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146-447: Mykhailo Petrovych Drahomanov ( Ukrainian : Михайло Петрович Драгоманов ; 18 September 1841 – 2 July 1895) was a Ukrainian intellectual and public figure. As an academic, Drahomanov was an economist, historian, philosopher, and ethnographer, while as a public intellectual he was a political theorist with socialist leanings, perhaps best known as one of the first proponents of Ukrainian autonomism. For Drahomanov, ethnographic studies had
292-569: A bourgeois nationalist by both sides of the debate. His system of thought was based in an opposition to dogmatism , which led him to reject more rigid political philosophy that claimed to have solutions to all social issues . This resulted in his own political philosophy becoming syncretic , drawing from both liberalism and socialism ; patriotism and cosmopolitanism ; and Slavophilia and Westernism . Drahomanov's politics centered freedom and dignity , concerning itself mainly with strengthening human rights and defending those rights from
438-459: A doctoral degree are called theses or dissertations . At French-language universities, for the fulfillment of a master's degree, students can present a " mémoire "' or a shorter " essai "' (the latter requires the student to take more courses). For the fulfillment of a doctoral degree, they may present a "thèse" or an "essai doctoral" (here too, the latter requires more courses). All these documents are usually synthetic monograph related to
584-399: A title page , an abstract , a table of contents , comprising the various chapters like introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and bibliography or more usually a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the many different areas of study (arts, humanities, social sciences, technology, sciences, etc.) and the differences between them. In
730-414: A weak yer vowel that would eventually disappear completely, for example Old East Slavic котъ /kɔtə/ > Ukrainian кіт /kit/ 'cat' (via transitional stages such as /koˑtə̆/, /kuˑt(ə̆)/, /kyˑt/ or similar) or Old East Slavic печь /pʲɛtʃʲə/ > Ukrainian піч /pitʃ/ 'oven' (via transitional stages such as /pʲeˑtʃʲə̆/, /pʲiˑtʃʲ/ or similar). This raising and other phonological developments of the time, such as
876-420: A 4-year bachelor's degree is sometimes called a major paper . High-quality research papers presented as the empirical study of a "postgraduate" consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis (Honours Seminar Thesis). Major papers presented as the final project for a master's degree are normally called thesis ; and major papers presenting the student's research towards
1022-636: A body of national literature, institute a Ukrainian-language educational system, and form an independent state (the Ukrainian People's Republic , shortly joined by the West Ukrainian People's Republic ). During this brief independent statehood the stature and use of Ukrainian greatly improved. In the Russian Empire Census of 1897 the following picture emerged, with Ukrainian being the second most spoken language of
1168-514: A collection of Ukrainian folklore , which was the only type of Ukrainian-language publication that wasn't forbidden by the authorities. In 1869, he collaborated with Volodymyr Antonovych on the publication of a collection of Ukrainian folk music . It was at this time that he became involved with the Hromada , a secret society that advocated for education in the Ukrainian language . This drew
1314-696: A committee and gaining their approval. Most of the norms and rules of writing a thesis or a dissertation are influenced by the French higher education system. In Italy there are normally three types of thesis. In order of complexity: one for the Laurea (equivalent to the UK Bachelor's Degree), another one for the Laurea Magistrale (equivalent to the UK Master's Degree) and then a thesis to complete
1460-467: A comprehensive collection of Canadian theses at Library and Archives Canada (LAC) through a partnership with Canadian universities who participate in the program. Most theses can also be found in the institutional repository of the university the student graduated from. At most university faculties in Croatia, a degree is obtained by defending a thesis after having passed all the classes specified in
1606-599: A daughter, Lidia Shishmanova , who became the wife of the Bulgarian writer and politician Ivan Shishmanov . In his political journalism , Drahomanov was both fiercely critical of the Ukrainian national movement while writing in the Ukrainian language and ardently defended Ukrainian self-determination while writing in the Russian language. As a result, he was denounced respectively as a socialist internationalist and as
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#17327904869571752-613: A deep influence on his political ideas, and his politics in turn motivated study of particular areas of Ukrainian folk literature. Mykhailo Drahomanov was born on 18 September [ O.S. 6 September] 1841, into a minor noble family of Zaporozhian Cossack ancestry, in Hadiach , a town in the Poltava Governorate of the Russian Empire . His family's status meant Drahomanov was closely acquainted with
1898-522: A doctoral degree paper ( doktorska disertacija ). In the Czech Republic, higher education is completed by passing all classes remaining to the educational compendium for given degree and defending a thesis. For bachelors programme the thesis is called bakalářská práce (bachelor's thesis), for master's degrees and also doctor of medicine or dentistry degrees it is the diplomová práce (master's thesis), and for Philosophiae doctor (PhD.) degree it
2044-700: A federation of equal and autonomous individuals, groups and communities. In terms of state forms, he was intrigued most by the federative democracy in Switzerland and the constitutionalism in the United Kingdom . He had a negative opinion of the French Republic , as he believed the centralising tendency of the Jacobins had been counterrevolutionary and had ultimately resulted in the suppression of workers' rights to freedom of association . He
2190-524: A few universities follow the United States model for theses and dissertations. Some public universities have both British and US style PhD programs. Branch campuses of British, Australian and Middle East universities in Malaysia use the respective models of the home campuses. In Pakistan, at undergraduate level the thesis is usually called final year project, as it is completed in the senior year of
2336-659: A history of Ukrainian literature , Drahomanov was invited by the government of Bulgaria to teach history for three years at the University of Sofia , once again providing him with financial security. Despite demands by the Russian imperial government to expel him and other " nihilists " from Bulgaria , in 1893, his contract was renewed for another three years. Drahomanov's time in Sofia was largely spent lecturing on ancient civilisations and studying Ukrainian folklore and literature, although he still maintained his collaboration with
2482-574: A lecture at the University of Sofia. He was buried in the Central Sofia Cemetery . Several members of Drahomanov's family were relevant in their own right. He was an uncle of Ukrainian poet Larysa Kosach (better known as Lesya Ukrainka ), whose own education he contributed to, and he was a brother of the writer and ethnographer Olha Kosach ( Olena Pchilka ). With his wife, actress Liudmyla Drahomanova [ uk ] , he had
2628-558: A liaison between Ukrainians in the empires of Austria and Russia, even advocating for the liberation of Carpathian Ruthenia from Hungarian rule . Drahomanov's influence helped to stimulate political life in Galicia, especially through his articles in the student newspaper Druh , which formed the nucleus of what would become the Ukrainian Radical Party . But Drahomanov's presence in Galicia brought greater scrutiny by
