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64-572: The tribe's name is known from Ptolemy's Geography and from two inscriptions on Hadrian's Wall , both dating from after the Roman conquest of Britain . It is not known if anyone referred to them as the Durotriges before they arrived in the area now known as Dorset. The name can probably be broken down into two parts. 'Duro', which means 'hard' or 'strong place' and was widely used for early Roman forts, and 'trig' means inhabitant. That would produce

128-481: A decorated mirror, had a radiocarbon date of between AD 25 – 53. Although it was previously thought that the Durotriges strongly resisted the Roman invasion of AD 43/44, the historian Suetonius recording some battles fought between tribes of southern Britain and the second legion Augusta , then commanded by Vespasian , we do not know if the Durotriges, in particular, were involved. Mortimer Wheeler , who reported on

192-701: A desire to meet the exacting demands of her husband. After a minor operation in early 1936, she became seriously ill and died from a pulmonary embolism at the National Temperance Hospital in London. Her remains were cremated at Golders Green crematorium . Prior to her death, Tessa arranged many of the practicalities of establishing the Institute of Archaeology, from finance and logistics to arrangement of accommodation at St John's Lodge , Regent's Park . The Institute began accepting students

256-475: A figure of 180,000 stadia for the circumference of the Earth, which he described as a "general consensus". Ptolemy rescaled experimentally obtained data in many of his works on geography, astrology, music, and optics. Tessa Wheeler Tessa Wheeler FSA ( née Verney; 27 March 1893 – 15 April 1936) was an archaeologist who made a significant contribution to excavation techniques and contributed to

320-520: A form that would tell the story of the site to the intelligent reader. They also published their results quickly after the excavations concluded, and Mortimer proved adept at generating favourable publicity. She became a lecturer at the London Museum in 1928, and became the second woman to be elected as a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries the same year. During her time in London she was also

384-550: A meaning of 'fort dwellers', appropriate for the region's many hill forts (although these appear to have been largely abandoned by the time of the Roman invasion of Britain in AD 43). 'Duro' has also been derived from 'dubro', the British word for water ('dour' or 'dwr'), and the second element has been interpreted as 'riges', that is 'kings'. The area of the Durotriges is identified in part by coin finds: few Durotrigan coins are found in

448-608: A member of the Research Council of the Society of Antiquaries. The Wheelers worked together to rejuvenate the London Museum and to establish an Institute of Archaeology in London, which was founded in 1934 and opened in 1937. She was an effective lecturer and teacher of the next generation of archaeology students. The Wheelers continued to work together, performing many major excavations within Britain , including that of

512-677: A minor operation. Tessa Verney was born in Johannesburg , the daughter of John Verney, a doctor, and Annie Booth Kilburn. She had an elder half-brother from her mother's first marriage. The family moved to Lewisham , south London, with her mother's third husband, a chemist. She was educated at Addey and Stanhope School in Deptford, and read history at University College London from 1911 to 1914. She met her future husband Mortimer Wheeler in 1912, and they were married in May 1914. He served in

576-585: A post at the National Museum of Wales . She was the Keeper of Archaeology at the National Museum of Wales where her husband was promoted and held the position of Director from 1924 to 1926. They undertook excavations together at Segontium in 1921–22 and at Gaer in 1924–25, working as a team. Tessa organised the excavations, controlled finances, and recorded the finds, and Mortimer interpreted

640-576: A quarter of the globe. Ptolemy's work included a single large and less detailed world map and then separate and more detailed regional maps. The first Greek manuscripts compiled after Maximus Planudes 's rediscovery of the text had as many as 64 regional maps. The standard set in Western Europe came to be 26: 10 European maps, 4 African maps, and 12 Asian maps. As early as the 1420s, these canonical maps were complemented by extra-Ptolemaic regional maps depicting, e.g., Scandinavia . An outline of

704-688: A scribal error was made and Cattigara was located at eight and a half degrees South of the Equator. On Ptolemaic maps, such as that of Martellus, Catigara was located on the easternmost shore of the Mare Indicum, 180 degrees East of the Cape St Vincent at, due to the scribal error, eight and a half degrees South of the Equator. Catigara is also shown at this location on Martin Waldseemüller's 1507 world map, which avowedly followed

