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92-473: Dutch War may refer to: Dutch–Portuguese War , 1588–1661 Any of the four Anglo-Dutch Wars : First Anglo-Dutch War , 1652–54 Second Anglo-Dutch War , 1665–67 Third Anglo-Dutch War , 1672–74 Fourth Anglo-Dutch War , 1780–84 Franco-Dutch War , 1672–78, of which the Third Anglo-Dutch War was

184-695: A Spanish fleet to sack a Dutch ship near the Siamese shoreline. This enraged King Songtham of Siam , who held the Dutch in great preference and ordered attacks on the Spaniards. War between Philip's possessions and other countries led to a deterioration of the Portuguese Empire, as the loss of Hormuz to Persia, aided by England, but the Dutch Republic was the main beneficiary. In 1640,

276-654: A naval battle off Hormuz in 1625, Persia vied for a cease-fire with the Portuguese to be able to reestablish trade and provided Portugal with a trading post in Kong . Together with the reestablished Basra route, this temporarily made up for the loss of Hormuz. The pioneers of the destruction of the Portuguese and Spanish mare clausum doctrine were the Dutch in portions of the East Indies . In 1624, Fernándo de Silva led

368-830: A direct ocean route from the Cape of Good Hope to the Sunda Strait in Indonesia . People from the Neolithic period traded in spices , obsidian , sea shells , precious stones and other high-value materials as early as the 10th millennium BC. The first to mention the trade in historical periods are the Egyptians . In the 3rd millennium BC, they traded with the Land of Punt , which is believed to have been situated in an area encompassing northern Somalia , Djibouti , Eritrea and

460-573: A million pounds (nearly half the size of English treasury at the time). This foretaste of the riches of the East galvanized interest in the region. That same year, Dutch merchants sent Cornelis de Houtman to Lisbon, to gather as much information as he could about the Spice Islands . In 1595, merchant and explorer Jan Huyghen van Linschoten , having traveled widely in the Indian Ocean in

552-553: A monopoly on European trade with the Middle East. The silk and spice trade, involving spices , incense , herbs , drugs and opium , made these Mediterranean city-states extremely wealthy. Spices were among the most expensive and in-demand products of the Middle Ages, used in medicine as well as in the kitchen. They were all imported from Asia and Africa. Venetian and other navigators of maritime republics then distributed

644-631: A movement of commercial expansion, and the foundation of the English East India Company in 1600, and Dutch East India Company ( Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC) in 1602, allowing the entry of chartered companies in the so-called East Indies. In 1602, the VOC was founded, with the goal of sharing the costs of the exploration of the East Indies and ultimately re-establishing the spice trade, which generated high profits in

736-518: A part Indonesian National Revolution Travancore–Dutch War , 1739–1741 Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Dutch War . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_War&oldid=888664945 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

828-466: Is a record from Tamil texts of Greeks purchasing large sacks of black pepper from India, and many recipes in the 1st-century Roman cookbook Apicius make use of the spice. The trade in spices lessened after the fall of the Roman Empire , but demand for ginger , black pepper, cloves , cinnamon and nutmeg revived the trade in later centuries. Rome played a part in the spice trade during

920-582: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese War English forces also assisted the Dutch at certain points in the war (though in later decades, the English and Dutch would become fierce rivals). Because of the commodity at the center of the conflict, this war would be nicknamed the Spice War. Portugal repelled Dutch attempts to secure Brazil , Mozambique , and Angola , but

1012-621: The Abbasid Caliphate and inspired famous legends such as that of Sinbad the Sailor . These early sailors and merchants would often set sail from the port city of Basra and, after many ports of call, would return to sell their goods, including spices, in Baghdad . The fame of many spices such as nutmeg and cinnamon are attributed to these early spice merchants. The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to

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1104-682: The Arabian Peninsula , resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by the first half of the first millennium AD. It continued into historic times, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road . In the first millennium BC the Arabs , Phoenicians , and Indians were also engaged in sea and land trade in luxury goods such as spices, gold, precious stones, leather of exotic animals, ebony and pearls. The sea trade

1196-866: The Basra - Suez trade; southwards from Goa, the Cape Comorin fleet would escort the Goa merchants to Calicut and Cochin on the Malabar Coast and to Ceylon and the connection to the Bay of Bengal ; in the Bay of Bengal, the most lucrative trade was on the Coromandel Coast where such settlements as São Tomé of Mylapore and Pulicat served as hubs; it was in the Coromandel and Ceylon settlements where