2774-489: A number of Russian emigres and debated with them the establishment of socialism , himself declaring that political freedom was a necessary prerequisite, while others considered Russian peasants to already be ready for a socialist society. He finally went to Austria-Hungary , where he met Ukrainians from Galicia , then a possession of the Habsburg monarchy . When he visited Galicia himself, he discovered that society there
2920-591: A policy of defending Ukraine's interests within the Soviet Union. He proudly promoted the beauty of the Ukrainian language and developed plans to expand the role of Ukrainian in higher education. He was removed, however, after only a brief tenure, for being too lenient on Ukrainian nationalism. The new party boss from 1972 to 1989, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky , purged the local party, was fierce in suppressing dissent, and insisted Russian be spoken at all official functions, even at local levels. His policy of Russification
3066-565: A result of close Slavic contacts with the remnants of the Scythian and Sarmatian population north of the Black Sea , lasting into the early Middle Ages , the appearance of the voiced fricative γ/г (romanized "h"), in modern Ukrainian and some southern Russian dialects is explained by the assumption that it initially emerged in Scythian and related eastern Iranian dialects, from earlier common Proto-Indo-European *g and *gʰ . During
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#17327904869573212-589: A self-aware Ukrainian nation would threaten the unity of the empire. In 1804 Ukrainian as a subject and language of instruction was banned from schools. In 1811, by order of the Russian government, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed. In 1847 the Brotherhood of St Cyril and Methodius was terminated. The same year Taras Shevchenko was arrested, exiled for ten years, and banned for political reasons from writing and painting. In 1862 Pavlo Chubynsky
3358-436: A separate page number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals . The relevant international standard and many newer style guides recognize that this book design practice can cause confusion where electronic document viewers number all pages of a document continuously from the first page, independent of any printed page numbers. They, therefore, avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter and require
3504-401: A single sequence of Arabic numerals starting with 1 for the first printed page (the recto of the title page). Presentation requirements, including pagination, layout, type and color of paper, use of acid-free paper (where a copy of the dissertation will become a permanent part of the library collection), paper size , order of components, and citation style, will be checked page by page by
3650-559: A student is required to write a thesis and to then defend the work publicly. The length of this manuscript usually is given in page count and depends upon educational institution, its departments, faculties, and fields of study At universities in Slovenia, an academic thesis called diploma thesis is a prerequisite for completing undergraduate studies. The thesis used to be 40–60 pages long, but has been reduced to 20–30 pages in new Bologna process programmes. To complete Master's studies,
3796-402: A swift revolutionary one. He also criticised their tendencies towards authoritarianism , Great Russian chauvinism and Machiavellianism , particularly disapproving of their terrorist tactics , which culminated with the assassination of Alexander II . In August 1881, Drahomanov became editor-in-chief for the journal Volnoye Slovo , which attracted readers and correspondents from opponents of
3942-406: A thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory and comprehensive review of the appended published and unpublished article documents. Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of a thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the previous research literature impinging on the topic of the study, the methods used, and
4088-447: A thesis of 9 credits, at least one publication is normally considered enough for the awarding of the degree with project and is considered mandatory for the awarding of a degree with thesis. A written report and a public thesis defense is mandatory, in the presence of a board of senior researchers, consisting of members from an outside organization or a university. A PhD candidate is supposed to accomplish extensive research work to fulfill
4234-407: A thesis. This project is mostly given as a prerequisite writing course to the actual thesis and is accomplished in the term period before; supervision is provided by one professor assigned to a class. This project is later to be presented in front of an academic panel, often the entire faculty of an academic department, with their recommendations contributing to the acceptance, revision, or rejection of
4380-413: A university (with a Masters or PhD degree) depending on the university's examination rules. Required word length, complexity, and contribution to scholarship varies widely across universities in the country. In Poland, a bachelor's degree usually requires a praca licencjacka (bachelor's thesis) or the similar level degree in engineering requires a praca inżynierska (engineer's thesis/bachelor's thesis),
4526-890: A variant name of the Little Russian language . In a private letter from 1854, Taras Shevchenko lauds "our splendid Ukrainian language". Valuyev's decree from 1863 derides the "Little Russian" language throughout, but also mentions "the so-called Ukrainian language" once. In Galicia, the earliest applications of the term Ukrainian to the language were in the hyphenated names Ukrainian-Ruthenian (1866, by Paulin Święcicki ) or Ruthenian-Ukrainian (1871, by Panteleimon Kulish and Ivan Puluj ), with non-hyphenated Ukrainian language appearing shortly thereafter (in 1878, by Mykhailo Drahomanov ). A following ban on Ukrainian books led to Alexander II 's secret Ems Ukaz , which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even banned
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4672-416: Is accomplished in the last term alone and is defended once. In most universities, a thesis is required for the bestowment of a degree to a candidate alongside a number of units earned throughout their academic period of stay, though for practice and skills-based degrees a practicum and a written report can be achieved instead. The examination board often consists of three to five examiners, often professors in
4818-525: Is also used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek word θέσις , meaning "something put forth", and refers to an intellectual proposition . Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō , meaning "discussion". Aristotle was the first philosopher to define the term thesis. A 'thesis' is a supposition of some eminent philosopher that conflicts with
4964-646: Is based on the character of contemporary written sources, ultimately reflecting socio-historical developments, and he further subdivides the Middle period into three phases: Ukraine annually marks the Day of Ukrainian Writing and Language on 9 November, the Eastern Orthodox feast day of Nestor the Chronicler . The era of Kievan Rus' ( c. 880–1240) is the subject of some linguistic controversy, as
5110-505: Is called a soutenance . Since 2023, at the end of the admission process, the doctoral student takes an oath of commitment to the principles of scientific integrity In the presence of my peers. With the completion of my doctorate in [research field], in my quest for knowledge, I have carried out demanding research, demonstrated intellectual rigour, ethical reflection, and respect for the principles of research integrity. As I pursue my professional career, whatever my chosen field, I pledge, to
5256-426: Is different from that of the student. The role of the thesis supervisor is to assist and support a student in their studies, and to determine whether a thesis is ready for examination. The thesis is authored by the student, not the supervisor. The duties of the thesis supervisor also include checking for copyright compliance and ensuring that the student has included in/with the thesis a statement attesting that he/she