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768-405: A tribal confederation than a discrete tribe. They were one of the groups that issued coinage before the Roman conquest, part of the cultural "periphery", as Barry Cunliffe characterised them, round the "core group" of Britons in the south. These coins were rather simple and had no inscriptions, and thus no names of coin-issuers can be known, let alone evidence about monarchs or rulers. Nevertheless,

832-399: Is a treatise on cartography and chorography , describing the methods used to assemble and arrange Ptolemy's data. From Book II through the beginning of Book VII, a gazetteer provides longitude and latitude values for the world known to the ancient Romans (the " ecumene "). The rest of Book VII provides details on three projections to be used for the construction of a map of

896-648: Is used now, though Ptolemy used fractions of a degree rather than minutes of arc. His Prime Meridian , of 0 longitude , ran through the Fortunate Isles , the westernmost land recorded, at around the position of El Hierro in the Canary Islands . The maps spanned 180 degrees of longitude from the Fortunate Isles in the Atlantic to China . Ptolemy was aware that Europe knew only about

960-648: The Geographia and the Cosmographia , is a gazetteer , an atlas , and a treatise on cartography , compiling the geographical knowledge of the 2nd-century Roman Empire . Originally written by Claudius Ptolemy in Greek at Alexandria around 150 AD, the work was a revision of a now-lost atlas by Marinus of Tyre using additional Roman and Persian gazetteers and new principles. Its translation – Kitab Surat al-Ard – into Arabic by Al-Khwarismi in

1024-488: The Canary Islands . He said that he had sailed 1100 leagues from the Canaries when he found Cuba in 1492. This was approximately where he thought the coast of eastern Asia would be found. On this basis of calculation he identified Hispaniola with Cipangu, which he had expected to find on the outward voyage at a distance of about 700 leagues from the Canaries. His later voyages resulted in further exploration of Cuba and in

1088-705: The Geography in providing the coordinates for 545 cities and regional maps of the Nile , the Island of the Jewel , the Sea of Darkness, and the Sea of Azov . A 1037 copy of these are the earliest extant maps from Islamic lands. The text clearly states that al-Khwārazmī was working from an earlier map, although this could not have been an exact copy of Ptolemy's work: his Prime Meridian

1152-732: The Magnus Sinus . This known portion of the world was comprised within 180 degrees. In his extreme east Ptolemy placed Serica (the Land of Silk), the Sinarum Situs (the Port of the Sinae ), and the emporium of Cattigara . On the 1489 map of the world by Henricus Martellus, which was based on Ptolemy's work, Asia terminated in its southeastern point in a cape, the Cape of Cattigara. Cattigara

1216-633: The Marvels of the Seven Climes to the End of Habitation . Surviving maps from the medieval period were not done according to mathematical principles. The world map from the 11th-century Book of Curiosities is the earliest surviving map of the Muslim or Christian worlds to include a geographic coordinate system but the copyist seems to have not understood its purpose, starting it from the left using twice

1280-580: The "core" area, where they were apparently unacceptable and were reminted. To their north and east were the Belgae , beyond the Avon and its tributary Wylye : "the ancient division is today reflected in the county division between Wiltshire and Somerset." Their main outlet for the trade across the Channel, strong in the first half of the 1st century BC, when the potter's wheel was introduced, then drying up in

1344-483: The 12th century AD. However, no copy of that translation has survived. The Greek text of the Geography reached Florence from Constantinople in about 1400 and was translated into Latin by Jacobus Angelus of Scarperia around 1406. The first printed edition with maps, published in 1477 in Bologna , was also the first printed book with engraved illustrations. Many editions followed (more often using woodcut in

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1408-403: The 3rd century BC. Ptolemy improved the treatment of map projections . He provided instructions on how to create his maps in the first section of the work. The gazetteer section of Ptolemy's work provided latitude and longitude coordinates for all the places and geographical features in the work. Latitude was expressed in degrees of arc from the equator , the same system that