1288-747: The Eastern World . These spices found their way into the Near East before the beginning of the Christian era, with fantastic tales hiding their true sources. The maritime aspect of the trade was dominated by the Austronesian peoples in Southeast Asia , namely the ancient Indonesian sailors who established routes from Southeast Asia to Sri Lanka and India (and later China) by 1500 BC. These goods were then transported by land towards

1380-738: The Portuguese Restoration War . Moreover, the Portuguese claimed that the Iberian Union was a reason for the attacks on their colonies by the Dutch. The war lasted from 1598 to 1663, and the main participants were the Kingdom of Portugal and the Dutch Republic . Following the 1580 Iberian Union , Portugal was throughout most of the period under Habsburg rule, and the Habsburg Philip II of Spain

1472-741: The Red Sea coast of Sudan . The spice trade was associated with overland routes early on, but maritime routes proved to be the factor which helped the trade grow. The first true maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean was by the Austronesian peoples of Island Southeast Asia . They established trade routes with Southern India and Sri Lanka from around 1500 BC to 600 BC, ushering an exchange of material culture (like catamarans , outrigger boats , lashed-lug and sewn-plank boats, and paan ) and cultigens (like coconuts , sandalwood , bananas , and sugarcane ), as well as spices endemic to

1564-487: The Red Sea route before the 1st century AD. During the first millennium AD, Ethiopians became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea . By this period, trade routes existed from Sri Lanka (the Roman Taprobane ) and India, which had acquired maritime technology from early Austronesian contact. By the mid-7th century AD, after the rise of Islam , Arab traders started plying these maritime routes and dominated

1656-477: The Spice Islands ( cloves and nutmeg ). It also connected the material cultures of India and China later on via the Maritime Silk Road. Indonesians in particular were trading in spices (mainly cinnamon and cassia ) with East Africa using catamaran and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the westerlies in the Indian Ocean. This trade network expanded to reach as far as Africa and

1748-753: The Strait of Magellan in the southern tip of South America, opening the Pacific to European exploration. On March 16, 1521, the ships reached the Philippines and soon after the Spice Islands, ultimately resulting decades later in the Manila Galleon trade, the first westward spice trade route to Asia. After Magellan's death in the Philippines, navigator Juan Sebastian Elcano took command of

1840-458: The West Asian markets from being taxed by Portugal, which would deny Lisbon the revenue from the southernmost course of the silk route. It was a lucrative trade but not as essential to the Indian Ocean spice trade network at large. However, the VOC suffered from the same weakness as Portugal: lack of manpower. Thus, a Spanish-style colonization effort was never feasible and only dominion of

1932-674: The sultan of Yemen . Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century). Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentions the town of Puri where "merchants depart for distant countries." From there, overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts. From the 8th until the 15th century, maritime republics ( Republic of Venice , Republic of Pisa , Republic of Genoa , Duchy of Amalfi , Duchy of Gaeta , Republic of Ancona and Republic of Ragusa ) held

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2024-459: The 5th century, but this role did not last through the Middle Ages. The rise of Islam brought a significant change to the trade as Radhanite Jewish and Arab merchants, particularly from Egypt , eventually took over conveying goods via the Levant to Europe . At times, Jews enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the spice trade in large parts of Western Europe. The spice trade had brought great riches to

2116-668: The Arabs had control over the sea trade with India. In the late second century BC, the Greeks from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt learned from the Indians how to sail directly from Aden to the west coast of India using the monsoon winds (as did Hippalus ) and took control of the sea trade via Red Sea ports. Spices are discussed in biblical narratives, and there is literary evidence for their use in ancient Greek and Roman society. There

2208-511: The Dutch abandoned São Luís. The Second Battle of Guararapes , in 1649, marked the beginning of the end of Dutch occupation of Portuguese Brazil, until their final expulsion from Recife in 1654. At the same time, the Dutch organized incursions against the Portuguese possessions in Africa in order to take control of the Atlantic slave trade and complete the triangular trade that would ensure