5402-590: Is dissertation dizertační práce . Thesis for so called Higher-Professional School (Vyšší odborná škola, VOŠ) is called absolventská práce . The following types of thesis are used in Finland (names in Finnish/Swedish): In France, the academic dissertation or thesis is called a thèse and it is reserved for the final work of doctoral candidates. The minimum page length is generally (and not formally) 100 pages (or about 400,000 characters), but
5548-471: Is more mutual intelligibility with Belarusian , and a closer lexical distance to West Slavic Polish and South Slavic Bulgarian . Ukrainian is a descendant of Old East Slavic , a language spoken in the medieval state of Kievan Rus' . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the language developed into Ruthenian , where it became an official language, before a process of Polonization began in
5694-412: Is mostly mandatory for the completion of a degree . Undergraduate students usually begin to write their final assignment in their third, fourth or fifth enrollment year, depends on the requirements of their respective disciplines and universities. In some universities, students are required to write a proposal skripsi or proposal tesis (thesis proposal) before they could write their final assignment. If
5840-416: Is offered (152b32). The purpose of the dissertation is thus to outline the proofs of why the author disagrees with other philosophers or the general opinion. A thesis (or dissertation) may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph , with or without appended papers, respectively, though many graduate programs allow candidates to submit a curated collection of articles . An ordinary monograph has
5986-465: Is often earned with multiple levels of a Latin honors remark for the thesis ranging from summa cum laude (best) to rite (duly). A thesis can also be rejected with a Latin remark ( non-rite , non-sufficit or worst as sub omni canone ). Bachelor's and master's theses receive numerical grades from 1.0 (best) to 5.0 (failed). In India the thesis defense is called a viva voce ( Latin for "by live voice") examination ( viva in short). Involved in
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6132-460: Is often given in page count and depends upon departments, faculties, and fields of study. A bachelor's thesis is often 40–60 pages long, a diploma thesis and a master's thesis usually 60–100. The required submission for a doctorate is called a Dissertation or Doktorarbeit . The submission for a Habilitation , which is an academic qualification, not an academic degree, is called Habilitationsschrift , not Habilitationsarbeit . A doctoral degree
6278-800: Is one of the East Slavic languages in the Indo-European languages family, and it is spoken primarily in Ukraine . It is the first (native) language of a large majority of Ukrainians . Written Ukrainian uses the Ukrainian alphabet , a variant of the Cyrillic script . The standard language is studied by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Potebnia Institute of Linguistics . Comparisons are often made between Ukrainian and Russian , another East Slavic language, yet there
6424-581: Is referred to as "Old Ukrainian", but elsewhere, and in contemporary sources, is known as the Ruthenian language, and from the end of the 18th century to the present what in Ukraine is known as "Modern Ukrainian", but elsewhere is known as just Ukrainian. Thesis A thesis ( pl. : theses ), or dissertation (abbreviated diss. ), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting
6570-419: Is sometimes used to refer to both master's theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, and the required minimum study period may thus vary significantly in duration. The word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis
6716-461: Is the sole author of the thesis. In the Latin American docta , the academic dissertation can be referred to as different stages inside the academic program that the student is seeking to achieve into a recognized Argentine University , in all the cases the students must develop original contribution in the chosen fields by means of several paper work and essays that comprehend the body of
6862-410: Is usually several times longer (except for technical theses and for "exact sciences" such as physics and maths). To complete a master's degree in research, a student is required to write a mémoire , the French equivalent of a master's thesis in other higher education systems. The word dissertation in French is reserved for shorter (1,000–2,000 words), more generic academic treatises. The defense
7008-463: The 1917 Revolution . Drahomanov's ideas on multiculturalism influenced the constitution of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) by the Central Council , which extended autonomy and self-governance to national minorities when it declared the independence of Ukraine . As it grew, the Ukrainian government used Drahomanov's federal model to guarantee regional autonomy , even proposing
7154-493: The Hromada , as well as several other literary works: penning a collection of Ukrainian socialist music; writing about living and working conditions in Ukraine; and editing a novel by Panas Myrny and Ivan Bilyk [ uk ] . He again engaged in a debate with Russian revolutionaries, such as those of Narodnaya Volya , as he considered the establishment of socialism to require a gradual evolutionary process, rather than
7300-461: The Hromada , which had moved closer towards right-wing politics in the face of the increasingly reactionary political climate in Kyiv and was now worried that his radicalism might prevent the Russian government from loosening restrictions on the Ukrainian language. In 1886, the Hromada stopped providing Drahomanov with financial assistance, leaving him outcast and isolated. In 1889, while working on
7446-672: The Latin language. Much of the influence of Poland on the development of the Ukrainian language has been attributed to this period and is reflected in multiple words and constructions used in everyday Ukrainian speech that were taken from Polish or Latin. Examples of Polish words adopted from this period include zavzhdy (always; taken from old Polish word zawżdy ) and obitsiaty (to promise; taken from Polish obiecać ) and from Latin (via Polish) raptom (suddenly) and meta (aim or goal). Significant contact with Tatars and Turks resulted in many Turkic words, particularly those involving military matters and steppe industry, being adopted into
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#17327904869577592-569: The Novgorod Republic did not call themselves Rus ' until the 14th century; earlier Novgorodians reserved the term Rus ' for the Kiev , Pereyaslavl and Chernigov principalities. At the same time as evidenced by contemporary chronicles, the ruling princes and kings of Galicia–Volhynia and Kiev called themselves "people of Rus ' " (in foreign sources called " Ruthenians "), and Galicia–Volhynia has alternately been called
7738-726: The Polish nobility in Galicia, the Tsarist autocracy in Russia, which each accused him of being an agent for the other. He was also accused of revolutionary centralists in Russia and Galicia, as well as Ukrainian right-wing nationalists, of being an agent provocateur for the Russian Empire. Despite these accusations, he kept to his political convictions, upholding political freedom , self-determination and internationalism . With these principles in mind, he and his followers established
7884-563: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . By the 18th century, Ruthenian diverged into regional variants, and the modern Ukrainian language developed in the territory of present-day Ukraine. Russification saw the Ukrainian language banned as a subject from schools and as a language of instruction in the Russian Empire , and continued in various ways in the Soviet Union . Even so, the language continued to see use throughout