1472-515: The 9th century was highly influential on the geographical knowledge and cartographic traditions of the Islamic world . Alongside the works of Islamic scholars – and the commentary containing revised and more accurate data by Alfraganus – Ptolemy's work was subsequently highly influential on Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Versions of Ptolemy's work in antiquity were probably proper atlases with attached maps, although some scholars believe that

1536-485: The Durotriges presented a settled society, based in the farming of lands surrounded by hill forts, the majority of which seem to have gone out of use by 100 BC, long before the arrival of the Roman II Legion, commanded by Vespasian in 43 or 44 AD. Maiden Castle is a preserved example of one of these earlier hill forts. The absorption of the Durotriges' ruling families into the Roman province of Britannia and

1600-563: The Elder demonstrated a reluctance to rely on the contemporary accounts of sailors and merchants who plied distant areas of the Indian Ocean , Marinus and Ptolemy betray a much greater receptiveness to incorporating information received from them. For instance, Grant Parker argues that it would be highly implausible for them to have constructed the Bay of Bengal as precisely as they did without

1664-657: The Iron Age to Roman transition through a detailed programme of field survey, geophysical investigation and targeted excavation. To date the programme of work has concentrated upon an enclosed late Iron Age banjo enclosure containing round houses, work surfaces and storage pits, a Late Iron Age cemetery, two Roman villas and a large Late Iron Age roundhouse settlement referred to as Duropolis . Geography (Ptolemy) The Geography ( Ancient Greek : Γεωγραφικὴ Ὑφήγησις , Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis , lit.  "Geographical Guidance"), also known by its Latin names as

1728-499: The Roman villa at Lydney Park in 1928–29, Roman Verulamium (modern-day St Albans ) in 1930–34, and the late Iron Age hill-fort of Maiden Castle, Dorset , which was assistant directed by Molly Cotton from 1934 to 1938. At Maiden Castle, the Wheelers collaborated with Beatrice de Cardi and Veronica Seton-Williams. The work from Caerleon, Lydney, and St Albans were published under their joint names. Tessa's excavation of mosaics

1792-400: The above stemma descends, even if maps existed in antiquity: "The transmission of Ptolemy's text certainly passed through a stage when the manuscripts were too small to contain the maps. Planudes and his assistants therefore probably had no pictorial models, and the success of their enterprise is proof that Ptolemy succeeded in his attempt to encode the map in words and numbers. The copies of

1856-553: The accounts of sailors. When it comes to the account of the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula ) and the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea ), Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexandros, who claimed to have visited a far eastern site called " Cattigara " (most likely Oc Eo , Vietnam , the site of unearthed Antonine -era Roman goods and not far from

1920-661: The artillery in the First World War , initially as an instructor in the University of London Officers' Training Corps, and later at other places in Scotland and England. She accompanied Mortimer on his postings until he was sent to France in 1917. Their only child, Michael Mortimer Wheeler , was born in January 1915. He became a barrister and judge. Tessa followed her husband Mortimer to Cardiff in 1920 when he took up

1984-568: The basis of his (now lost) Chorography of the Ecumene . Later imperial writers and mathematicians, however, seem to have restricted themselves to commenting on Ptolemy's text, rather than improving upon it; surviving records actually show decreasing fidelity to real position. Nevertheless, Byzantine scholars continued these geographical traditions throughout the Medieval period. Whereas previous Greco-Roman geographers such as Strabo and Pliny

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2048-503: The coordinates provided by the text, as Planudes was forced to do. Later scribes and publishers could then copy these new maps, as Athanasius did for the emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus . The three earliest surviving texts with maps are those from Constantinople ( Istanbul ) based on Planudes's work. The first Latin translation of these texts was made in 1406 or 1407 by Jacobus Angelus in Florence , Italy , under

2112-461: The decades before the advent of the Romans, was at Hengistbury Head . Numismatic evidence shows progressive debasing of the coinage, suggesting economic retrenchment accompanying the increased cultural isolation. Analysis of the body of Durotrigan ceramics suggests to Cunliffe that the production was increasingly centralised, at Poole Harbour (Cunliffe 2005:183). The Durotriges were possibly more of

2176-460: The discovery of South and Central America . At first South America, the Mundus Novus ( New World ) was considered to be a great island of continental proportions; but as a result of his fourth voyage , it was apparently considered to be identical with the great Upper India peninsula ( India Superior ) represented by Behaim – the Cape of Cattigara. This seems to be the best interpretation of