2300-508: The Dutch captured São Luís , leaving them in control of northwestern Brazil between Maranhão and Sergipe in the south John Maurice of Nassau was recalled from the governorship of New Holland in 1644 because of excessive expenditure and under suspicion of corruption. Mutual hostility between the Catholic Portuguese and Protestant Dutch, and harsh measures to collect from indebted land-owners who had their estates ravaged in

2392-622: The Dutch disrupted the Portuguese trading networks in Asia, where they captured Malacca , Ceylon , the Malabar Coast , and the Moluccas . In Africa, the Dutch conquered the Portuguese Gold Coast . Portuguese resentment at Spain, which was perceived as having prioritized its own colonies and neglected the defense of the Portuguese, the weaker member of the union, was a major contributing factor to Portugal shaking off Spanish rule in

2484-415: The Dutch formed a three-way alliance with the Kingdom of Kongo and Queen Nzinga of Ndongo , and with their assistance captured Luanda and Benguela , though without preventing the Portuguese from retreating inland into strongholds like Massangano , Ambaca , and Muxima . With a steady source of slaves now secure, the Dutch abstained from further action, presuming that their allies would suffice against

2576-593: The Dutch were able to capture Colombo in 1656 and drove the last Portuguese from Ceylon in 1658. Sporadic warfare with Kandy continued for over a century. In the aftermath of the destruction of the Tordesillas system , Portugal had managed to retain Diu but not Hormuz. Goa and Macau had also survived but not Malacca. Nevertheless, the downfall of the Portuguese Indian empire was not territorial but economic:

2668-509: The Dutch would even attempt to conquer Goa itself, but Portuguese diplomacy defeated this plan. In fact, Goa had been under intermittent blockade since 1603. Most of the fighting took place in west India, where the Dutch campaign in Malabar sought to replace the Portuguese monopoly on the spice trade. Dutch and Portuguese fleets faced off for control of the sea lanes as was the case with the action of 30 September 1639 , while on mainland India

2760-586: The GWC would not be as successful as its eastern counterpart. The Dutch invasion began in 1624 with the conquest of the then capital of the Governorate General of Brazil , the city of São Salvador da Bahia , but the Dutch conquest was short lived. In 1625, a joint Spanish–Portuguese fleet of 52 ships and 12,000 men rapidly recaptured Salvador . In 1630, the Dutch returned and captured Olinda and then Recife , renamed Mauritsstadt , thus establishing

2852-668: The Iberian kingdoms. The Dutch Empire attacked many territories in Asia under the rule of the Portuguese and Spanish including Formosa , Ceylon , the Philippines , and commercial interests in Japan, Africa ( Mina ), and South America. In 1592, during the war with Spain , an English fleet had captured a large Portuguese galleon off the Azores, the Madre de Deus , loaded with 900 tons of merchandise from India and China, worth an estimated half

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2944-708: The Maluku Islands (part of present-day Indonesia). On August 6, 1661, the Dutch Republic formally ceded Brazil to the Portuguese Empire through the Treaty of The Hague. 15th century 16th century 15th century 16th century Spice trade The spice trade involved historical civilizations in Asia , Northeast Africa and Europe . Spices, such as cinnamon , cassia , cardamom , ginger , pepper , nutmeg , star anise , clove , and turmeric , were known and used in antiquity and traded in

3036-521: The Mediterranean and the Greco-Roman world via the incense route and the Roman–India routes by Indian and Persian traders. The Austronesian maritime trade lanes later expanded into the Middle East and eastern Africa by the 1st millennium AD, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar . Within specific regions, the Kingdom of Axum (5th century BC–AD 11th century) had pioneered

3128-692: The Moluccas and Maloko , and navigational works of the 14th and 15th centuries contain the first unequivocal Arab reference to Moluccas. Sulaima al-Mahr writes: "East of Timor [where sandalwood is found] are the islands of Bandam and they are the islands where nutmeg and mace are found. The islands of cloves are called Maluku ....." Moluccan products were shipped to trading emporiums in India, passing through ports like Kozhikode in Kerala and through Sri Lanka . From there they were shipped westward across

3220-577: The Netherlands from the spice markets of Lisbon, making it necessary for the Dutch to send their own expeditions to the sources of these commodities and to take control of the Indies spice trade . This followed the capture of Recife in which the Dutch assisted the English in capturing the Portuguese colony. Like the French and English, the Dutch worked to create a global trade network at the expense of

