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52-580: Dunay radar (Russian: Дунай , romanized : Dunay literally Danube ; NATO : Cat House, Dog House) was a system of two Soviet radars used to detect American ballistic missiles fired at Moscow . They were part of the A-35 anti-ballistic missile system . One sector of one of the radars, the Dunay-3U ("Cat House") is still operational and is run by the Russian Space Forces as part of

104-474: A 100 kW transmitter. Since 2003 the station has been operating at a reduced power of 500 kW rather than 1800 kW , with 12 transmitters (out of 24) rather than the previous maximum of 30. The radar is chirped . The radar's computer system is made up of 10 K340 computers. Romanization of Russian The romanization of the Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from

156-554: A French -speaking operator in Paris . Today, even Written Chinese can be typed very quickly using the combination of a software prediction system and by typing their sounds in Pinyin . Such prediction software even allows typing short-hand forms while producing complete characters. For example, the phrase "nǐ chī le ma" (你吃了吗) meaning "Have you eaten yet?" can be typed with just 4 strokes: "nclm". In one study of average computer users,

208-656: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): Typing User interface features such as spell checker and autocomplete serve to facilitate and speed up typing and to prevent or correct errors

260-639: A Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in the British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of

312-435: A more accurate measure of a person's typing speed without having to type for a prolonged period of time. The common conversion factor between WPM and CPM is 5. It is also used occasionally for associating the speed of a reader with the amount they have read. CPM has also been applied to 20th century printers, but modern faster printers more commonly use PPM (pages per minute). The fastest typing speed ever, 216 words per minute,

364-458: A peak speed of 212 wpm. Barbara Blackburn, who failed her QWERTY typing class in high school, first encountered the Dvorak layout in 1938 and then she quickly learned to achieve very high speeds of typing, also she occasionally toured giving speed-typing demonstrations during her secretarial career. She appeared on Late Night with David Letterman on January 24, 1985, but felt that Letterman made

416-468: A spectacle of her. The recent emergence of several competitive typing websites has allowed fast typists on computer keyboards to emerge along with new records, though many of these are unverifiable. Some notable, verified records include 255 wpm on a one-minute, random-word test by a user under the username slekap and occasionally bailey, 213 wpm on a 1-hour, random-word test by Joshua Hu, 221 wpm average on 10 random quotes by Joshua Hu, and first place in

468-417: A switch and adapted software created by Walt Woltosz. Due to a slowdown of his motor skills, his interface was upgraded with an infrared camera that detected "twitches in the cheek muscle under the eye." His typing speed decreased to approximately one word per minute in the later part of his life. The numeric entry, or 10-key, speed is a measure of one's ability to manipulate a numeric keypad. Generally, it

520-453: A system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as

572-411: Is thumbing or thumb typing. This can be accomplished using either only one thumb or both the thumbs, with more proficient typists reaching speeds of 100 words per minute. Similar to desktop keyboards and input devices, if a user overuses keys which need hard presses and/or have small and unergonomic layouts, it could cause thumb tendonitis or other repetitive strain injury . Words per minute (WPM)

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624-522: Is 0%. That is the purpose of the key strokes per character (KSPC) statistic. KSPC = ( C + I N F + I F + F ) / ( C + I N F ) {\displaystyle (C+INF+IF+F)/(C+INF)} There are some shortcomings of the KSPC statistic, such as: Using the classes described above, further metrics were defined by R. William Soukoreff and I.Scott MacKenzie: Error correction efficiency refers to

676-495: Is a measure of typing speed, commonly used in recruitment . For the purposes of WPM measurement a word is standardized to five characters or keystrokes. Therefore, "brown" counts as one word, but "mozzarella" counts as two. The benefits of a standardized measurement of input speed are that it enables comparison across language and hardware boundaries. The speed of an Afrikaans -speaking operator in Cape Town can be compared with

728-540: Is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which

780-753: Is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using the Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports

832-423: Is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by the use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN ,

884-411: Is measured in keystrokes per hour (KPH). With the introduction of computers and word-processors, there has been a change in how text-entry is performed. In the past, using a typewriter, speed was measured with a stopwatch and errors were tallied by hand. With the current technology, document preparation is more about using word-processors as a composition aid, changing the meaning of error rate and how it

936-418: Is measured. Research performed by R. William Soukoreff and I. Scott MacKenzie, has led to a discovery of the application of a well-known algorithm. Through the use of this algorithm and accompanying analysis technique, two statistics were used, minimum string distance error rate (MSD error rate) and keystrokes per character (KSPC). The two advantages of this technique include: Through analysis of keystrokes,