2240-520: The early days), some following traditional versions of the maps, and others updating them. An edition printed at Ulm in 1482 was the first one printed north of the Alps . Also in 1482, Francesco Berlinghieri printed the first edition in vernacular Italian . Ptolemy had mapped the whole world from the Fortunatae Insulae ( Cape Verde or Canary Islands ) eastward to the eastern shore of

2304-474: The encyclopedia follows, with links to the appropriate Misplaced Pages article. The original treatise by Marinus of Tyre that formed the basis of Ptolemy's Geography has been completely lost. A world map based on Ptolemy was displayed in Augustodunum ( Autun , France ) in late Roman times. Pappus , writing at Alexandria in the 4th century, produced a commentary on Ptolemy's Geography and used it as

2368-479: The end of the thirteenth century, which are the earliest extant manuscripts of the Geography; these are U, K & F. Recension, Ξ, is represented by one codex only, X. Mittenhuber agrees with Berggren & Jones, stating that "The so-called Codex X is of particular significance, because it contains many local names and coordinates that differ from the other manuscripts ... which cannot be explained by mere errors in

2432-418: The excavation of Maiden Castle conducted by himself and Tessa Wheeler between 1934 and 1938, interpreted a cemetery uncovered in the hill fort's east gate as evidence for a savage Roman assault. Later examination of Maiden Castle by Niall Sharples in 1985-6 and geophysical survey conducted in 2015 by Dave Stewart have shown that Wheeler's interpretation of a siege and subsequent massacre is unlikely. By 70 AD,

2496-663: The extensive additions to the Ptolemaic map shown on the 1492 globe of Martin Behaim . The fact that Ptolemy did not represent an eastern coast of Asia made it admissible for Behaim to extend that continent far to the east. Behaim’s globe placed Marco Polo’s Mangi and Cathay east of Ptolemy’s 180th meridian, and the Great Khan’s capital, Cambaluc ( Beijing ), on the 41st parallel of latitude at approximately 233 degrees East. Behaim allowed 60 degrees beyond Ptolemy’s 180 degrees for

2560-589: The extent of Romanisation makes documenting the names of settlements occupied by the Durotriges before the Roman conquest difficult, but from a variety of sources several places are known. Ptolemy's Geography lists Dunium, speculated to be Hengistbury Head , as an important tribal centre near their Belgae neighbours, but it is unknown whether if it was considered the capital of the tribal confederation, especially as several other settlements appear to be equally important from archaeological evidence. Known places of pre-conquest settlement include: Burial of Durotriges

2624-409: The intended scale and then (apparently realizing his mistake) giving up halfway through. Its presence does strongly suggest the existence of earlier, now-lost maps which had been mathematically derived in the manner of Ptolemy, al-Khwārazmi, or Suhrāb. There are surviving reports of such maps. Ptolemy's Geography was translated from Arabic into Latin at the court of King Roger II of Sicily in

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2688-467: The length of a degree instead of the longer degree of Ptolemy, and by adopting Marinus of Tyre ’s longitude of 225 degrees for the east coast of the Magnus Sinus . This resulted in a considerable eastward advancement of the longitudes given by Martin Behaim and other contemporaries of Columbus. By some process Columbus reasoned that the longitudes of eastern Asia and Cipangu respectively were about 270 and 300 degrees east, or 90 and 60 degrees west of

2752-613: The mainland of Asia and 30 degrees more to the east coast of Cipangu (Japan). Cipangu and the mainland of Asia were thus placed only 90 and 120 degrees, respectively, west of the Canary Islands. The Codex Seragliensis was used as the base of a new edition of the work in 2006. This new edition was used to "decode" Ptolemy's coordinates of Books 2 and 3 by an interdisciplinary team of TU Berlin , presented in publications in 2010 and 2012. Christopher Columbus modified this geography further by using 53⅔ Italian nautical miles as