8030-694: The Stalinist period , but his ideas found a renewed interest following de-Stalinization and especially after the independence of Ukraine . In 1991, the former Kyiv Pedagogical Instituted named after Maxim Gorky was renamed as the Kyiv Pedagogical Drahomanov Institute . In 1997, the institute was granted "National University" status, being subsequently designated National Pedagogical Drahomanov University. Ukrainian language Ukrainian ( українська мова , ukrainska mova , IPA: [ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐ ˈmɔʋɐ] )
8176-858: The State , as Drahomanov believed the expansion of liberty resulted from the limiting of government power by way of political revolution . He therefore considered the goal of mankind to be movement towards anarchy , a society based on free association and mutual aid . He was influenced directly by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon , who had formulated anarchism in opposition to the dominant theories of authoritarianism and centralism , in developing his own ideas on federalism . His other influences included Francesc Pi i Margall , John Stuart Mill , Édouard René de Laboulaye , Odilon Barrot , Charles Dupont-White [ fr ] and Benjamin Constant . Drahomanov believed that true freedom could be accomplished through
8322-527: The Tsarist autocracy , due to its advocacy of the Zemstvo system of self-governance and its opposition to revolutionary terror . Following the 1917 Revolution , the journal was discovered to have been financially supported by the Okhrana , due specifically to Drahomanov's opposition to Narodnaya Volya's terrorism, which Pavel Shuvalov hoped would split the revolutionary socialist movement. By May 1883,
8468-401: The Ukrainian Radical Party , which helped spread and celebrate his ideas throughout Ukraine, despite the censorship of the Russian government. But by the time his ideas were beginning to receive widespread recognition, he was beginning to suffer from an abdominal aortic aneurysm , which left him with a fatal cardiovascular disease . On 20 June 1895, Mykhailo Drahomanov died shortly after giving
8614-408: The comprehensive examinations or prospectus meeting, and may consist of members of the comps committee. The committee members are doctors in their field (whether a PhD or other designation) and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that
8760-567: The eastern expansion of the German Empire . In September 1873, Drahomanov arrived back in Kyiv, where he was finally appointed as an assistant professor for the university and joined the Ukrainian section of the Russian Geographical Society , with which he published his collections of Ukrainian folklore and folk music. The Society and Drahomanov himself quickly came under attack by the city's reactionaries around
8906-399: The law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" was approved by the parliament, formalizing rules governing the usage of the language and introducing penalties for violations. The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into two stages: during the 12th to 18th centuries what in Ukraine
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#17327904869579052-473: The thesis . Correspondingly to the academic degree, the last phase of an academic thesis is called in Spanish a defensa de grado , defensa magistral or defensa doctoral in cases in which the university candidate is finalizing their licentiate , master's , or PhD program , respectively. According to a committee resolution, the dissertation can be approved or rejected by an academic committee consisting of
9198-683: The viva are two examiners, one guide (student guide) and the candidate. One examiner is an academic from the candidate's own university department (but not one of the candidate's supervisors) and the other is an external examiner from a different university. In India, PG Qualifications such as MSc Physics accompanies submission of dissertation in Part I and submission of a Project (a working model of an innovation) in Part II. Engineering and Designing qualifications such as BTech, B.E., B.Des, MTech, M.E. or M.Des also involves submission of dissertation. In all
9344-425: The 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around the 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorod dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus', whereas the modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky denies
9490-456: The 13th century, eastern parts of Rus (including Moscow) came under Tatar rule until their unification under the Tsardom of Muscovy , whereas the south-western areas (including Kyiv ) were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . For the following four centuries, the languages of the two regions evolved in relative isolation from each other. Direct written evidence of the existence of
9636-680: The 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, German words began to appear in the language spoken in Ukraine. Their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts. Examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh ("roof"), rura ("pipe"), rynok ("market"), kushnir ("furrier"), and majster ("master" or "craftsman"). In
9782-471: The Bachelor's Thesis is called TCC or Trabalho de Conclusão de Curso (Final Term / Undergraduate Thesis / Final Paper). In Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine an academic dissertation or thesis is called what can be literally translated as a "master's degree work" (thesis), whereas the word dissertation is reserved for doctoral theses ( Candidate of Sciences ). To complete both bachelor's and master's degree,
9928-542: The Cossack motherland, Ukrajina , as a self-appellation for the nation of Ukrainians, and Ukrajins'ka mova for the language. Many writers published works in the Romantic tradition of Europe demonstrating that Ukrainian was not merely a language of the village but suitable for literary pursuits. However, in the Russian Empire expressions of Ukrainian culture and especially language were repeatedly persecuted for fear that
10074-511: The Dottorato di Ricerca (PhD). Thesis requirements vary greatly between degrees and disciplines, ranging from as low as 3–4 ECTS credits to more than 30. Thesis work is mandatory for the completion of a degree. In Kazakhstan, a bachelor's degree typically requires a bachelor's diploma work (kz "бакалаврдың дипломдық жұмысы"), while the master's and PhD degree require a master's/doctoral dissertation (kz "магистрлік/докторлық диссертация"). All
10220-549: The Orthodox church spoke Ruthenian. The 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement between Cossack Hetmanate and Alexis of Russia divided Ukraine between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. During the following century, both monarchies became increasingly intolerant of Ukrainian own cultural and political aspirations. Ukrainians found themselves in a colonial situation. The Russian centre adopted
10366-574: The Polish nobility. Many Ukrainian nobles learned the Polish language and converted to Catholicism during that period in order to maintain their lofty aristocratic position. Lower classes were less affected because literacy was common only in the upper class and clergy. The latter were also under significant Polish pressure after the Union with the Catholic Church . Most of the educational system
10512-601: The Poltava Classical Gymnasium in 1853, where he was exposed to the works of the socialist Alexander Herzen and the historian Friedrich Schlosser . At the Gymnasium, he also began his career in journalism , editing his secret club's handwritten journal. When he took the side of a fellow student against mistreatment by a school inspector, he was expelled from the Gymnasium before he could graduate, only managing to finish his secondary education following
10658-542: The Principality or Kingdom of Ruthenia. Also according to Andrey Zaliznyak, the Novgorodian dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus during the 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorodian dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus, whereas
