141-507: Dwight Whitney Morrow (January 11, 1873 – October 5, 1931) was an American businessman, diplomat, and politician, best known as the U.S. ambassador who improved U.S.–Mexico relations, mediating the religious conflict in Mexico known as the Cristero rebellion (1926–29), but also contributing to an easing of conflict between the two countries over oil. The Morrow Mission to Mexico
282-611: A World War II hero, played his father in two films, and was elected to Congress. Mary became a Broadway actress, and James "Jim" was a newspaperman and rancher; Fred died of diphtheria at age two. The family lived in New York, but they spent summers in Oklahoma. In 1911, Rogers bought a 20-acre (8.1 ha) ranch near Claremore, Oklahoma , which he intended to use as his retirement home. He paid US$ 500 an acre, equal to $ 16,350 per acre today. From about 1925 to 1928, Rogers traveled
423-488: A candidate's image? Ballyhoo: "I hope there is some sane people who will appreciate dignity and not showmanship in their choice for the presidency" (October 5). What of ugly campaign rumors? Don't worry: "The things they whisper aren't as bad as what they say out loud" (October 12). After Rogers gained recognition as a humorist-philosopher in vaudeville, he gained a national audience in acting and literary careers from 1915 to 1935. In these years, Rogers increasingly expressed
564-421: A chronicle of Mexican history from a post-Mexican Revolution point of view. Morrow initiated a series of breakfast meetings with President Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–1928), at which the two would discuss a range of issues, from oil and irrigation to a religious uprising in Mexico. This earned Morrow the nickname "ham and eggs diplomat" in U.S. newspapers. Morrow also invited Rogers to accompany him and Calles on
705-560: A cowboy. Rogers's cowboy was an unfettered man free of institutional restraints, with no bureaucrats to order his life. When he came back to the United States and worked in Wild West shows, he slowly began adding the occasional spoken ad lib, such as "Swingin' a rope's all right... if your neck ain't in it." Audiences responded to his laconic but pointed humor, and were just as fascinated by his frontier Oklahoma twang. By 1916, Rogers
846-525: A failed attack on Guadalajara in late March 1929. The rebels managed to take Tepatitlán on 19 April, but Vega was killed. The rebellion was met with equal force, and the Cristeros were soon facing divisions within their own ranks. Another difficulty facing the Cristeros and especially the Catholic Church was the extended period without a place of worship. The clergy faced the fear of driving away
987-687: A fear that Europeans would go to war again. He recommended isolationism for the United States. He reasoned that for the moment, American needs could best be served by concentrating on domestic questions and avoiding foreign entanglements. He commented: "Rogers' philosophy was reactionary, dispiriting and provincial, despite every affectation of bonhomie and tolerance. It scorned ideas and the people who held them, it relied on vague evolution rather than direct action, its fixed smile concealed rigidity of opinion that middle America need not be disturbed from its own prejudices and limitations."—Film critic David Thomson in A Biographical History of Film (1976) Rogers
1128-447: A fine of 500 pesos (then the equivalent of US$ 250), and priests who criticized the government could be imprisoned for five years. Some states enacted their own anticlerical measures. Chihuahua enacted a law permitting only one priest to serve all Catholics in the state. To help enforce the law, Calles expropriated church property, expelled all foreign priests and closed monasteries, convents and religious schools. In response to
1269-546: A guest of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow . Rogers gave numerous after-dinner speeches, became a popular convention speaker, and gave dozens of benefits for victims of floods, droughts, or earthquakes. Rogers traveled to Asia to perform in 1931, and to Central and South America the following year. In 1934, he made a globe-girdling tour and returned to play the lead in Eugene O'Neill 's stage play Ah, Wilderness! . He had tentatively agreed to go on loan from Fox to MGM to star in
1410-477: A host of other controversial topics in a way that found general acclaim from a national audience with no one offended. His aphorisms, couched in humorous terms, were widely quoted, for example, "I am not a member of an organized political party. I am a Democrat." One of Rogers's most famous sayings was "I never met a man I didn't like" and he even provided an epigram on this famous epigram: When I die, my epitaph , or whatever you call those signs on gravestones,
1551-523: A major event in the struggle between church and state that dates back to the 19th century with the War of Reform and as the last major peasant uprising in Mexico after the end of the military phase of the Mexican Revolution in 1920. The Mexican Revolution started in 1910 against the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz and for the masses' demand of land for the peasantry. Francisco I. Madero
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#17327868786201692-448: A more radical and anti-clerical mindset. Article 24 stated: "Every man shall be free to choose and profess any religious belief as long as it is lawful and it cannot be punished under criminal law. The Congress shall not be authorized to enact laws either establishing or prohibiting a particular religion. Religious ceremonies of public nature shall be ordinarily performed at the temples. Those performed outdoors shall be regulated under
1833-430: A nonpartisan point of view and became a friend of presidents and a confidant of the great. Loved for his cool mind and warm heart, he was often considered the successor to such greats as Artemus Ward and Mark Twain . Rogers was not the first entertainer to use political humor before his audience. Others, such as Broadway comedian Raymond Hitchcock and Britain's Sir Harry Lauder , preceded him by several years. Bob Hope
1974-483: A pact called the arreglos (agreement) that permitted worship to resume in Mexico and granted three concessions to the Catholics: only priests who were named by hierarchical superiors would be required to register, religious instruction in the churches (but not in the schools) would be permitted, and all citizens, including the clergy, would be allowed to make petitions to reform the laws. The anticlerical articles of
2115-551: A performer on vaudeville. His rope act led to success in the Ziegfeld Follies , which in turn led to the first of his many movie contracts. His 1920s syndicated newspaper column and his radio appearances increased his visibility and popularity. Rogers crusaded for aviation expansion and provided Americans with first-hand accounts of his world travels. His earthy anecdotes and folksy style allowed him to poke fun at gangsters, prohibition , politicians, government programs, and
2256-605: A period known as the Maximato . As interim president in December 1928, Portes Gil permitted Morrow and Burke to revitalize their peace initiative. Portes Gil told a foreign correspondent on May 1 that "the Catholic clergy, when they wish, may renew the exercise of their rites with only one obligation, that they respect the laws of the land." Morrow managed to bring the war parties to agreement on June 21, 1929. His office drafted
2397-468: A pharmacist; Victoriano Ramírez , a ranch hand; and two priests, Aristeo Pedroza and José Reyes Vega . Reyes Vega was renowned, and Cardinal Davila deemed him a "black-hearted assassin". At least five priests took up arms, and many others supported them in various ways. Many of the rebel peasants who took up arms in the fight had different motivations from the Catholic Church. Many were still fighting for agrarian land reform , which had been years earlier
2538-507: A popular, nationwide boycott in 1925 to protest the government's treatment of Catholics and the ongoing anti-religious sentiment present throughout the government. The Knights of Columbus also helped to generate propaganda and support for the Cristero War, framing the war as a story of martyrs and heroes, standing up for their religion in the face of an oppressive government. American councils and Mexican councils, mostly newly formed, of
2679-576: A simple cowboy; his characters evolved to explore the meaning of innocence in ordinary life. In his last movies, Rogers explores a society fracturing into competing classes from economic pressures. Throughout his career, Rogers was a link to a better, more comprehensible past. In 1926, the high-circulation weekly magazine The Saturday Evening Post financed a European tour for Rogers, in return for publication of his articles. Rogers made whirlwind visits to numerous European capitals and met with both international figures and common people. His articles reflected
2820-746: A small town banker ( David Harum ) in 1934, and a rustic politician ( Judge Priest ) in 1934. He was also in County Chairman (1935), Steamboat Round the Bend (1935), and In Old Kentucky (1935). His favorite director was John Ford . Rogers appeared in 21 feature films alongside such noted performers as Lew Ayres , Billie Burke , Richard Cromwell , Jane Darwell , Andy Devine , Janet Gaynor , Rochelle Hudson , Boris Karloff , Myrna Loy , Joel McCrea , Hattie McDaniel , Ray Milland , Maureen O'Sullivan , ZaSu Pitts , Dick Powell , Bill "Bojangles" Robinson , Mickey Rooney , and Peggy Wood . He
2961-694: A speaking engagement in New York City, Morrow suffered a stroke in his sleep at his home in Englewood, New Jersey and died the next afternoon on October 5, 1931. A partner at J.P. Morgan, Morrow was one of the richest men in New Jersey. Morrow's death occurred within 30 days of the next election allowing the Republican Governor Morgan Foster Larson to appoint William Warren Barbour as Morrow's successor in
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#17327868786203102-575: A state monopoly on education, which suppressed Catholic education and introduced secular education in its place: "We must enter and take possession of the mind of childhood, the mind of youth." Calles's military persecution of Cristeros after the truce would be officially condemned by Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas and the Mexican Congress in 1935. Between 1935 and 1936, Cárdenas had Calles and many of his close associates arrested and forced them into exile soon afterwards. Freedom of worship
3243-466: A tour of Mexico, with Rogers sending favorable human-interest stories about Mexico and Mexicans back to U.S. newspapers, helping to change U.S. perceptions of Mexico. In a dispute about Mexican petroleum, with U.S. and other foreign oil companies demanding protection of their interests in Mexico, Morrow helped prevent Mexican nationalization of the oilfields. The nationalization did, however, occur ten years later in 1938. Morrow's best known accomplishment
3384-433: A travelogue series in 1927. After that, he did not return to the screen until beginning work in the ' talkies ' in 1929. Rogers made 48 silent movies, but with the arrival of sound in 1929, he became a top star in that medium. His first sound film, They Had to See Paris (1929), gave him the chance to exercise his verbal wit. He played a homespun farmer ( State Fair) in 1933, an old-fashioned doctor ( Dr. Bull ) in 1933,
3525-673: A way that shall permit the creation in youth of an exact and rational concept of the Universe and of social life." Will Rogers William Penn Adair Rogers (November 4, 1879 – August 15, 1935) was an American vaudeville performer, actor, and humorous social commentator. He was born as a citizen of the Cherokee Nation , in the Indian Territory (now part of Oklahoma ), and is known as "Oklahoma's Favorite Son". As an entertainer and humorist, he traveled around
3666-638: A weekly column, titled "Slipping the Lariat Over", at the end of 1922. He had already published a book of wisecracks and had begun a steady stream of humor books. Through the columns for the McNaught Syndicate between 1922 and 1935, as well as his personal appearances and radio broadcasts, he won the loving admiration of the American people, poking jibes in witty ways at the issues of the day and prominent people—often politicians. He wrote from
3807-638: A wholesale overturning of the previous order were potential sources of danger to the Church's position. In the democratizing wave of political activity, the National Catholic Party ( Partido Católico Nacional ) was formed. After president Francisco I. Madero was overthrown and assassinated in a February 1913 military coup which was led by General Victoriano Huerta , supporters of the Porfirian regime were returned to their posts. After
3948-554: Is going to read: "I joked about every prominent man of my time, but I never met a man I dident [ sic ] like." I am so proud of that, I can hardly wait to die so it can be carved. Rogers was born on his parents' Dog Iron Ranch in the Cherokee Nation of Indian Territory , near present-day Oologah, Oklahoma , now in Rogers County , named in honor of his father, Clement V. Rogers . The house in which he
4089-570: Is known for the Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc , a brigade of women who assisted the rebels in smuggling guns and ammunition, and for certain priests who were tortured and murdered in public and later canonized by Pope John Paul II . The rebellion eventually came to an end following a settlement brokered by the American Ambassador Dwight W. Morrow , with financial relief and logistical assistance provided by
4230-508: Is named in honor of him. He served several terms in the Cherokee Senate. Roach (1980) presents a sociological-psychological assessment of the relationship between Will and his father during the formative boyhood and teenage years. Clement had high expectations for his son and wanted him to be more responsible and business-minded. Will was more easygoing and oriented toward the loving affection offered by his mother, Mary, rather than
4371-669: Is often claimed he took a job breaking in horses for the British Army , but the Boer War had ended three months earlier. Rogers was hired at James Piccione's ranch near Mooi River Station in the Pietermaritzburg district of Natal . Rogers began his show business career as a trick roper in "Texas Jack's Wild West Circus" in South Africa: He [Texas Jack] had a little Wild West aggregation that visited
Dwight Morrow - Misplaced Pages Continue
4512-536: Is the best known political humorist to follow Rogers's example. Radio was the exciting new medium, and Rogers became a star there as well, broadcasting his newspaper pieces. From 1929 to 1935, he made radio broadcasts for the Gulf Oil Company. This weekly Sunday evening show, The Gulf Headliners , ranked among the top radio programs in the country. Since Rogers easily rambled from one subject to another, reacting to his studio audience, he often lost track of
4653-825: The Constitution of 1917 remained in place but were not systematically enforced. In 1930 Morrow was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Walter Evans Edge . At the same time he was elected for the full-term commencing on March 4, 1931. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society that same year. He served in the Senate from December 3, 1930, until his death in Englewood, New Jersey , on October 5, 1931. Following
4794-461: The Constitution of 1917 . It strengthened the anticlerical provisions of the previous document, but President Carranza and his successor, General Alvaro Obregón , were preoccupied by their struggles with their internal enemies and as a result, they were lenient in their enforcement of the Constitution's anticlerical articles, especially in areas where the Church was powerful. Carranza was
4935-558: The Kemper Military School at Boonville over the 1897–98 school year. He was a good student and an avid reader of The New York Times , but he dropped out of school after the 10th grade. Rogers later said that he was a poor student, saying that he "studied the Fourth Reader for ten years". He was much more interested in cowboys and horses, and learned to rope and use a lariat . In 1899, Rogers appeared in
5076-518: The Knights of Columbus , both opposed the persecution by the Mexican government. So far, nine of those who were beatified or canonized were Knights. The American Knights collected more than $ 1 million to assist exiles from Mexico, fund the continuation of the education of expelled seminarians, and inform U.S. citizens about the oppression. They circulated five million leaflets about the war in
5217-675: The Knights of Columbus . On 3 August, four days after the Calles Law came into force, in Guadalajara, Jalisco , some 400 armed Catholics shut themselves in the Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe ("Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe"). They exchanged gunfire with federal troops and surrendered when they ran out of ammunition. According to American consular sources, the battle resulted in 18 dead and 40 wounded. The following day, in Sahuayo , Michoacán , 240 government soldiers stormed
5358-620: The Pacific Palisades and set up his own production company. While Rogers enjoyed film acting, his appearances in silent movies suffered from the obvious restrictions of silence, as he had gained his fame as a commentator on stage. He wrote many of the title cards appearing in his films. In 1923, he began a one-year stint for Hal Roach and made 12 pictures. Among the films he made for Roach in 1924 were three directed by Rob Wagner : Two Wagons Both Covered , Going to Congress , and Our Congressman . He made two other feature silents and
5499-543: The self-made man , the common man, who believed in America, in progress, and in the American Dream of upward mobility. His humor never offended even those who were the targets of it. In the 1920s, the United States was happy and prosperous in various ways (leading to the nickname Roaring Twenties ), but it also suffered from rapid change and social tensions. Some people were disenchanted by, and alienated from,
5640-673: The 1917 Constitution contained articles that restricted the power and the influence of the Catholic Church. The first two sections of Article 3 stated: "I. According to the religious liberties established under article 24, educational services shall be secular and, therefore, free of any religious orientation. II. The educational services shall be based on scientific progress and shall fight against ignorance, ignorance's effects, servitudes, fanaticism and prejudice." The second section of Article 27 stated: "All religious associations organized according to article 130 and its derived legislation, shall be authorized to acquire, possess or manage only
5781-521: The 1935 movie version of the play. But, concerned about a fan's reaction to the "facts-of-life" talk between his character and the latter's son, he declined the role. He and Wiley Post made plans to fly to Alaska that summer. Rogers was a Democrat but has historically been known as apolitical. He was friends with every president starting with Theodore Roosevelt , and he notably supported Republican Calvin Coolidge over John W. Davis in 1924. During
Dwight Morrow - Misplaced Pages Continue
5922-612: The Anti-Bunk Party. His campaign promise was that, if elected, he would resign. Every week, from Memorial Day through Election Day, Rogers caricatured the farcical humors of grave campaign politics. On election day he declared victory and resigned (he did not actually receive any state electoral votes). Asked what issues would motivate voters? Prohibition: "What's on your hip is bound to be on your mind" (July 26). Asked if there should be presidential debates? Yes: "Joint debate—in any joint you name" (August 9). How about appeals to
6063-642: The Calles government was supplied with arms and ammunition by the American government later in the war. In at least one battle, American pilots provided air support for the Federal Army against the Cristero rebels. The Calles government failed at first to take the threat seriously. The rebels did well against the agraristas , a rural militia recruited throughout Mexico, and the Social Defense forces,
6204-404: The Church than Calles had been and allowed Morrow and Burke to restart the peace initiative. Portes told a foreign correspondent on 1 May 1929, that "the Catholic clergy, when they wish, may renew the exercise of their rites with only one obligation, that they respect the laws of the land." The next day, the exiled Archbishop Leopoldo Ruíz y Flores issued a statement that the bishops would not demand
6345-554: The Church. Cárdenas's government continued to suppress religion in the field of education during his administration. The Mexican Congress amended Article 3 of the Constitution in October 1934 to include the following introductory text: "The education imparted by the State shall be a socialist one and, in addition to excluding all religious doctrine, shall combat fanaticism and prejudices by organizing its instruction and activities in
6486-459: The Cristero War. These attendees would also help generate sympathy in the United States for the Cristero War by printing newspaper articles about the war and would create religious nationalistic organizations such as Unión Nacionalista Mexicana ( Nationalist Mexican's Union in English) to gather funds for the war effort. There were some within these groups that would contribute more military aid to
6627-443: The Cristeros defeated federal troops for the first time at San Francisco del Rincón , Guanajuato , followed by another victory at San Julián, Jalisco . However, they quickly began to lose in the face of superior federal forces, retreated into remote areas, and constantly fled federal soldiers. Most of the leadership of the revolt in the state of Jalisco was forced to flee to the U.S. although Ramírez and Vega remained. In April 1927,
6768-437: The Cristeros, with actions including smuggling arms across the U.S.-Mexican border , providing espionage against the Mexican government, recruiting new troops to aid the Cristeros, and inciting armed revolts within Mexico. Despite all of these efforts, their contribution to the war was largely limited due to distrust from the United States government who saw an armed Catholic movement as dangerous and would send more troops to
6909-488: The Guadalajara church uprising, exploded. Bands of rebels moving in the " Los Altos " region northeast of Guadalajara began seizing villages and were often armed with only ancient muskets and clubs. The rebels had scarce logistical supplies and relied heavily on the Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc and raids on towns, trains, and ranches to supply themselves with money, horses, ammunition, and food. By contrast,
7050-607: The Knights of Columbus would also be involved with other Catholic organizations such as the Young Men's Catholic Association and La Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa ( National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty in English). The Knights of Columbus would create religious schools throughout Mexico in 1923 as a way to create a "National Crusade in Defense of Catholicism". Furthermore, La Liga would create
7191-511: The Mexican city and its similarly named sister city across the border in Arizona) to escape persecution from authorities because of its involvement in the Church and the rebels. The Cristeros maintained the upper hand throughout 1928, and in 1929, the government faced a new crisis: a revolt within army ranks that was led by Arnulfo R. Gómez in Veracruz . The Cristeros tried to take advantage by
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#17327868786207332-459: The Mexican government. In 1927, he invited popular humorist-actor Will Rogers and famed aviator Charles Lindbergh for a goodwill tour of Mexico. His daughter, Anne Morrow , was introduced to Lindbergh, and the two were soon engaged. To thank the town of Cuernavaca , where Morrow owned a vacation home, Morrow hired the Mexican artist Diego Rivera to paint murals in the Palace of Cortez , which are
7473-451: The Mexican government. In response, the Knights of Columbus published posters and magazines which presented Cristero soldiers in a positive light. In the mid-1920s, the anti-Catholic Ku Klux Klan denounced the Knights of Columbus's Mexican Fund. The government often did not abide by the terms of the truce. For example, it executed some 500 Cristero leaders and 5,000 other Cristeros. Catholics continued to oppose Calles's insistence on
7614-580: The New York area in those years. Rogers could make a film, yet easily still rehearse and perform in the Follies . He eventually appeared in most of the Follies , from 1916 to 1925. Hollywood discovered Rogers in 1918, as Samuel Goldwyn gave him the title role in Laughing Bill Hyde . A three-year contract with Goldwyn, at triple the Broadway salary, moved Rogers west. He bought a ranch in
7755-550: The Paint Clan. Unlike his father Clement's people, Mary's Cherokee relatives had been expelled from Georgia under the Indian Removal Act of 1830 in an exodus known as The Trail of Tears . Of the 16,000 Cherokees driven to Indian Territory (later Oklahoma), 4,000 perished en route . She died of amoebic dysentery when Will was 10 years of age. His father remarried almost three years after her death. Rogers
7896-468: The Persecution of the Church in Mexico") to denounce the violent anticlerical persecution in Mexico. Despite the government's promises, the persecution of the Church continued. In response, Pius issued Acerba animi on 29 September 1932. The bishops asked to have the offending articles of the Constitution amended. Pope Pius XI explicitly approved the plan. The Calles government considered
8037-550: The Republican Convention of 1928, while criticizing the party platform, Rogers welcomed the nomination of Kaw citizen Charles Curtis as vice president, although he felt the leadership had deliberately kept him from the presidency: "The Republican Party owed him something, but I didn't think they would be so low down as to pay him that way." Four years later, when the Republican leadership attempted to remove
8178-789: The St. Louis Fair as part of the Mulhall Rodeo. Near the end of 1901, when he was 22 years old, he and a friend, Dick Parris, left home hoping to work as gauchos in Argentina . They arrived in Argentina in May 1902, and spent five months trying to make it as ranch owners in the Pampas . Rogers and his partner lost all their money, and he later said, "I was ashamed to send home for more." The two friends separated and Rogers sailed for South Africa . It
8319-541: The U.S. Senate. Morrow was interred at Brookside Cemetery in Englewood. Morrow's will was dated January 24, 1927, and made over $ 1 million in specific bequests, including $ 200,000 to Amherst College , $ 200,000 to Smith College , $ 100,000 to the Smithsonian Institution , and several other bequests to family and friends. The estate was valued at about $ 10 million (equivalent to $ 175 million in 2023). The large $ 1,000,000 in estate taxes paid to
8460-710: The U.S. When the United States entered the war, Morrow became the director of the National War Savings Committee for the State of New Jersey . He also served abroad as adviser to the Allied Maritime Transport Council and as a civilian member of the Military Board of Allied Supply. With his proven logistical and intellectual talents, Morrow was sent to France by President Woodrow Wilson to serve as chief civilian aide to General John J. Pershing . In 1925, Morrow
8601-571: The U.S. state of New Mexico . That was followed by a 29 September uprising in Durango , led by Trinidad Mora, and an 4 October rebellion in southern Guanajuato, led by former General Rodolfo Gallegos. Both rebel leaders adopted guerrilla tactics since their forces were no match for federal troops. Meanwhile, rebels in Jalisco, particularly the region northeast of Guadalajara, quietly began assembling forces. Led by 27-year-old René Capistrán Garza ,
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#17327868786208742-621: The United States in 1904, appeared at the Saint Louis World's Fair , and began to try his roping skills on the vaudeville circuits. On a trip to New York City, Rogers was at Madison Square Garden , on April 27, 1905, when a wild steer broke out of the arena and began to climb into the viewing stands. Rogers roped the steer to the delight of the crowd. The feat got front page attention from the newspapers, giving him valuable publicity and an audience eager to see more. Willie Hammerstein saw his vaudeville act, and signed Rogers to appear on
8883-496: The United States, held hundreds of lectures, spread the news via radio, and paid to "smuggle" a friendly journalist into Mexico so he could cover the war for an American audience. In addition to lobbying the American public, the Knights met United States President Calvin Coolidge and pressed him for US intervention on behalf of the rebels. According to former Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus, Carl A. Anderson , two-thirds of Mexican Catholic councils were shut down by
9024-760: The United States. Many of them made their way to Los Angeles, where they were received by John Joseph Cantwell , bishop of what was then the Los Angeles-San Diego diocese." Under Archbishop Cantwell's sponsorship, the Cristero refugees became a substantial community in Los Angeles, California, in 1934 staging a parade some 40,000-strong throughout the city. Additionally, several other cites such as Chicago, Illinois , Milwaukee , Wisconsin , and San Antonio, Texas . Many cities saw an increase in Mexican Catholics fleeing because of
9165-653: The Vatican and accepting of the secularist Constitution. Calles applied the anticlerical laws stringently throughout the country and added his own anticlerical legislation. In June 1926, he signed the "Law for Reforming the Penal Code", which was popularly called the Calles Law . It provided specific penalties for priests and individuals who violated the provisions of the 1917 Constitution. For instance, wearing clerical garb in public, outside church buildings, earned
9306-538: The Victoria Roof—which was literally on a rooftop—with his pony. For the next decade, Rogers estimated he worked for 50 weeks a year at the Roof and at the city's myriad vaudeville theaters. Rogers later recalled these early years: In the fall of 1915, Rogers began to appear in Florenz Ziegfeld 's Midnight Frolic . The variety revue began at midnight in the top-floor night club of Ziegfeld's New Amsterdam Theatre , and drew many influential—and regular—customers. By this time, Rogers had refined his act. His monologues on
9447-425: The bishops' activism to be sedition and had many more churches closed. In September 1926, the episcopate submitted a proposal to amend the Constitution, but the Mexican Congress rejected it on 22 September. The government called the rebels Cristeros since they invoked the name of Jesus Christ under the title of "Cristo Rey" or Christ the King , and the rebels soon took to using the name themselves. The rebellion
9588-422: The border, which would cause more persecution and discrimination to Mexican Catholics, Cristero exiles, and refugees. Created in New Haven, Connecticut in 1882, the Knights of Columbus would establish its first chapter in Mexico called Caballeros de Colón (Knights of Columbus in Spanish) in Mexico City in 1905. Established by California railroad mogul and Knight John B. Frisbie , a resident of Mexico City,
9729-426: The camps and did a tremendous business. I did some roping and riding, and Jack, who was one of the smartest showmen I ever knew, took a great interest in me. It was he who gave me the idea for my original stage act with my pony. I learned a lot about the show business from him. He could do a bum act with a rope that an ordinary man couldn't get away with, and make the audience think it was great, so I used to study him by
9870-416: The clergy by ordering all local churches in and around Jalisco to be bolted shut. The places of worship remained shut for two years. On 14 July, Catholic bishops endorsed plans for an economic boycott against the government, which was particularly effective in west-central Mexico (the states of Jalisco , Michoacán , Guanajuato , Aguascalientes , and Zacatecas ). Other states that saw minor uprising were
10011-421: The clergy, would be allowed to make petitions to reform the laws. However, the most important parts of the agreement were that the Church would recover the right to use its properties, and priests would recover their rights to live on the properties. Legally speaking, the Church was not allowed to own real estate, and its former facilities remained federal property. However, the Church effectively took control over
10152-436: The common man? Easy: "You can't make any commoner appeal than I can" (August 16). What does the farmer need? Obvious: "He needs a punch in the jaw if he believes that either of the parties cares a damn about him after the election" (August 23). Can voters be fooled? Darn tootin': "Of all the bunk handed out during a campaign the biggest one of all is to try and compliment the knowledge of the voter" (September 21). What about
10293-547: The conflict to end for regional security and to help find a solution to the oil problem in the U.S. He was aided in his efforts by Father John J. Burke of the National Catholic Welfare Conference . Calles's term as president was coming to an end, and ex-President Álvaro Obregón had been elected president and was scheduled to take office on 1 December 1928. