108-627: Dulles may refer to: John Foster Dulles (1888–1959), United States Secretary of State from 1953 to 1959 Dulles International Airport , major airport in Northern Virginia in the Washington, D.C. area, named after John Foster Dulles Dulles, Virginia , community named after the airport Dulles High School (Sugar Land, Texas) , public high school named after John Foster Dulles Allen Dulles (1893–1969), former head of
216-519: A Protestant of British origins who spoke the language. Together, they worked primarily to secure the partition of the Habsburg monarchy . At the conference, Italy gained Istria , Trieste , Trentino , and South Tyrol . Most of Dalmatia was given to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Fiume remained disputed territory, causing a nationalist outrage. Orlando obtained other results, such as
324-605: A U.S. senator for New York. Dulles served for four months before his defeat in a special election . Despite having supported his political opponents, Dulles became a special advisor to president Harry S. Truman , with a focus on the Indo-Pacific region. In this role from 1950 to 1952, he became the primary architect of the Treaty of San Francisco , which ended World War II in Asia, the U.S.–Japan Security Treaty , which established
432-480: A budget deficit of 12,000,000,000 Italian lire during the war made both the government and people feel entitled to all of those territories and even others not mentioned in the Treaty of London, particularly Fiume, which many Italians believed should be annexed to Italy because of the city's Italian population. Orlando, unable to speak English, conducted negotiations jointly with his Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino ,
540-488: A far larger proportion of its men than the 50,000 American men lost, it had at least the right to the representation of a "minor" power. Lloyd George eventually relented and persuaded the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada, India , Australia, Newfoundland , New Zealand, and South Africa, and that those countries receive their seats in the League of Nations. Canada, despite its huge losses in
648-580: A former United States Congressman and Speaker of the House of Representatives. They had two sons and a daughter. Their older son John W. F. Dulles (1913–2008) was a professor of history and specialist in Brazil at the University of Texas at Austin . Their daughter Lillias Dulles Hinshaw (1914–1987) became a Presbyterian minister. Their son Avery Dulles (1918–2008) converted to Roman Catholicism , entered
756-518: A group of about 150 academics to research topics likely to arise in diplomatic talks on the European stage, and to develop a set of principles to be used for the peace negotiations in order to end World War I . The results of this research were summarized in the so called Fourteen Points document that became the basis for the terms of the German surrender during the conference, as it had earlier been
864-499: A hope to establish a more liberal and diplomatic world as stated in the Fourteen Points, in which democracy, sovereignty, liberty and self-determination would be respected. France and Britain, on the other hand, already controlled empires through which they wielded power over their subjects around the world, and aspired to maintain and expand their colonial power rather than relinquish it. Various people, both in Washington and
972-722: A joint interest in opposing "Anglo-Saxon domination" of the world, and he warned that the "deepening of opposition" between the French and the Germans "would lead to the ruin of both countries, to the advantage of the Anglo-Saxon powers." The Germans rejected Massigli's offers because they believed that the intention was to trick them into accepting the Treaty of Versailles unchanged; also, the German Foreign Minister, Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau , thought that
1080-534: A junior diplomat. While some recollections indicate he clearly and forcefully argued against imposing crushing reparations on Germany, other recollections indicate he ensured Germany's reparation payments would extend for decades as perceived leverage militating against future German-born hostilities. Afterwards, he served as a member of the War Reparations Committee at Wilson's request. He was also an early member, along with Eleanor Roosevelt , of
1188-691: A letter to Clemenceau, the conference chairman, was not answered. Britain had been planning to renege on the Government of Ireland Act 1914 and instead to replace it with a new Government of Ireland Bill which would partition Ireland into two Irish Home Rule states (which eventually was passed as the Government of Ireland Act 1920). The planned two states would both be within the United Kingdom and so neither would have dominion status. David Lloyd George commented that he did "not do badly" at
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#17327660875781296-414: A mutual defense treaty with France, but he did not present it to his country's government for ratification and so it never took effect. Another possible French policy was to seek a rapprochement with Germany. In May 1919 the diplomat René Massigli was sent on several secret missions to Berlin . During his visits, he offered, on behalf of his government, to revise the territorial and economic clauses of
1404-608: A proclamation suspending diplomatic relations with Germany. In Panama, Dulles offered waiver of the tax imposed by the United States on the annual Canal fee, in exchange for a Panamanian declaration of war on Germany. In 1918, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Dulles as legal counsel to the United States delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference , where he served under his uncle, Secretary of State Robert Lansing. Dulles made an early impression as
1512-533: A section of Firestone Library is dedicated to Dulles, named the John Foster Dulles Library of Diplomatic History, which houses, among many American diplomatic documents and books, the personal documents of John Foster Dulles. The library was built in 1962. This quote is sometimes misattributed to Dulles: "The United States of America does not have friends; it has interests." The words were spoken by President Charles de Gaulle of France, and
1620-469: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages John Foster Dulles John Foster Dulles (February 25, 1888 – May 24, 1959) was an American politician, lawyer, and diplomat who served as United States secretary of state under president Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 until his resignation in 1959. A member of the Republican Party , he
1728-462: Is often sometimes considered by historians to be one of the direct causes of Nazi Party 's electoral successes and one of the indirect causes of World War II . The League of Nations proved controversial in the United States since critics said it subverted the powers of the US Congress to declare war. The US Senate did not ratify any of the peace treaties and so the United States never joined
1836-680: The 1954 Geneva Conference . In 1959, suffering from cancer, Dulles resigned from office and died shortly after. Dulles was born in Washington, D.C. , eldest of five children of Presbyterian minister Allen Macy Dulles and his wife, Edith (née Foster). His paternal grandfather, John Welsh Dulles , had been a Presbyterian missionary in India. His maternal grandfather, John W. Foster , had been Secretary of State under Benjamin Harrison , and doted on Dulles and his brother Allen, who would later become
1944-457: The American atomic attacks on Japan . In the immediate aftermath of the bombings, he drafted a public statement that called for international control of nuclear energy under United Nations auspices. He wrote: If we, as a professedly Christian nation, feel morally free to use atomic energy in that way, men elsewhere will accept that verdict. Atomic weapons will be looked upon as a normal part of
2052-649: The British dominions , with Australia taking particular exception, became a major point of contention within the delegation. Ultimately, the British delegation did not treat that proposal as a fundamental aim of the conference; they were willing to sacrifice the Racial Equality Proposal to placate the Australian delegation and thus help to satisfy their overarching aim of preserving the unity of
2160-532: The Democratic administration of Harry S. Truman , whose foreign policy Dulles criticized and instead advocated a policy of "liberation." Despite being a prominent Republican and having been a close advisor to Truman's opponent Dewey, Dulles became a trusted advisor of Harry Truman, especially on the issue of what to do with Japan, which was still under U.S. military occupation . In his role as an external "consultant" to Truman's State Department, Dulles became
2268-873: The Jesuit order, and became the first American theologian to be appointed a Cardinal . Dulles served as the chairman and cofounder of the Commission on a Just and Durable Peace of the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America (later the National Council of Churches ), the chairman of the board for the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace , and a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation from 1935 to 1952. Dulles
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#17327660875782376-690: The League of Free Nations Association , founded in 1918, and after 1923 known as the Foreign Policy Association, which supported American membership in the League of Nations . As a partner in Sullivan & Cromwell, Dulles expanded upon his late grandfather Foster's expertise, specializing in international finance. He played a major role in designing the Dawes Plan , which reduced German reparations payments and temporarily resolved
2484-749: The Non-Aligned Movement . Throughout the 1950s, Dulles was in frequent conflict with non-aligned statesmen who he deemed were too sympathetic to communism, including India's V. K. Krishna Menon . One of his first major policy shifts towards a more aggressive position against communism occurred in March 1953, when Dulles supported Eisenhower's decision to direct the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), then headed by his brother Allen Dulles, to draft plans to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh of Iran. That led directly to
2592-710: The Ottoman Empire was not a topic in the 1918 general election . There was an indecision among British decision makers over defanging and demobilizing the Ottoman army, the fate to be assigned to leading Committee of Union and Progress members, and the future of the Turkish straits. Per Taner Akçam , the considerations of British envoys to Versailles were: A strong Greece, Armenia, and fortified Palestine were all reflections of this sentiment. The dominion governments were not originally given separate invitations to
2700-694: The Pacific Islands south of the Equator . Despite a generally pro-Chinese view by the American delegation, Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles transferred German concessions in the Jiaozhou Bay , China, to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to China. The leader of the Chinese delegation, Lu Zhengxiang , demanded a reservation be inserted, before he would sign the treaty. After
2808-704: The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization , an anti-communist defensive alliance between the U.S. and several nations in and near Southeast Asia. He also helped instigate the 1953 Iranian coup d'état and the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état . Dulles advocated support of the French in their war against the Viet Minh in Indochina , but rejected the Geneva Accords between France and the communists, instead supporting South Vietnam after
2916-648: The Tyrol as far as Brenner , Trieste , Istria , most of the Dalmatian Coast (except Fiume ), Valona , a protectorate over Albania , Antalya (in Turkey), and possibly colonies in Africa. Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando tried to obtain full implementation of the Treaty of London, as agreed by France and Britain before the war. He had popular support because of the loss of 700,000 soldiers and
3024-457: The U.S.–Japan Alliance , and the ANZUS security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In 1953, President Eisenhower chose Dulles as secretary of state. Throughout his tenure, Dulles favored a strategy of massive retaliation in response to Soviet aggression and concentrated on building and strengthening Cold War alliances , most prominently NATO . He was the architect of
3132-717: The United Fruit Company as a lawyer. Thomas Dudley Cabot, former CEO of United Fruit, held the position of Director of International Security Affairs in the State Department. John Moore Cabot, a brother of Thomas Dudley Cabot, was secretary of Inter-American Affairs during much of the coup planning in 1953 and 1954. In November 1956, Dulles strongly opposed the Anglo-French invasion of the Suez Canal zone in response to Egypt's nationalization of
3240-510: The War Industries Board . Dulles later returned to Sullivan & Cromwell and became a partner with an international practice. In 1917, Dulles’ uncle, Robert Lansing , the then-Secretary of State, recruited him to travel to Central America. Dulles advised Washington to support Costa Rica's dictator, Federico Tinoco , on the grounds that he was anti-German, and also encouraged Nicaragua's dictator, Emiliano Chamorro , to issue
3348-461: The director of central intelligence from 1953 to 1961. Dulles served on the War Industries Board during World War I and he was a U.S. legal counsel at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference . He became a member of the League of Free Nations Association , which supported American membership in the League of Nations . Dulles also helped design the Dawes Plan , which sought to stabilize Europe by reducing German war reparations . During World War II, Dulles
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3456-634: The "containment" policy of neutralizing the Taiwan Strait during the Korean War . Later, at Geneva, Dulles objected to any proposals by China and the Soviet Union for a diplomatic reunification of Korea , thus leaving the Korean conflict unresolved. In 1954, Dulles designed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), providing for collective action against aggression. The treaty
3564-449: The 1953 death of Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson , President Eisenhower considered appointing Dulles in his place. In his later life Eisenhower is said to have considered only two men for the job: Dulles and eventual nominee Earl Warren . The Evening Star in fact initially viewed Dulles as the third most likely candidate after Warren and Thomas E. Dewey, while some Republican insiders at the time of Vinson's death actually thought Dulles
3672-577: The Big Four, Paris was effectively the center of a world government during the conference, which deliberated over and implemented the sweeping changes to the political geography of Europe . Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened the German military and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on Germany's shoulders, and the later humiliation and resentment in Germany
3780-538: The Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920, with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations . Five major peace treaties were prepared at the Paris Peace Conference, with, in parentheses, the affected countries: The major decisions were the establishment of the League of Nations ; the five peace treaties with defeated enemies; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates" , chiefly to members of
3888-502: The British Empire and to France; reparations imposed on Germany; and the drawing of new national boundaries, sometimes with plebiscites, to better reflect the forces of nationalism. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles , with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on "the aggression of Germany and her allies". This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany
3996-410: The British Empire. Britain had reluctantly consented to the attendance of separate delegations from British dominions, but the British managed to rebuff attempts by the envoys of the newly proclaimed Irish Republic to put a case to the conference for Irish self-determination , diplomatic recognition, and membership in the proposed League of Nations. The Irish envoys' final "Demand for Recognition" in
4104-657: The British, led by David Lloyd George , in their treatment of Germany and its allies in Europe and the former Ottoman Empire in the Middle East . Wilson's attempts to gain acceptance of his Fourteen Points ultimately failed; France and Britain each refused to adopt specific points as well as certain core principles. Several of the Fourteen Points conflicted with the desires of European powers. The United States did not consider it fair or warranted that Article 231 of
4212-617: The Central Intelligence Agency, brother of John Foster Dulles Eleanor Lansing Dulles (1895–1996), economist and diplomat, sister of Allen and John Foster Dulles Foster Rhea Dulles (1900–1970), American journalist and historian, cousin of John Foster Dulles John Welsh Dulles (1823–1887), Presbyterian minister and author, grandfather of John Foster Dulles John W. F. Dulles (1913–2008), scholar of Brazilian history, son of John Foster Dulles Avery Dulles (1918–2008), cardinal of
4320-455: The Chinese patriotic student group. In 1914, at the outset of the war, Japan seized the territory that had been granted to Germany in 1897 and seized the German islands in the Pacific north of the equator . In 1917, Japan made secret agreements with Britain, France, and Italy to guarantee their annexation of these territories. With Britain, there was an agreement to support British annexation of
4428-435: The League to administer all German colonies until they were ready for independence. Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions and so he proposed a compromise: there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category and would be divided up between Britain and France. The second category, of New Guinea, Samoa, and South West Africa, were located so close to responsible supervisors that
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4536-724: The League's Covenant and Japanese territorial claims with respect to former German colonies: Shantung (including Kiaochow ) and the Pacific islands north of the Equator, the Marshall Islands , Micronesia , the Mariana Islands , and the Carolines . The former Foreign Minister Baron Makino Nobuaki was de facto chief. Saionji's role was symbolic and limited because of his history of ill-health. The Japanese delegation became unhappy after it had received only half of
4644-423: The League, equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality. The clause quickly proved problematic to both the American and British delegations. Though the proposal itself was compatible with Britain's stance of nominal equality for all British subjects as a principle for maintaining imperial unity, there were significant deviations in
4752-457: The League. Instead, the 1921–1923 Harding administration concluded new treaties with Germany , Austria , and Hungary . The German Weimar Republic was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia but not Communist Russia were at the conference. Numerous other nations sent delegations to appeal for various unsuccessful additions to the treaties, and parties lobbied for causes ranging from independence for
4860-766: The Quai d'Orsay in Paris. This date was symbolic, as it was the anniversary of the proclamation of William I as German Emperor in 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles , shortly before the end of the Siege of Paris – a day itself imbued with significance in Germany, as the anniversary of the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. The Delegates from 27 nations (delegates representing 5 nationalities were for
4968-777: The Republican plank calling for the establishment of a Jewish commonwealth in The British Mandate for Palestine. In 1945, Dulles participated in the San Francisco Conference as an adviser to Arthur H. Vandenberg and helped draft the preamble to the United Nations Charter . He attended the United Nations General Assembly as a United States delegate in 1946, 1947, and 1950. Dulles strongly opposed
5076-602: The Roman Catholic Church, son of John Foster Dulles See also [ edit ] Dalles (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Dulles . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dulles&oldid=1228367401 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description
5184-407: The Second World War, Dulles engaged in Post-War Planning under the auspices of the Federal Council of Churches Commission on a Just and Durable Peace. Appointed in December 1940 at the behest of the theologian Henry P. Van Dusen, Dulles developed a vision of post-war order underpinned by a federal world government, taking inspiration from the ecumenical ideology of liberal Mainline Protestantism and
5292-417: The Treaty of Versailles declared Germany solely responsible for the war. (The United States did not sign peace treaties with the Central Powers until 1921 under President Warren Harding , when separate documents were signed with Germany, Austria, and Hungary respectively.) In the Middle East, negotiations were complicated by competing aims and claims, and the new mandate system. The United States expressed
5400-399: The U.S., and Japan, controlled the Conference. Amongst the "Big Five", in practice Japan only sent a former prime minister and played a small role; and the " Big Four " leaders dominated the conference. The four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which were then ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the delegations approved the decisions made by
5508-441: The United States Senate to replace the Democratic incumbent Robert F. Wagner, who had resigned for ill health. Dulles served from July 7 to November 8, 1949. He lost the 1949 special election to finish the term to Democratic nominee Herbert H. Lehman . In 1950, Dulles published War or Peace , a critical analysis of the American policy of containment , which was favored by the foreign policy elite in Washington, particularly in
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#17327660875785616-519: The United States to attempt to co-operate with the French in the aid of strengthening Diem's army. Over time, Dulles concluded that he had to "ease France out of Vietnam." In 1954, at the height of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu , Dulles helped plan and promote Operation Vulture , a proposed B-29 aerial assault on the communist Viet Minh siege positions to relieve the beleaguered French Army. President Eisenhower made American participation reliant on British support, but Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony Eden
5724-401: The United States was more likely to reduce the severity of the penalties than France was. (Lloyd George was the one who eventually pushed for better terms for Germany.) In 1914, Italy remained neutral despite the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1915, it joined the Allies to gain the territories promised by the Triple Entente in the secret Treaty of London : Trentino ,
5832-425: The United States' experiences with federalism. In essence, Dulles sought to persuade allied war leaders to work toward reviving a more robust League of Nations. The core elements of this vision were spelled out in March 1943 with the publication of the book Six Pillars of Peace . Dulles was largely unsuccessful in persuading Franklin Delano Roosevelt to embrace such a radical platform, as the United States would issue
5940-399: The arsenal of war and the stage will be set for the sudden and final destruction of mankind. Dulles never lost his anxiety about the destructive power of nuclear weapons, but his views on international control and on employing the threat of atomic attack changed in the face of the Berlin blockade, the Soviet detonation of an atomic bomb, and the advent of the Korean War. They convinced him that