10804-557: The Russian Empire. According to the Imperial census's terminology, the Russian language ( Русскій ) was subdivided into Ukrainian (Малорусскій, ' Little Russian '), what is known as Russian today (Великорусскій, ' Great Russian '), and Belarusian (Бѣлорусскій, 'White Russian'). The following table shows the distribution of settlement by native language ( "по родному языку" ) in 1897 in Russian Empire governorates ( guberniyas ) that had more than 100,000 Ukrainian speakers. Although in
10950-614: The Russian authorities, with Alexander II himself ordering Drahomanov's dismissal from Kyiv University and appointing a commission suppress Ukrainian separatism. In May 1876, Alexander II issued the Ems Ukaz , which prohibited all Ukrainian language publications and public performances, shut down the Ukrainian Geographical Society and formally banished Ukrainian nationalists, including Drahomanov himself. The Hromada responded by appointing Drahomanov to represent
11096-514: The Russian imperial prohibition of the Ukrainian language to Western European audiences. He also continued his involvement in Galician socialist politics, sending letters and articles to various publications and progressive political leaders, and keeping a close correspondence with his disciples Ivan Franko and Mykhailo Pavlyk [ uk ] . By this time, Drahomanov's radical socialist politics were beginning to alienate other members of
11242-460: The Soviet Union and a special term, "a language of inter-ethnic communication", was coined to denote its status. After the death of Stalin (1953), a general policy of relaxing the language policies of the past was implemented (1958 to 1963). The Khrushchev era which followed saw a policy of relatively lenient concessions to development of the languages at the local and republic level, though its results in Ukraine did not go nearly as far as those of
11388-519: The Soviet policy of Ukrainianization in the 1920s. Journals and encyclopedic publications advanced in the Ukrainian language during the Khrushchev era, as well as transfer of Crimea under Ukrainian SSR jurisdiction. Yet, the 1958 school reform that allowed parents to choose the language of primary instruction for their children, unpopular among the circles of the national intelligentsia in parts of
11534-474: The US, these committees usually consist of a primary supervisor or advisor and two or more committee members, who supervise the progress of the dissertation and may also act as the examining committee, or jury, at the oral examination of the thesis ( see § Thesis examinations ). At most universities, the committee is chosen by the student in conjunction with their primary adviser, usually after completion of
11680-551: The USSR, meant that non-Russian languages would slowly give way to Russian in light of the pressures of survival and advancement. The gains of the past, already largely reversed by the Stalin era, were offset by the liberal attitude towards the requirement to study the local languages (the requirement to study Russian remained). Parents were usually free to choose the language of study of their children (except in few areas where attending
11826-564: The Ukrainian language dates to the late 16th century. By the 16th century, a peculiar official language formed: a mixture of the liturgical standardised language of Old Church Slavonic , Ruthenian and Polish . The influence of the latter gradually increased relative to the former two, as the nobility and rural large-landowning class, known as the szlachta , was largely Polish-speaking. Documents soon took on many Polish characteristics superimposed on Ruthenian phonetics. Polish–Lithuanian rule and education also involved significant exposure to
11972-477: The Ukrainian language held the formal position of the principal local language in the Ukrainian SSR . However, practice was often a different story: Ukrainian always had to compete with Russian, and the attitudes of the Soviet leadership towards Ukrainian varied from encouragement and tolerance to de facto banishment. Officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union until the very end when it
12118-465: The Ukrainian language. Examples include torba (bag) and tyutyun (tobacco). Because of the substantial number of loanwords from Polish, German, Czech and Latin, early modern vernacular Ukrainian ( prosta mova , " simple speech ") had more lexical similarity with West Slavic languages than with Russian or Church Slavonic. By the mid-17th century, the linguistic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages had become so significant that there
12264-475: The Ukrainian national movement abroad and pledged to financially support him in exile. In May 1876, Drahomanov left Ukraine for Vienna . But before he could get settled, the Austrian imperial government initiated against the Galician socialist movement and accused Drahomanov himself of being its leader, forcing him to flee to Switzerland. In Geneva , Drahomanov began working on a socialist political program for
12410-409: The Ukrainian school might have required a long daily commute) and they often chose Russian, which reinforced the resulting Russification. In this sense, some analysts argue that it was not the "oppression" or "persecution", but rather the lack of protection against the expansion of Russian language that contributed to the relative decline of Ukrainian in the 1970s and 1980s. According to this view, it
12556-422: The accepting officer before the thesis is accepted and a receipt is issued. However, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the character size and the page formatting, and leave much freedom for the actual typographic details. The thesis committee (or dissertation committee ) is a committee that supervises a student's dissertation. In
12702-545: The advisor) or other experts with a PhD degree (generally at least half of them must be external to the university where the candidate defends the thesis, but it may depend on the university). Each university / faculty defines the length of these documents, and it can vary also in respect to the domains (a thesis in fields like philosophy, history, geography, etc., usually has more pages than a thesis in mathematics, computer science, statistics, etc.) but typical numbers of pages are around 60–80 for MSc and 150–250 for PhD. In Brazil
12848-410: The attention of the Russian authorities, which suspected the society had links with the Polish insurrection and began to repress the nascent movement for Ukrainian nationalism , with Pyotr Valuyev prohibiting the printing of works in Ukrainian. When Drahomanov published a review of a book by Alexander Shirinsky-Shikhmatov [ ru ] , criticising it for Great Russian chauvinism , Drahomanov
12994-535: The author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelor's or master's course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate . This is the typical arrangement in American English . In other contexts, such as within most institutions of the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland , the reverse is true. The term graduate thesis
13140-427: The cases, the dissertation can be extended for summer internship at certain research and development organizations or also as PhD synopsis. In Indonesia , the term thesis is used specifically to refer to master's theses. The undergraduate thesis is called skripsi , while the doctoral dissertation is called disertasi . In general, those three terms are usually called as tugas akhir (final assignment), which
13286-407: The chancellery and gradually evolved into the Ruthenian language. Polish rule, which came later, was accompanied by a more assimilationist policy. By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to Polish administration, resulting in cultural Polonization and visible attempts to colonize Ukraine by