2816-413: The maps in later manuscripts and printed editions of the Geography were reproduced from Planudes' reconstructions." Mittenhuber (2010) further divides the stemma into two recensions of the original c.AD 150 lost work: Ξ and Ω (c.3rd/4th cent., lost). Recension Ω contains most of the extant manuscripts and is subdivided into a further two groups: Δ and Π . Group Δ contains parchment manuscripts from

2880-487: The maps were either copied defectively for not at all. "Of the greatest importance for the text of the Geography" they state is manuscript X ( Vat.Gr.191 ); "because it is the only copy that is uninfluenced by the Byzantine revision." e.g. the 13th-14th century corrections of Planudes, possibly associated with recreating the maps. Regarding the maps, they conclude that it was unlikely that extant maps survived from which

2944-488: The name Geographia Claudii Ptolemaei . It is not thought that his edition had maps, although Manuel Chrysoloras had given Palla Strozzi a Greek copy of Planudes's maps in Florence in 1397. Berggren & Jones (2000) place these manuscripts into a stemma whereby U, K, F and N are connected with the activities of Maximos Planudes (c.1255-1305). From a sister manuscript to UKFN descends R, V, W & C, however

3008-414: The references to maps in the text were later additions. No Greek manuscript of the Geography survives from earlier than the 13th century. A letter written by the Byzantine monk Maximus Planudes records that he searched for one for Chora Monastery in the summer of 1295; one of the earliest surviving texts may have been one of those he then assembled. In Europe, maps were sometimes redrawn using

3072-479: The region of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam where ancient Chinese sources claim several Roman embassies first landed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries). Muslim cartographers were using copies of Ptolemy's Almagest and Geography by the 9th century. At that time, in the court of the caliph al-Maʾmūm , al-Khwārazmī compiled his Book of the Depiction of the Earth ( Kitab Surat al-Ard ) which mimicked

3136-618: The results. They were preparing an excavation at Caerleon in 1926 when Mortimer was appointed Keeper of the London Museum . The family moved to London, but Tessa undertook the excavation on her own in the winter of 1926–27. The excavation methods they used, for example the grid system (later developed further by Kathleen Kenyon and known as the Wheeler-Kenyon method ), were significant advances in archaeological method, although later superseded. They were influenced greatly by

3200-589: The setting up of major British archaeological institutions after the Second World War . Owing to the gender politics of the era, she remains best known as the wife and professional partner of Mortimer Wheeler . They collaborated on major excavations in Wales and England (including Segontium , Caerleon , and Verulamium ) and their investigation of Maiden Castle, Dorset had been ongoing for two years when she died unexpectedly from complications following

3264-403: The sketch map made by Alessandro Zorzi on the advice of Bartholomew Columbus (Christopher's brother) around 1506, which bears an inscription saying that according to the ancient geographer Marinus of Tyre and Christopher Columbus the distance from Cape St Vincent on the coast of Portugal to Cattigara on the peninsula of India Superior was 225 degrees, while according to Ptolemy the same distance

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3328-446: The surviving manuscript tradition can be seen in the epitomes of Markianos by Stephanus : "Καὶ ἄλλοι οὕτως διὰ του π Πρετανίδες νῆσοι, ὡς Μαρκιανὸς καὶ Πτολεμαῖος ." The tradition preserved within the stemma of surviving (13th-14th century) manuscripts by Stückelberger & Grasshoff only preserves " Β " and not " Π " recentions of " Βρεττανικήσ ". The Geography consists of three sections, divided among 8 books. Book I

3392-559: The tradition of Ptolemy. Ptolemy's information was thereby misinterpreted so that the coast of China, which should have been represented as part of the coast of eastern Asia, was falsely made to represent an eastern shore of the Indian Ocean. As a result, Ptolemy implied more land east of the 180th meridian and an ocean beyond. Marco Polo ’s account of his travels in eastern Asia described lands and seaports on an eastern ocean apparently unknown to Ptolemy. Marco Polo’s narrative authorized

3456-629: The tradition.". Although no manuscripts survive from earlier than the late 13th century; there are references to the existence of ancient codicies in late antiquity. One such example is in an epistle by Cassiodorus (c.560 A.D.): “Tum, si vos notitiae nobilis cura inflammaverit, habetis Ptolemaei codicem, qui sic omnia loca evidenter expressit, ut eum cunctarum regionum paene incolam fuisse iudicetis. Eoque fit, ut uno loco positi, sicut monachos decet, animo percurratis, quod aliquorum peregrinatio plurimo labore collegit.”( Institutiones 1, 25) . The existence of ancient recensions that differ fundamentally to