988-482: Is the number of insertions, deletions, or substitutions to transform one string into another. The following equation was found for the MSD Error Rate. MSD Error Rate = ( I N F / ( C + I N F ) ) ∗ 100 % {\displaystyle (INF/(C+INF))*100\%} With the minimum string distance error, errors that are corrected do not appear in

1040-435: Is the obtaining of detailed timing information that describes exactly when each key was pressed and when it was released as a person is typing at a computer keyboard for biometric identification, similar to speaker recognition . Data needed to analyze keystroke dynamics is obtained by keystroke logging . The behavioral biometric of Keystroke Dynamics uses the manner and rhythm in which an individual types characters on

1092-442: The ← Backspace key and make the correction with no increase in time between keystrokes. There are many idiosyncratic typing styles in between novice-style "hunt and peck" and touch typing. For example, many "hunt and peck" typists have the keyboard layout memorized and are able to type while focusing their gaze on the screen. Some use just two fingers, while others use 3–6 fingers. Some use their fingers very consistently, with

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1144-536: The Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using a native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using

1196-815: The International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by the National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard

1248-598: The Main Control Centre of Outer Space . The Dunay-2 was a prototype built in Sary Shagan as part of the experimental missile defence system "A". It consisted of separate transmitter and receiver complexes separated by 1 kilometre (0.62 mi). The power of the radar was 100 kW and its range was 1,200 kilometres (750 mi). The NATO codename was "Hen Roost". The Dunay-3 (Russian: Дунай-3М , romanized : Dunay-3M ; NATO : Dog House)

1300-413: The 1920s through the 1970s, typing speed (along with shorthand speed) was an important secretarial qualification and typing contests were popular and often publicized by typewriter companies as promotional tools. A less common measure of the speed of a typist, CPM is used to identify the number of characters typed per minute. This is a common measurement for typing programs, or typing tutors, as it can give

1352-479: The 2020 Ultimate Typing Championship by Anthony Ermollin based on an average of 180.88 wpm on texts of various lengths. These three people are the most commonly cited fastest typists in online typing communities. All of their records were set on the QWERTY keyboard layout. Using a personalized interface , physicist Stephen Hawking , who suffered from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , managed to type 15 wpm with

1404-456: The KSPC statistic, which is device dependent. Currently, two tools are publicly available for text entry researchers to record text entry performance metrics. The first is TEMA that runs only on the Android (operating system) . The second is WebTEM that runs on any device with a modern Web browser, and works with almost all text entry technique. Keystroke dynamics , or typing dynamics ,

1456-619: The Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only

1508-729: The average rate for transcription was 33 words per minute, and 19 words per minute for composition. In the same study, when the group was divided into "fast", "moderate" and "slow" groups, the average speeds were 40 wpm, 35 wpm, and 23 wpm respectively. An average professional typist reaches 50 to 80 wpm, while some positions can require 80 to 95 wpm (usually the minimum required for dispatch positions and other typing jobs), and some advanced typists work at speeds above 120 wpm. Two-finger typists, sometimes also referred to as "hunt and peck" typists, commonly reach sustained speeds of about 37 wpm for memorized text and 27 wpm when copying text, but in bursts may be able to reach speeds of 60 to 70 wpm. From

1560-622: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of

1612-565: The ease with which the participant performed error correction. Participant conscientiousness is the ratio of corrected errors to the total number of error, which helps distinguish perfectionists from apathetic participants. If C represents the amount of useful information transferred, INF, IF, and F represent the proportion of bandwidth wasted. The classes described also provide an intuitive definition of total error rate: Since these three error rates are ratios, they are comparable between different devices, something that cannot be done with

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1664-470: The fact that only a few fingers are used in this technique, this also means that the fingers are forced to move a much greater distance. In this technique, the typist keeps their eyes on the source copy at all times. Touch typing also involves the use of the home row method, where typists rest their wrist down, rather than lifting up and typing (which can cause carpal tunnel syndrome ). To avoid this, typists should sit up tall, leaning slightly forward from

1716-496: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of

1768-553: The keyboard to use a mouse. An example of a keyboard shortcut is pressing the Ctrl key plus the S key to save a document as they type, or the Ctrl key plus the Z key to undo a mistake. Other shortcuts are the Ctrl key plus the C to copy and the Ctrl key and the V key to paste, and the Ctrl key and the X key to cut. Many experienced typists can feel or sense when they have made an error and can hit