13432-591: The country, and remained particularly strong in Western Ukraine . Specific developments that led to a gradual change of the Old East Slavic vowel system into the system found in modern Ukrainian began approximately in the 12th/13th century (that is, still at the time of the Kievan Rus') with a lengthening and raising of the Old East Slavic mid vowels e and o when followed by a consonant and
13578-462: The degree programme. In the Bologna system, the bachelor's thesis, called završni rad (literally "final work" or "concluding work") is defended after 3 years of study and is about 30 pages long. Most students with bachelor's degrees continue onto master's programmes which end with a master's thesis called diplomski rad (literally "diploma work" or "graduate work"). The term dissertation is used for
13724-454: The degree, the name project usually implies that the work carried out is less extensive than a thesis and bears lesser credit hours too. The undergraduate level project is presented through an elaborate written report and a presentation to the advisor, a board of faculty members and students. At graduate level however, i.e. in MS, some universities allow students to accomplish a project of 6 credits or
13870-565: The dissertation requirements with international publications being a mandatory requirement. The defense of the research work is done publicly. In the Philippines, an academic thesis is named by the degree, such as bachelor/undergraduate thesis or masteral thesis. However, in Philippine English , the term doctorate is typically replaced with doctoral (as in the case of "doctoral dissertation"), though in official documentation
14016-663: The establishment of the West Ukrainian People's Republic after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary . Drahomanov was not as influential in Dnieper Ukraine , which only attained freedom of association after the 1905 Revolution . Two eastern Ukrainian parties that adopted Drahomanov's program were the Socialist-Federalist Party and the Socialist-Revolutionary Party , which came to hold a strong influence in Ukraine following
14162-407: The existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko , Vsevolod Hantsov , Olena Kurylo , Ivan Ohienko and others. According to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language
14308-717: The findings of the project. Most world universities use a multiple chapter format: Degree-awarding institutions often define their own house style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. In addition to institution-specific house styles, there exist a number of field-specific, national, and international standards and recommendations for the presentation of theses, for instance ISO 7144 . Other applicable international standards include ISO 2145 on section numbers, ISO 690 on bibliographic references, and ISO 31 or its revision ISO 80000 on quantities or units. Some older house styles specify that front matter (title page, abstract, table of content, etc.) must use
14454-580: The first Ukrainian political party: the Ukrainian Radical Party , which defended Drahomanov's ethical socialism and declared its aim to be the independence of Ukraine. In 1899, moderates left the party and merged into the National Democratic Party , which represented the more liberal aspect of Drahomanov's thought. These two parties formed the basis of a two-party system in Galician Ukrainian politics, going on to lead
14600-431: The former is still used. The terms thesis and dissertation are commonly used interchangeably in everyday language yet it is generally understood that a thesis refers to bachelor/undergraduate and master academic work while a dissertation is named for doctorate work. The Philippine system is influenced by American collegiate system, in that it requires a research project to be submitted before being allowed to write
14746-415: The general opinion...for to take notice when any ordinary person expresses views contrary to men's usual opinions would be silly. For Aristotle, a thesis would therefore be a supposition that is stated in contradiction with general opinion or express disagreement with other philosophers (104b33-35). A supposition is a statement or opinion that may or may not be true depending on the evidence and/or proof that
14892-527: The given degree. Examinations for PhD and Habilitation degrees are public. In Portugal and Brazil, a dissertation ( dissertação ) is required for completion of a master's degree. The defense is done in a public presentation in which teachers, students, and the general public can participate. For the PhD, a thesis ( tese ) is presented for defense in a public exam. The exam typically extends over 3 hours. The examination board typically involves 5 to 6 scholars (including
15038-485: The greatest of my ability, to continue to maintain integrity in my relationship to knowledge, in my methods and in my results. In Germany, an academic thesis is called Abschlussarbeit or, more specifically, the basic name of the degree complemented by -arbeit (rough translation: -work ; e.g., Diplomarbeit , Masterarbeit , Doktorarbeit ). For bachelor's and master's degrees, the name can alternatively be complemented by -thesis instead (e.g., Bachelorthesis ). Length
15184-596: The ideas of progressivism from an early age. His father, Petro Drahomanov [ uk ] , was influenced by the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment and provided legal aid to serfs and military conscripts . His uncle, Yakiv Drahomanov [ uk ] , was a member of the Society of United Slavs and a sympathiser of the Decembrists . Mykhailo Drahomanov became an avid learner, enrolling at
15330-439: The initial topic. In addition, the presentation of the research project will help the candidate choose their primary thesis adviser. An undergraduate thesis is completed in the final year of the degree alongside existing seminar (lecture) or laboratory courses, and is often divided into two presentations: proposal and thesis presentations (though this varies across universities), whereas a master thesis or doctorate dissertation
15476-469: The intervention of the liberal pedagogue Nikolay Pirogov . In 1859, Drahomanov enrolled in the University of Kyiv , where he studied history . He quickly joined a radical student circle that participated in the early stages of the " Going to the People " campaign, establishing some of the first folk high school in Ukraine, before their suppression by the Russian government in 1862. He was present during
15622-571: The journal had shuttered, after Alexander III committed to reactionary politics and dissolved Shuvalov's project. The following month, Drahomanov was joined in Geneva by other Ukrainian radicals, who together drew up a federalist and democratic program for remodelling Eastern Europe : the Volny Soyuz (English: Free Union . At this time, Drahomanov also aided in the publication of a geographical study of Ukraine by Élisée Reclus and publicised
15768-417: The language of much of the literature was purely or heavily Old Church Slavonic . Some theorists see an early Ukrainian stage in language development here, calling it Old Ruthenian; others term this era Old East Slavic . Russian theorists tend to amalgamate Rus' to the modern nation of Russia, and call this linguistic era Old Russian. However, according to Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak (2012), people from
15914-470: The master's degree requires a praca magisterska (master's thesis). The academic dissertation for a PhD is called a dysertacja or praca doktorska . The submission for the Habilitation is called praca habilitacyjna or dysertacja habilitacyjna . Thus the term dysertacja is reserved for PhD and Habilitation degrees. All the theses need to be "defended" by the author during a special examination for
16060-542: The merger of the Old East Slavic vowel phonemes и /i/ and ы /ɨ/ into the specifically Ukrainian phoneme /ɪ ~ e/, spelled with и (in the 13th/14th centuries), and the fricativisation of the Old East Slavic consonant г /g/, probably first to /ɣ/ (in the 13th century), with /ɦ/ as a reflex in Modern Ukrainian, did not happen in Russian. Only the fricativisation of Old East Slavic г /g/ occurred in Belarusian, where
16206-462: The modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from the dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. After the fall of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, Ukrainians mainly fell under the rule of Lithuania and then Poland . Local autonomy of both rule and language was a marked feature of Lithuanian rule. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old East Slavic became the language of
16352-508: The name Little Russia for Ukraine and Little Russian for the language, an expression that originated in Byzantine Greek and may originally have meant "old, original, fundamental Russia", and had been in use since the 14th century. Ukrainian high culture went into a long period of steady decline. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was taken over by the Russian Empire. Most of the remaining Ukrainian schools also switched to Polish or Russian in
16498-412: The native language for the majority in the nation on the eve of Ukrainian independence, a significant share of ethnic Ukrainians were russified. In Donetsk there were no Ukrainian language schools and in Kyiv only a quarter of children went to Ukrainian language schools. The Russian language was the dominant vehicle, not just of government function, but of the media, commerce, and modernity itself. This
16644-653: The newspaper Kievlyanin , which accused the Society of separatism and Drahomanov of being a Polish agent. After Drahomanov began working at the Kievsky Telegraph , he fell under even greater censorship by the Russian authorities, which removed his articles about Ukraine from Russian newspapers. In May 1875, the local curator requested Drahomanov resign from the university, due to the allegations of separatism. But instead of resigning, he returned to Galicia, where he continued his work of Europeanisation and worked as
16790-425: The population said Ukrainian was their native language. Until the 1920s the urban population in Ukraine grew faster than the number of Ukrainian speakers. This implies that there was a (relative) decline in the use of Ukrainian language. For example, in Kyiv, the number of people stating that Ukrainian was their native language declined from 30.3% in 1874 to 16.6% in 1917. During the seven-decade-long Soviet era ,
16936-516: The present-day reflex is /ɣ/. Ahatanhel Krymsky and Aleksey Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the common spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century. Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak stated that the Old Novgorod dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus' during
17082-533: The printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores. A period of leniency after 1905 was followed by another strict ban in 1914, which also affected Russian-occupied Galicia. For much of the 19th century the Austrian authorities demonstrated some preference for Polish culture, but the Ukrainians were relatively free to partake in their own cultural pursuits in Halychyna and Bukovina , where Ukrainian
17228-451: The radical press in his "second homeland" of Galicia. In his articles for the Galician press, he defended freedom of religion and campaigned for the secularization of Galician society, opposing the influence of clericalism in the region. He also wrote a number of works about the situation in Dnieper Ukraine , managing to win over Borys Hrinchenko to his own radical perspective. Drahomanov's continuing radical journalism made enemies of
17374-615: The reorganization of the entirety of Eastern Europe into a confederation of independent nations. Following the collapse of the UPR, exiled Ukrainian nationalists shifted towards the far-right , with some directly blaming Drahomanov's ideas for their defeat in the Ukrainian War of Independence . In the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic , Drahomanov was denounced as a liberal and a nationalist during
17520-577: The rural regions of the Ukrainian provinces, 80% of the inhabitants said that Ukrainian was their native language in the Census of 1897 (for which the results are given above), in the urban regions only 32.5% of the population claimed Ukrainian as their native language. For example, in Odesa (then part of the Russian Empire), at the time the largest city in the territory of current Ukraine, only 5.6% of
17666-687: The sixteenth and first half of the 17th century, when Ukraine was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, albeit in spite of being part of the PLC, not as a result. Among many schools established in that time, the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium (the predecessor of the modern Kyiv-Mohyla Academy ), founded by the Orthodox Metropolitan Peter Mogila , was the most important. At that time languages were associated more with religions: Catholics spoke Polish, and members of
17812-508: The student's research work. A typical undergraduate paper or essay might be forty pages. Master's theses are approximately one hundred pages. PhD theses are usually over two hundred pages. This may vary greatly by discipline, program, college, or university. A study published in 2021 found that in Québec universities , between 2000 and 2020, master's and PhD theses averaged 127.4 and 245.6 pages respectively. Theses Canada acquires and preserves
17958-512: The subsequent death of his mother-in-law, forcing him to take a second job as a journalist for the Petersburg News , for which he wrote about the situation of life in Ukraine. On 25 May 1864, after defending his thesis about Tiberius , he was admitted as a lecturer at Kyiv University. From his studies of ancient history , Drahomanov's interests shifted towards Slavic history, particularly concentrating on folklore . In 1867, he published
18104-462: The term native language may not necessarily associate with the language they use more frequently. The overwhelming majority of ethnic Ukrainians consider the Ukrainian language native , including those who often speak Russian. According to the official 2001 census data, 92.3% of Kyiv region population responded "Ukrainian" to the native language ( ridna mova ) census question, compared with 88.4% in 1989, and 7.2% responded "Russian". In 2019,
18250-558: The territories controlled by these respective countries, which was followed by a new wave of Polonization and Russification of the native nobility. Gradually the official language of Ukrainian provinces under Poland was changed to Polish, while the upper classes in the Russian part of Ukraine used Russian. During the 19th century, a revival of Ukrainian self-identification manifested in the literary classes of both Russian-Empire Dnieper Ukraine and Austrian Galicia . The Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius in Kyiv applied an old word for
18396-406: The thesis director and at least one evaluator. All the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities , writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers , term papers or essays . A longer paper or essay presented for completion of
18542-412: The thesis proposal is considered to fulfill the qualification by the academic examiners, students then may proceed to write their final assignment. In Iran , usually students are required to present a thesis ( Persian : پایاننامه pāyān-nāmeh ) in their master's degree and a dissertation ( رساله resāleh ) in their Doctorate degree, both of which requiring the students to defend their research before
18688-452: The transfer of Taras Shevchenko 's remains from Saint Petersburg to Kaniv in 1861, giving a speech over his coffin when the funeral train stopped in Kyiv . He also spoke in defense of his mentor Pirogov, who had been dismissed from his post for his liberalism, praising him for his educational reforms, particularly his abolition of corporal punishment . As a result, Drahomanov was censored by