3520-541: The tribe was already starting to be Romanised and securely included in the Roman province of Britannia . In the tribe's area, the Romans explored some quarries and supported a local pottery industry. The Durotriges, and their relationship with the Roman Empire, form the basis for an ongoing archaeological research project directed by Paul Cheetham, Ellen Hambleton and Miles Russell of Bournemouth University . The Durotriges Project has, since 2009, been reconsidering

3584-404: The work of the archaeologist Lieutenant General Augustus Pitt Rivers (1827–1900). The two constant themes in their attempts to improve archaeological excavation were, first, to maintain strict stratigraphic control while excavating (for this purpose, the baulks between trenches served to retain a record of the strata that had been dug through), and, second, to publish the excavation promptly and in

3648-455: The world, varying in complexity and fidelity. Book VIII constitutes an atlas of regional maps. The maps include a recapitulation of some of the values given earlier in the work, which were intended to be used as captions to clarify the map's contents and maintain their accuracy during copying. Maps based on scientific principles had been made in Europe since the time of Eratosthenes in

3712-438: The year after Tessa's death. She spent much of her early career in the shadow of her husband, like many earlier female archaeologists, but later work was published under their joint names and their contemporaries considered "the Wheelers" to be a team; some considered her to be the more talented field archaeologist. A black marble memorial plaque to Tessa Wheeler was unveiled at the Institute of Archaeology in 1937. A biography

3776-535: Was 10° east of Ptolemy's, he adds some places, and his latitudes differ. C.A. Nallino suggests that the work was not based on Ptolemy but on a derivative world map, presumably in Syriac or Arabic . The coloured map of al-Maʾmūm constructed by a team including al-Khwārazmī was described by the Persian encyclopædist al-Masʿūdī around 956 as superior to the maps of Marinus and Ptolemy, probably indicating that it

3840-661: Was 180 degrees. Prior to the 16th century, knowledge of geography in the Ottoman Empire was limited in scope, with almost no access to the works of earlier Islamic scholars that superseded Ptolemy. His Geography would again be translated and updated with commentary into Arabic under Mehmed II , who commissioned works from Byzantine scholar George Amiroutzes in 1465 and the Florentine humanist Francesco Berlinghieri in 1481. There are two related errors: This suggests Ptolemy rescaled his longitude data to fit with

3904-433: Was built along similar mathematical principles. It included 4530 cities and over 200 mountains. Despite beginning to compile numerous gazetteers of places and coordinates indebted to Ptolemy, Muslim scholars made almost no direct use of Ptolemy's principles in the maps which have survived. Instead, they followed al-Khwārazmī's modifications and the orthogonal projection advocated by Suhrāb's early 10th-century treatise on

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3968-457: Was by inhumation , with a last ritual meal provided even under exiguous circumstances, as in the eight burials at Maiden Castle, carried out immediately after the Roman attack. Most Durotrigian burials are laid down in crouched positions within shallow, oval graves. One such inhumation of a young Durotrigian woman was found at Langton Herring in Dorset in 2010. The burial, which was laid down with

4032-627: Was seen as her professional trademark. She successfully removed a Roman palace mosaic floor with all pieces intact. Her aforementioned contribution to the Wheeler-Kenyon method (which was named after her, her husband and Kathleen Kenyon) is also a highlight of her professional career that continues to be important in archaeology today. Her later life was blighted by the open unfaithfulness of her sexually adventurous husband, and she also had ill-health, including blackouts and gastric problems. She may have exacerbated her symptoms through overwork and

4096-584: Was understood by Ptolemy to be a port on the Sinus Magnus, or Great Gulf, the actual Gulf of Thailand, at eight and a half degrees north of the Equator, on the coast of Cambodia, which is where he located it in his Canon of Famous Cities . It was the easternmost port reached by shipping trading from the Graeco-Roman world to the lands of the Far East. In Ptolemy's later and better-known Geography ,

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