1820-564: The keystrokes of the input stream were divided into four classes: Correct (C), Incorrect Fixed (IF), Fixes (F), and Incorrect Not Fixed (INF). These key stroke classification are broken down into the following Using these classes, the Minimum String Distance Error Rate and the Key Strokes per Character statistics can both be calculated. The minimum string distance (MSD) is the number of "primitives" which

1872-636: The launch of Pershing II missiles from West Germany. In 1995 A-35M was replaced by the A-135 anti-ballistic missile system which used the Don-2N radar. One sector was decommissioned in 1998 and is now ruined and the other is used for space surveillance of satellites in low Earth orbit . As a UHF radar it can identify smaller objects (15–40 cm) than the VHF radars such as the Daryal and Dnepr . The Dunay-3U

1924-484: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in

1976-589: The number of fingers, there are other factors that predict typing speed... fast typists... keep their hands fixed on one position, instead of moving them over the keyboard, and more consistently use the same finger to type a certain letter." To quote Prof. Dr. Anna Feit: "We were surprised to observe that people who took a typing course, performed at similar average speed and accuracy, as those that taught typing to themselves and only used 6 fingers on average." A late 20th century trend in typing, primarily used with devices with small keyboards (such as PDAs and Smartphones),

2028-459: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate

2080-476: The same finger being used to type the same character every time, while others vary the way they use their fingers. One study examining 30 subjects, of varying different styles and expertise, has found minimal difference in typing speed between touch typists and self-taught hybrid typists. According to the study, "The number of fingers does not determine typing speed... People using self-taught typing strategies were found to be as fast as trained typists... instead of

2132-410: The system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958 is the main system of

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2184-502: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but

2236-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between

2288-459: The transcribed text. The following example shows why this can be an important class of errors to consider: Presented Text : the quick brown Input Stream : the quix<-ck brown Transcribed Text : the quick brown In the above example, the incorrect character ('x') was deleted with a backspace ('<-'). Since these errors do not appear in the transcribed text, the MSD error rate

2340-483: The typist may make. Hunt and peck ( two-fingered typing ) is a common form of typing in which the typist presses each key individually. Instead of relying on the memorized position of keys, the typist must find each key by sight. Although good accuracy may be achieved, the use of this method may also prevent the typist from being able to see what has been typed without glancing away from the keys, and any typing errors that are made may not be noticed immediately. Due to

2392-423: The waist, place their feet flat on the floor in front of them with one foot slightly in front of the other, and keep their elbows close to their sides with forearms slanted slightly upward to the keyboard; fingers should be curved slightly and rest on the home row. Many touch typists also use keyboard shortcuts when typing on a computer. This allows them to edit their document without having to take their hands off

2444-522: Was about 3  MW . The receiver was a building 100 m × 100 m containing 2 passive electronically scanned array radars as well as the command and control centre for the A-35 system. The range of the system was 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi). The radar was functional until it caught fire on 8 May 1988. This was a prototype of the Dunay-3U and was located in Sary Shagan test site. It

2496-454: Was achieved by Stella Pajunas-Garnand from Chicago in 1946 in one minute on an IBM electric using the QWERTY keyboard layout. As of 2005 , writer Barbara Blackburn was the fastest English language typist in the world, according to The Guinness Book of World Records . Using the Dvorak keyboard layout , she had maintained 150 wpm for 50 minutes, and 170 wpm for shorter periods, with

2548-497: Was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968, was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It

2600-577: Was an upgrade of the Dunay-2 located in Kubinka , Moscow and became operational in 1968. Following an extensive upgrade in 1978 it was renamed Dunay-3M as part of the upgraded A-35M ABM system. It consisted of separate receiver and transmitter buildings separated by 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi). The transmitter covered two sectors (roughly north and south) and its array was 200 metres (660 ft) long and 30 metres (98 ft) high. The power of each sector

2652-547: Was commissioned in May 1978 with a life of 12 years. Both sectors were extended until 2000 but one sector (62) was decommissioned in 1998. The other one (61) has been extended in 2001 and 2005 – the last extension was until December 2009, but it may have been extended again. In 2012 the Russian Ministry of Defence issued a tender for the demolition of sector 62. Before 2003 the transmitter had 30 waveguides each excited by

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2704-586: Was given the NATO codename "Top Roost". The Dunay-3U (Russian: Дунай-3У , romanized : Dunay-3U ; NATO : Cat House) was built in 1978 as part of the upgraded A-35M anti-ballistic missile system. It is located in Chekhov and was structurally similar to the Dunay-3M – it has a separate receiver and transmitter separated by 2.7 kilometres (1.7 mi). There are two sectors. It was capable of identifying

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