3312-753: The North and Adventurers Fleets all the way to Daman and Diu which oversaw the northern trade and the Gulf of Cambay ; while the Fleet of the North escorted merchant ships the Adventurers Fleet would also seek to disrupt the Mecca trade between northern India's Muslims and the Arabian Peninsula ; the Diu fleet would then connect the trade to Hormuz which controlled the Persian Gulf routes and interrupted

3404-406: The Portuguese Empire. Malacca finally succumbed in 1641. Important battles also took place in the South China Sea, initially with combined fleets of Dutch and English vessels, and subsequently exclusively Dutch ships assaulting Macau. Dutch attempts to capture Macau , to force China to replace the Portuguese or to settle the Pescadores failed, in part because of the long-standing diplomacy between

3496-435: The Portuguese and the Ming, but the Dutch were ultimately successful in acquiring the monopoly of trade with Japan. Meanwhile, the Dutch were unable in four attempts to capture Macau from where Portugal monopolised the lucrative China–Japan trade . The Dutch established a colony at Tayouan in 1624, present-day Anping in the south of Taiwan, known to the Portuguese as Formosa and in 1642 the Dutch took northern Formosa from

3588-424: The Portuguese coast. Portuguese privateers also did considerable harm to Dutch West African and American shipping, but the blockades of the Portuguese coast crippled Portuguese maritime trade, while the VOC finished its conquest of Ceylon and the Malabar Coast in India at the same time. In 1661, Portugal agreed to compensate the Dutch with eight million guilders and ceded the colonies of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and

3680-434: The Portuguese had complete control of the African sea route, which extended through a long network of routes that linked three oceans, from the Moluccas (the Spice Islands) in the Pacific Ocean limits, through Malacca, Kerala and Sri Lanka, to Lisbon in Portugal. The Crown of Castile had organized the expedition of Christopher Columbus to compete with Portugal for the spice trade with Asia, but when Columbus landed on

3772-403: The Portuguese took advantage of the Catalan Revolt and themselves revolted from the Spanish-dominated Iberian Union. From this point onward, the English decided instead to re-establish their alliance with Portugal. Despite the Portuguese proclaiming themselves as hostile to the Spanish crown, the VOC nevertheless took the opportunity to wrench away the string of coastal fortresses that comprised

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3864-407: The Portuguese were modest: some Indonesian possessions and a few cities and fortresses in South India . The most important blow to the Portuguese eastern empire would be the conquest of Malacca in 1641 (depriving them of the control over these straits), Ceylon in 1658, and the Malabar Coast in 1663, even after the signing of the Treaty of The Hague in 1661. Surprised by such easy gains in the East,

3956-449: The Portuguese, from Nagasaki, also doomed the economic viability of Macau. The siege of Malacca of 1641, after many attempts, delivered the city to the Dutch and their regional allies (including the Sultanate of Johor ), crucially breaking the spinal cord between Goa and the Orient. Portuguese establishments were isolated and prone to being picked off one by one, but nevertheless the Dutch only enjoyed mixed success in doing so. Amboina

4048-409: The Portuguese. The Dutch found what they were looking for in Batavia , conquered by Jan Pieterszoon Coen in 1619. The city would become the capital of the Dutch East Indies . For the next forty-four years, the two cities of Goa and Batavia would fight relentlessly, since they stood as the capital of Portuguese India and the VOC's base of operations. With the assistance of the Sultanate of Bijapur

4140-469: The Portuguese. Nonetheless, lacking firearms and artillery, Queen Nzinga and the Kongo proved unable to decisively defeat the Portuguese and their cannibalistic Imbangala allies. In 1648, the Portuguese governor of the captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador Correia de Sá , organized a military expedition to retake Luanda from the Dutch , directly from Brazil. This is because the Portuguese were unable to send sufficient reinforcements to their colonies due to

4232-409: The Republic quickly decided to exploit Portugal's weakness in the Americas. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company ( Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie or GWC) was created to take control of the sugar trade and colonize America (the New Netherland project). The GWC benefited from a large investment in capital, drawing on the enthusiasm of the best financiers and capitalists of the Republic. However,

4324-440: The Spanish by force. The Dutch intervened in the Sinhalese–Portuguese War on Ceylon from 1638 onward, initially as allies of the Kingdom of Kandy against Portugal. The Dutch conquered Batticaloa in 1639 and Galle in 1640 before the alliance broke down. After a period of triangular warfare between the Dutch, Portuguese, and Kandyans, the alliance was remade in 1649. After exploiting and then double-crossing their Kandyan allies,

4416-484: The Spanish monarch and were Catholic, as opposed to the Dutch Protestant north. This also meant that the Dutch had lost their most profitable trade partner and their most important source of financing the war against Spain. Additionally, the Dutch would lose their distribution monopoly with France, the Holy Roman Empire , and Northern Europe. The Portuguese Empire in the Indian Ocean was a traditional thalassocracy that had extended its reach to every major choke point in

4508-468: The VOC seized the Santa Catarina , a Portuguese galleon. It was such a rich prize that its sale proceeds doubled the capital of the VOC. The legality of keeping the prize was questionable under Dutch statute and the Portuguese demanded the return of their cargo. The scandal led to a public judicial hearing and a wider campaign to sway public (and international) opinion. As a result, Hugo Grotius in The Free Sea ( Mare Liberum , published 1609) formulated

4600-408: The city of Batavia (modern-day Jakarta ). This put them safely distant from Goa but opportunistically close to Malacca and the sea lanes connecting the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Many battles were fought but the most decisive ones fatally injured the Portuguese Indian empire. The Dutch blockade of Goa between 1604 and 1645 deprived Portuguese India from a safe connection to Lisbon – and Europe – for

4692-640: The colony of New Holland . The Portuguese commander Matias de Albuquerque retreated his forces inland, to establish a camp dubbed Arraial do Bom Jesus . Until 1635, the Dutch were unable to harvest sugar due to Portuguese guerrilla attacks, and were virtually confined to the walled perimeter of the cities. Eventually, the Dutch evicted the Portuguese with the assistance of a local landlord named Domingos Fernandes Calabar , but on his retreat to Bahia, Matias de Albuquerque captured Calabar at Porto Calvo , and had him hanged for treason. The Portuguese fought back two Dutch attacks on Bahia in 1638. Nonetheless, by 1641,

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4784-437: The colony or to pay the indemnity. In the aftermath of the war against the English the Dutch fleet was worn and weary, and not able yet to undertake major operations so the Dutch instead authorized privateering assaults upon the Portuguese. In 1657, the Dutch fleet was again fit for large operations and the war resumed. Between 1657 and 1661, Dutch fleets, besides operating in the Second Northern War , regularly cruised before

4876-399: The command of navigator Vasco da Gama continued beyond to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi and sailed across the Indian Ocean to Calicut , on the Malabar Coast in Kerala in South India — the capital of the local Zamorin rulers. The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was the earliest European seaborne empire to grow from

4968-413: The competition of other European powers whose demographics were more numerous, access to capital easier, and access to markets more direct than Portugal's. Lisbon's distributive monopoly had been stolen from the Islamic world and soon invited more direct competition; it crumbled quickly. In all, and also because the Dutch were kept busy with their expansion in Indonesia, the conquests made at the expense of

5060-400: The economic prosperity of New Netherland. In 1626, a Dutch expedition to take Elmina was almost wiped out in an ambush by the Portuguese , but in 1637, Elmina fell to the Dutch . In 1641, (after a truce between Portugal and the Netherlands had been signed), the Dutch captured the island of São Tomé and before the end of 1642, the rest of Portuguese Gold Coast followed. In August 1641,

5152-449: The expedition and drove it across the Indian Ocean and back to Spain, where they arrived in 1522 aboard the last remaining ship, the Victoria . For the next two-and-a-half centuries, Spain controlled a vast trade network that linked three continents: Asia, the Americas and Europe. A global spice route had been created: from Manila in the Philippines (Asia) to Seville in Spain (Europe), via Acapulco in Mexico (North America). One of

5244-416: The fall of Luanda, Queen Nzinga retreated to Matamba , while the Dutch in São Tomé abandoned the island, which was reoccupied by the Portuguese later that year. The Dutch, determined to recover Brazil, postponed the end of the conflict. Due to the First Anglo-Dutch War , the Dutch Republic had been unable to properly support the GWC in Brazil. With the end of the conflict with the English, the Dutch demanded

5336-415: The first Europeans to arrive, in early 1512. Abreu's expedition reached Buru , Ambon and Seram Islands, and then Banda. From 1507 to 1515 Albuquerque tried to completely block Arab and other traditional routes that stretched from the shores of Western India to the Mediterranean Sea, through the conquest of strategic bases in the Persian Gulf and at the entry of the Red Sea. By the early 16th century

5428-485: The goods through Europe. The Republic of Venice had become a formidable power and a key player in the Eastern spice trade. Other powers, in an attempt to break the Venetian hold on spice trade, began to build up maritime capability. Until the mid-15th century, trade with the East was achieved through the Silk Road , with the Byzantine Empire and the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa acting as middlemen. The first country to attempt to circumnavigate Africa

5520-409: The island of Hispaniola (in what is now Haiti ) instead of in the Indies , the search for a route to Asia was postponed until a few years later. After Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, the Spanish Crown prepared a westward voyage by Ferdinand Magellan in order to reach Asia from Spain across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On October 21, 1520, his expedition crossed

5612-468: The land trade of spices from South Arabia to the Mediterranean Sea . These tribes were the M'ain , Qataban , Hadhramaut , Saba and Himyarite . In the north the Nabateans took control of the trade route that crossed the Negev from Petra to Gaza . The trade enriched these tribes. South Arabia was called Eudaemon Arabia (the elated Arabia) by the Greeks and was on the agenda of conquests of Alexander of Macedonia before he died. The Indians and

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5704-416: The maritime trade, promoting coinage, art, and literacy. Islam spread throughout the East, reaching maritime Southeast Asia in the 10th century; Muslim merchants played a crucial part in the trade. Christian missionaries, such as Saint Francis Xavier , were instrumental in the spread of Christianity in the East. Christianity competed with Islam to become the dominant religion of the Moluccas. However,

5796-420: The merchants of Arabia and Persia during the 7th and 8th centuries. Arab traders — mainly descendants of sailors from Yemen and Oman — dominated maritime routes throughout the Indian Ocean, tapping source regions in the Far East and linking to the secret "spice islands" ( Maluku Islands and Banda Islands ). The islands of Molucca also find mention in several records: a Javanese chronicle (1365) mentions

5888-857: The most important technological exchanges of the spice trade network was the early introduction of maritime technologies to India, the Middle East, East Africa, and China by the Austronesian peoples . These technologies include the plank-sewn hulls, catamarans , outrigger boats , and possibly the lateen sail . This is still evident in Sri Lankan and South Indian languages. For example, Tamil paṭavu , Telugu paḍava , and Kannada paḍahu , all meaning "ship", are all derived from Proto-Hesperonesian *padaw , "sailboat", with Austronesian cognates like Javanese perahu , Kadazan padau , Maranao padaw , Cebuano paráw , Samoan folau , Hawaiian halau , and Māori wharau . Austronesians also introduced many Austronesian cultigens to southern India, Sri Lanka, and eastern Africa that figured prominently in

5980-474: The natives of the Spice Islands accommodated to aspects of both religions easily. The Portuguese colonial settlements saw traders, such as the Gujarati banias , South Indian Chettis , Syrian Christians , Chinese from Fujian province, and Arabs from Aden , involved in the spice trade. Epics, languages, and cultural customs were borrowed by Southeast Asia from India, and later China. Knowledge of Portuguese language became essential for merchants involved in

6072-422: The new Dutch Republic and other European countries if the spices were bought at source and their supply could be controlled by a monopoly. The need of founding the VOC arose because, with the war with Spain and Portugal being united to Spain, the trade would now be directed through the southern Low Countries (roughly present-day Belgium), which according to the Union of Arras (or Union of Atrecht) were pledged to

6164-436: The new principle that the sea was international territory, against the Portuguese mare clausum policy, and all nations were free to use it for seafaring trade. The 'free seas' provided suitable ideological justification for the Dutch to break the Portuguese monopoly through its formidable naval power. The Portuguese relied on four strategic bases in the East Indies: Goa , Hormuz , Malacca , and Macau . The first served as

6256-443: The ocean. Trade in the area corresponded also to a traditional triangular model whereupon small manufactures would be brought from Europe and traded in Africa for gold and several items, then these would serve to purchase spices in India proper which were then brought back to Europe and traded at immense profit which would be reinvested into ships and troops, to be sent eastwards. The Portuguese State of India , headquartered in Goa ,

