Hastings , William

7227-465: The immigrant Renold Elstrack to actually engrave the plates. James's more lavish presentation of portraits had its effect on the quality of the work from the Hilliard workshop. When the Earl of Rutland returned from an embassy to Denmark, sixteen members of his party were given chains of gold with the king's picture, and others received just a picture. The esteem of his contemporaries for Hilliard

7326-478: The jewel passed to Thomas Drake, his brother, and upon his death in 1637, to Thomas's widow. According to the V&;A, the widow sold the jewel to an unknown person in exchange for a payment to her daughters of £3000 (equivalent to £608,835 in 2023) On the front, the jewel shows a cameo of what appears to be an African man and possibly a European woman or a clean-shaven man in Roman style. The reverse opens to show

7425-573: The largest collection of his work is in the Victoria and Albert Museum , London. The National Portrait Gallery and British Museum in London have several others. The conditions in which miniatures have been kept ensure that many remain in excellent condition, and have avoided the attention of restorers, although fading of pigments, and oxidization of silver paint are common. He was the author of an important treatise on miniature painting, now called The Art of Limning ( c.  1600 ), preserved in

7524-506: The livery companies are known as liverymen and form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers. The city is made up of 25 wards . They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as a self-governing unit within the wider city. They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of

7623-598: The neighbouring London Borough of Tower Hamlets . It owns and helps fund the Old Bailey , the Central Criminal Court for England and Wales , as a gift to the nation, having begun as the City and Middlesex Sessions. The Honourable The Irish Society , a body closely linked with the corporation, also owns many public spaces in Northern Ireland . The city has its own independent police force,

7722-535: The one labelled "My Lord's picture" containing a portrait of Leicester. His appointment as miniaturist to the Crown included the old sense of a painter of illuminated manuscripts and he was commissioned to decorate important documents, such as the founding charter of Emmanuel College, Cambridge (1584), which has an enthroned Elizabeth within an elaborate framework of Flemish-style Renaissance ornament. He also seems to have designed woodcut title-page frames and borders for books, some of which bear his initials. As

7821-504: The open alley of a goodly garden, where no tree was near, nor any shadow at all ..." He emphasises the need to catch "the grace in countenance, in which the affections appear, which can neither be well used nor well-judged of but by the wiser sort". So the "wise drawer" should "watch" and "catch these lovely graces, witty smilings, and these stolen glances which suddenly like lightning pass and another countenance taketh place". His normal technique (except for duplicates of royal images)

7920-611: The police authority. It is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries, e.g. Hampstead Heath . The corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London (an office separate from, and much older than, the Mayor of London ). The Lord Mayor, as of November 2023, is Michael Mainelli . The City is made up of 25 wards , with administration at the historic Guildhall . Other historic sites include St Paul's Cathedral , Royal Exchange , Mansion House , Old Bailey , and Smithfield Market . Although not within

8019-506: The portrait of Elizabeth to Hilliard. After his return from France he lived and worked in a house in Gutter Lane, off Cheapside , from 1579 to 1613, when his son and pupil Laurence took it over, carrying on in business for many decades. Hilliard had moved to an unknown address in the parish of St Martins-in-the-Fields , out of the city and nearer the Court. Strong describes the opening of the shop as "a revolution" which soon broadened

8118-651: The private painting market. Hilliard asked that Cecil employ his son as a clerk, because he could not keep him in his own trade. 21st century research on two paintings at Waddesdon Manor has transformed our understanding of his work as two large-scale paintings have been newly attributed to him. The portraits, of Sir Amyas Paulet and Elizabeth, are painted on French oak panels, not the Baltic oak commonly used in England, and are thought to date to Hilliard's time in France. The new data support Sir Roy Strong 's 1983 attribution of

8217-576: The retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia. The City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 , a private Act of Parliament, reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in

8316-471: The separate Mayor of London , an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries. Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial) Court of Aldermen and the Court of Common Council . The Court of Aldermen represents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman. The chief executive of

8415-624: The techniques available, especially for clothes and jewels, often exploiting the tiny shadows cast by thick dots of paint to give a three-dimensionality to pearls and lace. A few half-finished miniatures give a good idea of his working technique. He probably made few drawings; certainly few have survived. His style shows little development after the 1570s, apart from developing some technical refinements, except that many of his later repetitions of James I and his family are much weaker than his early works. James did not like sitting for his portrait and Hilliard probably had few sittings with him. From