18834-624: The university administration, but also brought him closer to his liberal professors, with one recommending him to the university's governing council. But Drahomanov's ascent was blocked by the conservative administration, as part of a generalised reaction to the January Uprising in Poland . Following the death of his father, Drahomanov took a job as a geography teacher at a Kyiv high school, in order to financially support his family. His financial situation worsened following his marriage and
18980-599: The university council to become an assistant professor, his appointment was initially blocked by Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, which prevented him from receiving funds during his scholarly trip abroad. His travels took him first to Germany , where he witnessed the Franco-Prussian War , attended lectures by Theodor Mommsen and studied the Slavic cultural movement in Lusatia . He then went on to Switzerland , where he met
19126-516: The use of Ukrainian. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over the first decade of independence from a system that is partly Ukrainian to one that is overwhelmingly so. The government has also mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. In the 2001 census , 67.5% of the country's population named Ukrainian as their native language (a 2.8% increase from 1989), while 29.6% named Russian (a 3.2% decrease). For many Ukrainians (of various ethnic origins),
19272-477: The works are publicly presented to the special council at the end of the training, which thoroughly examines the work. PhD candidates may be allowed to present their work without a written thesis, if they provide enough publications in leading journals of the field, and one of which should be a review article specifically. Malaysian universities often follow the British model for dissertations and degrees. However,
19418-587: Was a need for translators during negotiations for the Treaty of Pereyaslav , between Bohdan Khmelnytsky , head of the Zaporozhian Host , and the Russian state. By the 18th century, Ruthenian had diverged into regional variants, developing into the modern Belarusian , Rusyn , and Ukrainian languages. The accepted chronology of Ukrainian divides the language into Old Ukrainian, Middle Ukrainian, and Modern Ukrainian. Shevelov explains that much of this
19564-508: Was adopted by the writers Ivan Franko and Lesya Ukrainka . Drahomanov spearheaded the development of independent Ukrainian political organisations in Galicia , the first of which was established in 1875 by his followers, but this was quickly suppressed by the imperial authorities. In October 1890, a coalition of Drahomanovite intellectuals and grass-roots peasant activists in Lviv established
19710-556: Was exiled for seven years to Arkhangelsk . The Ukrainian magazine Osnova was discontinued. In 1863, the tsarist interior minister Pyotr Valuyev proclaimed in his decree that "there never has been, is not, and never can be a separate Little Russian language". Although the name of Ukraine is known since 1187, it was not applied to the language until the mid-19th century. The linguonym Ukrainian language appears in Yakub Holovatsky 's book from 1849, listed there as
19856-448: Was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to an intensive migration of the population within the territory of today's Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was also supported by George Shevelov 's phonological studies, which argue that specific features were already recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic (seen as ancestors to Ukrainian) as far back as these varieties can be documented. As
20002-407: Was gradually Polonized. In Ruthenia, the language of administrative documents gradually shifted towards Polish. Polish has had heavy influences on Ukrainian (particularly in Western Ukraine ). The southwestern Ukrainian dialects are transitional to Polish. As the Ukrainian language developed further, some borrowings from Tatar and Turkish occurred. Ukrainian culture and language flourished in
20148-562: Was inevitable that successful careers required a good command of Russian, while knowledge of Ukrainian was not vital, so it was common for Ukrainian parents to send their children to Russian-language schools, even though Ukrainian-language schools were usually available. The number of students in Russian-language in Ukraine schools was constantly increasing, from 14 percent in 1939 to more than 30 percent in 1962. The Communist Party leader from 1963 to 1972, Petro Shelest , pursued
20294-429: Was influential on the development of technical vocabulary in Ukrainian prose, particularly that of political terminology, for which he attempted to create uniquely Ukrainian neologisms, independent from both international terminology. Drahomanov also tried to popularize his own orthographic reform of the Ukrainian language, based on a simplified and rationalised version of Panteleimon Kulish 's phonetic orthography, which
20440-776: Was largely stagnant, with inertia even affecting the radicals and populists. In an attempt to combat this, he took to writing a number of progressive articles, in which he criticised the Galician political leadership, and established the Shevchenko Scientific Society , which became a center for Ukrainian scholarship in Lviv . During his trip, he also continued his studies of ancient history, collected folklore studies for comparison and began to write his first political works. In 1872, he published an article in Vestnik Evropy , in which he argued that policies of Russification targeting ethnic minorities aided
20586-490: Was lessened only slightly after 1985. The management of dissent by the local Ukrainian Communist Party was more fierce and thorough than in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, at the start of the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms perebudova and hlasnist’ (Ukrainian for perestroika and glasnost ), Ukraine under Shcherbytsky was slower to liberalize than Russia itself. Although Ukrainian still remained
20732-504: Was opposed to the concept of popular sovereignty , what he called the " autocracy of the people", represented in Jean-Jacques Rousseau 's theory of the social contract . He believed that the idea of the " popular will " was diametrically opposed to political freedom , as the will of the people could be used to justify majority rule or even dictatorship , which endangered both individual and group rights . Drahomanov
20878-549: Was proclaimed in 1990 that Russian language was the all-Union state language and that the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. Still it was implicitly understood in the hopes of minority nations that Ukrainian would be used in the Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek would be used in the Uzbek SSR , and so on. However, Russian was used as the lingua franca in all parts of
21024-399: Was publicly accused by the Russian press of advocating separatism and subsequently fell under surveillance by the secret police . Nevertheless, he remained active in radical politics, even criticising revolutionary students from Saint Petersburg that advocated for centralized government in Russia. In 1870, when Drahomanov defended his master's thesis about Tacitus and was nominated by
21170-400: Was substantially less the case for western Ukraine, which escaped the artificial famine , Great Purge , and most of Stalinism . And this region became the center of a hearty, if only partial, renaissance of the Ukrainian language during independence. Since 1991, Ukrainian has been the official state language in Ukraine, and the state administration implemented government policies to broaden
21316-547: Was widely used in education and official documents. The suppression by Russia hampered the literary development of the Ukrainian language in Dnipro Ukraine, but there was a constant exchange with Halychyna, and many works were published under Austria and smuggled to the east. By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of Austro-Hungary in 1918, Ukrainians were ready to openly develop
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