6348-418: The ongoing Restoration War in mainland Portugal. In early August, the fleet reached Luanda, where de Sá communicated to the Dutch garrison that since the Dutch would not respect the terms of the truce, the Portuguese felt no obligation to do so either. Although the Portuguese were outnumbered, a swift display of force achieved on 15 August the surrender of Luanda and all Dutch forces in Angola. Upon hearing of

6440-450: The ports of Arabia to the Near East, to Ormus in the Persian Gulf and Jeddah in the Red Sea and sometimes to East Africa , where they were used for many purposes, including burial rites. The Abbasids used Alexandria, Damietta , Aden and Siraf as entry ports to trade with India and China. Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form of musk , camphor , ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad ,

6532-417: The remainder of the war. In 1615, a battle off the coast of Malacca destroyed Portuguese naval power in Southeast Asia. The Portuguese lost their naval supremacy to the Dutch in the crucial route between Goa and Macau. The sieges of Qeshm and Hormuz by the combined forces of Persia and England have largely dislodged the Portuguese from West Asia. The 1639 expulsion of the Jesuits ( sakoku ) and subsequently

6624-549: The return of the colony in May 1654. The Province of Zeeland had the most to gain from the return of the colony, but Johan de Witt , the Grand Pensionary of Holland , preferred a monetary compensation. He did not want to reoccupy the colony and prioritized stronger trading ties with the Portuguese. To compensate Zeeland and save face he demanded eight million guilders from Portugal. The Portuguese, however, refused to return

6716-457: The seas would allow it to compete. The Portuguese had a century head start in the region and their empire allowed them access to converted and loyal local populations, which shored up inland, what naval power could not ensure at sea. Hence, the Dutch directed their efforts to the periphery of the Portuguese Empire. Avoiding the Indian coasts, they set up their own headquarters in Southeast Asia , in

6808-513: The seat of Portuguese viceroys, head of all Portuguese possessions east of the Cape of Good Hope and connected India with Portugal proper; Hormuz was a Portuguese protectorate, and the keystone of the Persian Gulf trade between Persia , Arabia, Mesopotamia , and rest of Asia and Africa. Malacca connected Goa to the Indian Ocean trade via Cape Comorin and Ceylon ; and Macau was the hub for

6900-513: The service of the Portuguese, published a travel report in Amsterdam , the "Reys-gheschrift vande navigatien der Portugaloysers in Orienten" ("Report of a journey through the navigations of the Portuguese in the East"). The published report included vast directions on how to navigate ships between Portugal and the East Indies and to Japan. Dutch and British interest fed by new information led to

6992-735: The ships out of the Malacca route often laid anchor because they connected the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea ; the Malacca fleet patrolled the Singapore Strait and the routes diverted to Celebes and what is now Indonesia at large in the south, and northwards to China and Japan ; China provided silk and china to Macau from where the "Silver Carrack" connected to Japan where several products were exchanged for Japanese silver. At dawn on 25 February 1603, three ships of

7084-473: The spice trade. In 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca for Portugal, then the center of Asian trade. East of Malacca, Albuquerque sent several diplomatic and exploratory missions, including to the Moluccas. Learning the secret location of the Spice Islands , mainly the Banda Islands, then the world source of nutmeg, he sent an expedition led by António de Abreu to Banda, where they were

7176-587: The spice trade. They include bananas , Pacific domesticated coconuts , Dioscorea yams, wetland rice, sandalwood , giant taro , Polynesian arrowroot , ginger , lengkuas , tailed pepper , betel , areca nut , and sugarcane . Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons, entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economies by estate management, craftsmanship, and promotion of trading activities. Buddhism , in particular, traveled alongside

7268-492: The trade along the many spice routes. In 1571 the Spanish opened the first trans-Pacific route between its territories of the Philippines and Mexico, served by the Manila Galleon . This trade route lasted until 1815. The Portuguese trade routes were mainly restricted and limited by the use of ancient routes, ports, and nations that were difficult to dominate. The Dutch were later able to bypass many of these problems by pioneering

7360-595: The trade routes stretching from the South China Sea to the Sea of Japan and to the Spice Islands, east of New Guinea in Melanesia . The other locations were important but not crucial: including Diu along with Bombay (until the English acquisition ). These Indian cities controlled the approaches to the smaller Gulf of Cambay and to the larger Arabian Sea as well. If both Diu and Hormuz would fall, that would prevent