8514-479: The visual image of Elizabethan England , very different from that of most of Europe in the late sixteenth century. Technically he was very conservative by European standards, but his paintings are superbly executed and have a freshness and charm that has ensured his continuing reputation as "the central artistic figure of the Elizabethan age, the only English painter whose work reflects, in its delicate microcosm,

8613-597: The wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent. The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of the Old Bailey ; the wards are reviewed by this process to avoid malapportionment . The procedure of review is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by the Electoral Commission or a local government boundary commission every 8 to 12 years, which

8712-431: The western ward of Farringdon Without are within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as independent enclaves . They are two of the few remaining liberties , an old name for a geographic division with special rights. They are extra-parochial areas , historically not governed by the City of London Corporation (and are today regarded as local authorities for most purposes ) and equally outside

8811-485: The work of Hilliard, is dated 1577, in which year she was a maid of honour at the French court; and other portraits which are his work are believed to represent Gabrielle d'Estrées (niece of Madame de Sourdis), la princesse de Condé, and Madame de Montgomery. Money was a persistent problem for Hilliard. The typical price for a miniature seems to have been £3 – which compares well with prices charged by Cornelis Ketel in

8910-533: The world from Spain, such as Drake's alliance with the Cimarron and Elizabeth's alliance with Ahmad al-Mansur against the Spanish. The Cimarron alliance connection was also noted by Miranda Kaufmann , Nikki Marmery and Duane Van Dieman. Historian John Sugden states: "One of the subjects is a white European, an Englishman or possibly even a woman. The other is a black African. There is no suggestion that one figure

9009-456: The world of Shakespeare 's earlier plays." Hilliard was born in Exeter in 1547. He was the son of Richard Hilliard (1519–1594) of Exeter, Devon , also spelt Hellyer, a goldsmith who became a staunch Protestant and was Sheriff of Exeter in 1568, by his marriage to Laurence, daughter of John Wall, a City of London goldsmith. He was one of four boys: two others became goldsmiths, and one

9108-533: Was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution , and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire . The urban area expanded beyond the borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards the West End and Westminster. Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of

9207-501: Was abolished in other UK local council elections by the Representation of the People Act 1969 , but was preserved in the City of London. The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the city is "primarily a place for doing business". About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011). By contrast, opponents of

9306-493: Was also a goldsmith, and the youngest a clergyman. He married Brandon's daughter Alice (1556–1611) in 1576 and they had seven children. Hilliard emerged from his apprenticeship at a time when a new royal portrait painter was "desperately needed". Two panel portraits long attributed to him, the "Phoenix" and "Pelican" portraits, are dated c.  1572–76 . Hilliard was appointed limner (miniaturist) and goldsmith to Elizabeth I at an unknown date; his first known miniature of

9405-476: Was an English goldsmith and limner best known for his portrait miniatures of members of the courts of Elizabeth I and James I of England . He mostly painted small oval miniatures, but also some larger cabinet miniatures , up to about 10 inches (25 centimetres) tall, and at least two famous half-length panel portraits of Elizabeth. He enjoyed continuing success as an artist, and continuing financial troubles, for forty-five years. His paintings still exemplify

9504-637: Was briefly imprisoned in Ludgate Prison that year, after standing surety for the debt of another, and being unable to produce the amount. His father-in-law evidently had little trust in his financial acumen; his will of 1591 provided for his daughter by an allowance administered by the Goldsmiths' Company. The same year the Queen gave him £400, a large amount, after he made a second Great Seal , and perhaps bearing in mind that he had not had an annuity. After his return from France he had invested in

9603-540: Was formerly also held. Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and its Corporation . In 1381, the Peasants' Revolt affected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord Mayor William Walworth . In 1450, rebel forces again occupied

9702-441: Was the origin of the City of London Corporation and the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189—and to directly elect the mayor from 1215. From medieval times, the city has been composed of 25 ancient wards , each headed by an alderman , who chairs Wardmotes , which still take place at least annually. A Folkmoot , for the whole of the City held at the outdoor cross of St Paul's Cathedral ,

9801-406: Was to paint the whole face in the presence of the sitter, probably in at least two sittings. He kept a number of prepared flesh-coloured blanks ready, in different shades, to save time on laying the "carnation" ground. He then painted the outlines of the features very faintly with a "pencil", actually a very fine pointed squirrel -hair brush, before filling these out by faint hatchings. He added to

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