6048-428: The basis of the German government's negotiations in the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The main result of the conference was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany; Article 231 of that treaty placed the whole guilt for the war on "the aggression of Germany and her allies". That provision proved very humiliating for German leaders, armies and citizens alike, and set the stage for the expensive reparations that Germany
6156-448: The canal . During the most crucial days, Dulles was hospitalized after surgery and did not participate in the U.S. administration's decision making. By 1958, he had become an outspoken opponent of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and prevented Nasser's government from receiving arms from the United States. That policy allowed the Soviet Union to gain influence in Egypt. Both his grandfather, Foster, and his uncle, Robert Lansing ,
6264-480: The cancer's recurrence became evident. After recuperating in Florida, Dulles returned to Washington for work and radiation therapy. With further declining health and evidence of bone metastasis , he resigned from office on April 15, 1959. Dulles died at Walter Reed on May 24, 1959, at the age of 71. Funeral services were held in Washington National Cathedral on May 27, 1959, and he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery , in Arlington County, Virginia . Dulles
6372-412: The colonies that they wanted. Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the Equator . Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States, but his main advisor, Colonel House , was deeply involved in awarding the others. Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands and had some memorable clashes with Hughes (the Australian Prime Minister), this the most famous: The maintenance of
6480-436: The communist bloc was pursuing expansionist policies. In the late 1940s, as a general conceptual framework for contending with world communism, Dulles developed the policy known as rollback to serve as the Republican Party's alternative to the Democrats' containment model. It proposed taking the offensive to push communism back, rather than to contain it within its areas of control and influence. Dewey appointed Dulles to
6588-480: The conference and had been expected to send representatives as part of the British delegation. Convinced that Canada had become a nation on the battlefields of Europe, Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden demanded that it have a separate seat at the conference. That was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw any Dominion delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men,
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#17327660875786696-424: The conference's plan to partition the country of Vietnam and hold elections for a unified government, insisting that the anti-communist State of Vietnam should remain the legitimate Vietnamese government. He subsequently left to avoid direct association with the negotiations; Dulles's exit contributed to the Geneva Conference's failure to resolve the conflict in Vietnam. As Secretary of State, Dulles carried out
6804-406: The continuing Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy in the international Christian Churches over the literal interpretation of Scripture against the newly developed "Historical-Critical" method including recent scientific and archeological discoveries. The case was settled when Fosdick, a liberal Baptist, resigned his pulpit in the Presbyterian Church congregation, which he had never joined. During
6912-494: The countries of the South Caucasus to Japan's unsuccessful proposal for racial equality to the other great powers . A central issue of the conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany (Austria-Hungary did not have major colonies, and the Ottoman Empire was a separate issue). The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice. Australia wanted New Guinea , New Zealand wanted Samoa , and South Africa wanted South West Africa . Wilson wanted
7020-400: The coup d'état via Operation Ajax in support of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , who regained his position as the Shah of Iran . During the First Indochina War , Dulles stated that he expected a French victory against the communist Viet Minh forces, stating, "I do not expect that there is going to be a communist victory in Indochina". Dulles worked to reduce French influence in Vietnam and asked
7128-534: The creation of the League of Nations and the five peace treaties with the defeated states. Main arrangements agreed upon in the treaties were, among others, the transition of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as " mandates " from the hands of these countries chiefly into the hands of Britain and France; the imposition of reparations upon Germany ; and the drawing of new national boundaries, sometimes involving plebiscites , to reflect ethnic boundaries more closely. US President Woodrow Wilson in 1917 commissioned
7236-448: The director of the Central Intelligence Agency . The brothers grew up in Watertown, New York and spent summers with their maternal grandfather in nearby Henderson Harbor . The brothers were also homeschooled , as their parents distrusted public education. Dulles attended Princeton University and graduated as a member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1908. At Princeton, Dulles competed on the American Whig-Cliosophic Society debate team and
7344-399: The great historic and contemporary states. This is, for me, our main and principal expansion." Japan sent a large delegation, headed by the former Prime Minister, Marquis Saionji Kinmochi . It was originally one of the "big five" but relinquished that role because of its slight interest in European affairs. Instead, it focused on two demands: the inclusion of its Racial Equality Proposal in
7452-411: The heart in public." 1919 Paris Peace Conference The Paris Peace Conference was a set of formal and informal diplomatic meetings in 1919 and 1920 after the end of World War I , in which the victorious Allies set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers . Dominated by the leaders of Britain, France, the United States and Italy, the conference resulted in five treaties that rearranged
7560-492: The husband of Eleanor Foster, had held the position of Secretary of State. His younger brother, Allen Welsh Dulles , served as Director of Central Intelligence under Dwight D. Eisenhower , and his younger sister Eleanor Lansing Dulles was noted for her work in the successful reconstruction of the economy of post-war Europe during her twenty years with the State Department . On June 26, 1912, Dulles married Janet Pomeroy Avery (1891–1969), granddaughter of Theodore M. Pomeroy ,
7668-432: The key architect of the 1952 San Francisco Peace Treaty which ended the U.S. occupation of Japan , as well as the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty , which ensured that Japan would remain firmly in the U.S. camp in the Cold War and allowed the continuing maintenance of U.S. military bases on Japanese soil. In 1951, Dulles also helped initiate the ANZUS Treaty for mutual protection with Australia and New Zealand. Following
7776-499: The mandates could hardly be given to anyone except Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Finally, the African colonies would need the careful supervision as "Class B" mandates, which could be provided only by experienced colonial powers: Britain, France, and Belgium although Italy and Portugal received small amounts of territory. Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received " Class C Mandates " to
7884-573: The maps of Europe and parts of Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands, and also imposed financial penalties. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and the other losing nations were not given a voice in the deliberations; this later gave rise to political resentments that lasted for decades. The arrangements made by this conference are considered one of the great watersheds of 20th-century geopolitical history. The conference involved diplomats from 32 countries and nationalities . Its major decisions were
7992-559: The misquotation may be attributed to Dulles's visit to Mexico in 1958, where anti-American protesters carried signs bearing de Gaulle's quote. Dulles was named Time magazine 's Man of the Year for 1954. Entertainer Carol Burnett rose to prominence in 1957 singing a novelty song, "I Made a Fool of Myself Over John Foster Dulles". When asked about the song on Meet the Press , Dulles responded with good humor: "I never discuss matters of
8100-523: The more moderate Moscow Declaration , but his work helped to build widespread consensus about the need for a United Nations. Dulles was a prominent Republican and a close associate of Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, who became the Republican presidential nominee in the elections of 1944 and 1948 . During the 1944 and the 1948 campaigns, Dulles served as Dewey's chief foreign policy adviser. In 1944, Dulles took an active role in establishing
8208-468: The most part ignored) were assigned to 52 commissions, which held 1,646 sessions to prepare reports, with the help of many experts, on topics ranging from prisoners of war to undersea cables, to international aviation, to responsibility for the war. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which had 15 chapters and 440 clauses, as well as treaties for the other defeated nations. The five major powers, France, Britain, Italy,
8316-459: The peace conference "considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon ." This was a reference to the great idealism of Wilson, who desired merely to punish Germany, and the stark realism of Clemenceau, who was determined to see Germany effectively destroyed. Like the other main Allied powers, the British public was more inclined to punish Germany and Austria. Britain's relationship with
8424-538: The permanent membership of Italy in the League of Nations and the promise by the Allies to transfer British Jubaland and the French Aozou strip to Italian colonies. Protectorates over Albania and Antalya were also recognized, but nationalists considered the war to be a mutilated victory , and Orlando was ultimately forced to abandon the conference and to resign. Francesco Saverio Nitti took his place and signed
8532-401: The postwar era. In doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States towards interventionism , a move that has been strongly resisted in some United States circles ever since. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found "rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged." He worked mostly at trying to influence both the French, led by Georges Clemenceau , and
8640-619: The renegotiation of a revised version of the U.S.–Japan Security Treaty , which was eventually ratified in 1960, after his death. The same year, Dulles participated in the instigation of a military coup by the Guatemalan army through the CIA by claiming that the democratically elected Guatemalan President Jacobo Árbenz 's government and the Guatemalan Revolution were veering toward communism. Dulles had previously represented
8748-675: The reparations issue by having American firms lend money to German states and private companies. Under that compromise, the money was invested and the profits sent as reparations to Britain and France, which used the funds to repay their own war loans from the U.S. In the 1920s Dulles was involved in setting up a billion dollars' worth of these loans. After the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , Dulles's previous practice brokering and documenting international loans ended. After 1931 Germany stopped making some of its scheduled payments. In 1934 Germany unilaterally stopped payments on private debts of
8856-595: The reservation was denied, the treaty was signed by all the delegations except that of China. Chinese outrage over that provision led to demonstrations known as the May Fourth Movement . The Pacific Islands north of the equator became a class C mandate, administered by Japan. Until Wilson's arrival in Europe in December 1918, no sitting American president had ever visited the continent. Wilson's 1918 Fourteen Points had helped win many hearts and minds as
8964-668: The rights of Germany, and it then walked out of the conference. During the negotiations, the leader of the Japanese delegation, Saionji Kinmochi, proposed the inclusion of a " racial equality clause " in the Covenant of the League of Nations on 13 February as an amendment to Article 21: The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of
9072-551: The senior statesmen stopped working personally on the conference in June 1919, the formal peace process did not really end until July 1923, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed." The entire process is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference", although only the signing of the first treaty took place in the historic palace; the negotiations occurred at the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. The Conference formally opened on 18 January 1919 at
9180-542: The sort that Dulles was handling. After the Nazi Party came to power, Dulles expressed sympathies for Adolf Hitler , requiring his legal staff in Berlin to sign "Heil Hitler" on all of Sullivan & Cromwell's outgoing mail; fearful of the optics, Sullivan & Cromwell's junior partners forced Dulles to cut all business ties with Germany in 1935. Nonetheless, Dulles and his wife continued to visit Germany until 1939. He
9288-400: The stated interests of its dominions , notably Australia and South Africa . Though both dominions could not vote on the decision individually, they were strongly opposed to the clause and pressured Britain to do likewise. Ultimately, the British delegation succumbed to imperial pressure and abstained from voting for the clause. Meanwhile, though Wilson was indifferent to the clause, there
9396-666: The street (Dulles Avenue) where the school campuses are located), were named in his honor, as is John Foster Dulles Elementary School in Cincinnati , Ohio, and a school in Chicago, Illinois. New York named the Dulles State Office Building in Watertown, New York in his honor. In 1960 the U.S. Post Office Department issued a commemorative stamp honoring Dulles. At Princeton University, Dulles's alma mater,
9504-464: The treaties. There was a general disappointment in Italy, which the nationalists and fascists used to build the idea that Italy was betrayed by the Allies and refused what had been promised. That was a cause for the general rise of Italian fascism. Orlando refused to see the war as a mutilated victory and replied to nationalists calling for a greater expansion, "Italy today is a great state... on par with
9612-409: The unity, territories, and interests of the British Empire was an overarching concern for the British delegates to the conference. Still, they entered the conference with more specific goals with this order of priority: The Racial Equality Proposal put forth by the Japanese did not directly conflict with any core British interest, but as the conference progressed, its full implications on immigration to
9720-469: The upcoming peace treaty. Massigli spoke of the desirability of "practical, verbal discussions" between French and German officials that would lead to a "Franco-German collaboration." Massigli told the Germans that the French thought of the "Anglo-Saxon powers" (the United States and the British Empire) as the major threat to France in the post-war world. He argued that both France and Germany had
9828-472: The verge without getting into the war is the necessary art." Dulles's hard line alienated many leaders of non-aligned countries when on June 9, 1955, he argued in a speech that "neutrality has increasingly become obsolete and, except under very exceptional circumstances, it is an immoral and shortsighted conception." In a June 1956 speech in Iowa, Dulles declared non-alignment to be "immoral", further castigating
9936-502: The war ended, not only in America but all over Europe, including Germany, as well as its allies in and the former subjects of the Ottoman Empire . Wilson's diplomacy and his Fourteen Points had essentially established the conditions for the armistices that had brought an end to World War I. Wilson felt it to be his duty and obligation to the people of the world to be a prominent figure at the peace negotiations. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for
10044-412: The war, did not ask for either reparations or mandates. The Australian delegation, led by Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes fought greatly for its demands: reparations, the annexation of German New Guinea , and the rejection of the Racial Equality Proposal. He said that he had no objection to the proposal if it was stated in unambiguous terms that it did not confer any right to enter Australia. He
10152-652: Was a member of University Cottage Club . He then attended the George Washington University Law School in Washington, D.C. Upon passing the bar examination, Dulles joined the New York City law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell , where he specialized in international law . After US entry into World War I, Dulles tried to join the Army, but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Instead, Dulles received an army commission as major on
10260-608: Was also a founding member of Foreign Policy Association and Council on Foreign Relations . Dulles developed colon cancer , for which he was first operated on in November 1956 when it had caused a bowel perforation . He experienced abdominal pain at the end of 1958 and was hospitalized with a diagnosis of diverticulitis . In January 1959, Dulles returned to work, but with more pain and declining health underwent abdominal surgery in February at Walter Reed Army Medical Center when
10368-563: Was appointed and confirmed as his Secretary of State. His tenure as Secretary was marked by conflict with communist governments worldwide, especially the Soviet Union ; Dulles strongly opposed communism, calling it "Godless terrorism." Dulles's preferred strategy was containment through military build-up and the formation of alliances (dubbed " pactomania "). Dulles was a pioneer of the strategies of massive retaliation and brinkmanship . In an article written for Life magazine, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship: "The ability to get to
10476-506: Was briefly a U.S. senator from New York in 1949. Dulles was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, who advocated an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world. Born in Washington, D.C., Dulles joined the leading New York law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell after graduating from George Washington University Law School . His grandfather, John W. Foster , and his uncle, Robert Lansing , both served as U.S. secretary of state, while his brother, Allen Dulles , served as
10584-538: Was concerned by the increasing power of Japan. Within months of the declaration of war in 1914, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand had seized all of Germany's possessions in the Far East and the Pacific Ocean . The British had given their blessing for Japan to occupy German possessions, but Hughes was alarmed by that policy. French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau controlled his delegation, and his chief goal
10692-538: Was deeply involved in post-war planning with the Federal Council of Churches Commission on a Just and Durable Peace. Dulles served as the chief foreign policy adviser to Thomas E. Dewey , the Republican presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948 . He also helped draft the preamble to the United Nations Charter and served as a delegate to the UN General Assembly . In 1949, Dewey appointed Dulles
10800-533: Was fierce resistance to it from the American public, and he ruled as Conference chairman that a unanimous vote was required for the Japanese proposal to pass. Ultimately, on the day of the vote, only 11 of the 17 delegates voted in favor of the proposal. The defeat of the proposal influenced Japan's turn from co-operation with the Western world , into more nationalist and militarist policies and approaches. The Japanese claim to Shantung faced strong challenges from
10908-820: Was intended to pay, only a small portion of which had been delivered when it stopped paying after 1931. The five great powers at that time, France , Britain , Italy , Japan and the United States , controlled the Conference. The " Big Four " leaders were French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau , British Prime Minister David Lloyd George , US President Woodrow Wilson , and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando . Together with teams of diplomats and jurists , they met informally 145 times and agreed upon all major decisions before they were ratified. The conference began on 18 January 1919. With respect to its end, Professor Michael Neiberg noted, "Although
11016-609: Was more likely to be chosen for the post than Warren. Dulles was viewed by the press as too favourable to big business, and in Eisenhower's own memoirs as too old to potentially wield significant influence upon the Court. Besides the issue of age, Eisenhower did not want to deprive himself of Dulles's valuable contributions in the field of foreign policy. When Dwight Eisenhower succeeded Truman as president in January 1953, Dulles
11124-431: Was opposed to it and so Vulture was canceled over Dulles's objections. French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault later said that Dulles had offered him the use of atomic bombs to end the siege. At the 1954 Geneva Conference , which concerned the breakup of French Indochina , he forbade any contact with the Chinese delegation and refused to shake hands with Zhou Enlai , the lead Chinese negotiator. Dulles also opposed
11232-649: Was posthumously awarded the Medal of Freedom and the Sylvanus Thayer Award in 1959. A central West Berlin road was named John-Foster-Dulles-Allee in 1959 with a ceremony attended by Christian Herter , Dulles's successor as Secretary of State. The Washington Dulles International Airport in Dulles, Virginia and John Foster Dulles High , Middle, and Elementary Schools in Sugar Land, Texas (including
11340-465: Was prominent in the religious peace movement and an isolationist, but the junior partners were led by his brother Allen, so he reluctantly acceded to their wishes. Dulles, a deeply religious man, attended numerous international conferences of churchmen during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1924, he was the defense counsel in the church trial of Reverend Harry Emerson Fosdick , who had been charged with heresy by opponents in his denomination. The event sparked
11448-591: Was signed by representatives of Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. In 1958, Dulles authorized the Secretary of the Air Force to state publicly that the United States was prepared to use nuclear weapons in a conflict with China over the islands of Quemoy and Matsu. After having resisted revision for many years, from 1957 to 1959, Dulles oversaw
11556-401: Was supposed to pay. Germany paid only a small portion, before reparations ended in 1931. According to British historian AJP Taylor, the treaty seemed to Germans "wicked, unfair" and "dictation, a slave treaty" but one which they would repudiate at some stage if it "did not fall to pieces of its own absurdity." As the conference's decisions were enacted unilaterally and largely on the whims of
11664-573: Was to weaken Germany militarily, strategically, and economically. Having personally witnessed two German attacks on French soil in the last 40 years, he was adamant for Germany not to be permitted to attack France again. Particularly, Clemenceau sought an American and British joint guarantee of French security in the event of another German attack. Clemenceau also expressed skepticism and frustration with Wilson's Fourteen Points and complained: "Mr. Wilson bores me with his fourteen points. Why, God Almighty has only ten!" Wilson gained some favour by signing
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