7452-572: The trade. The colonial pepper trade drastically changed the experience of modernity in Europe, and in Kerala and it brought, along with colonialism, early capitalism to India's Malabar Coast, changing cultures of work and caste. Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, notably present day Malaysia and Indonesia , where spice mixtures and black pepper became popular. Conversely, Southeast Asian cuisine and crops

7544-465: The war involved more and more Indian kingdoms and principalities as the Dutch capitalized on local resentment of Portuguese conquests in the early 16th century. After the fall of Qeshm and Hormuz to the Persians and English, the Portuguese struck out of their Muscat and Goa bases, which led to a destructive campaign against Persia's coastline and an alliance with Ottoman Basra . Eventually, after

7636-601: The war, ensured that Portuguese settlers came to resent the authority of the new Dutch administration. In 1645, most of Dutch Brazil revolted under the leadership of mulatto landowner João Fernandes Vieira, who proclaimed himself loyal to the Portuguese Crown. GWC forces were defeated at the Battle of Tabocas , virtually confining the Dutch to the fortified urban perimeters of coastal cities, defended by contingents of German and Flemish mercenaries. Still in that year,

7728-540: The western Indian Ocean maritime routes. Arab traders eventually took over conveying goods via the Levant and Venetian merchants to Europe until the rise of the Seljuk Turks in 1090. Later the Ottoman Turks held the route again by 1453 respectively. Overland routes helped the spice trade initially, but maritime trade routes led to tremendous growth in commercial activities to Europe. The trade

7820-530: Was Portugal, which had, since the early 15th century, begun to explore northern Africa under Henry the Navigator . Emboldened by these early successes and eyeing a lucrative monopoly on a possible sea route to the Indies , the Portuguese first rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 on an expedition led by Bartolomeu Dias . Just nine years later in 1497, on the orders of Manuel I of Portugal , four vessels under

7912-629: Was a network of key cities which controlled the maritime trade in the Indian Ocean: Sofala was the base for Portuguese operations in East Africa and was supported by Kilwa to better control the Mozambique Channel ; from here, the routes took the trade to Goa which was the hub for the rest of the operations and where the India convoy ships out of Europe arrived; from Goa, going northwards, the trade would be protected by

8004-542: Was also introduced to India and Sri Lanka, where rice cakes and coconut milk -based dishes are still dominant. European people intermarried with Indians and popularized valuable culinary skills , such as baking , in India. Indian food, adapted to the European palate, became visible in England by 1811 as exclusive establishments began catering to the tastes of both the curious and those returning from India. Opium

8096-681: Was battling the Dutch Revolt . Prior to the union of the Portuguese and Spanish Crowns, Portuguese merchants used the Low Countries as a base for the sale of their spices in Northern Europe . After the Spaniards gained control of the Portuguese Empire though, they declared an embargo on all trade with the rebellious provinces (see Union of Utrecht ). In his efforts to subdue the rebelling provinces, Philip II cut off

8188-520: Was captured from the Portuguese in 1605, but an attack on Malacca, the Battle of Cape Rachado , the following year narrowly failed in its objective to provide a more strategically located base in the East Indies with favorable monsoon winds. In 1607 and 1608 , the Dutch twice failed to subdue the Portuguese stronghold on the Island of Mozambique , due to the close cooperation between the locals and

8280-578: Was changed by the Crusades and later the European Age of Discovery , during which the spice trade, particularly in black pepper , became an influential activity for European traders. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, the Italian maritime republics of Venice and Genoa monopolized the trade between Europe and Asia. The Cape Route from Europe to the Indian Ocean via the Cape of Good Hope

8372-571: Was in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean . The sea route in the Red Sea was from Bab-el-Mandeb to Berenike , from there by land to the Nile , and then by boats to Alexandria . Luxury goods including Indian spices, ebony , silk and fine textiles were traded along the overland incense route . In the second half of the first millennium BC the Arab tribes of South and West Arabia took control over

8464-555: Was pioneered by the Portuguese explorer navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498, resulting in new maritime routes for trade. This trade, which drove world trade from the end of the Middle Ages well into the Renaissance , ushered in an age of European domination in the East. Channels such as the Bay of Bengal served as bridges for cultural and commercial exchanges between diverse cultures as nations struggled to gain control of

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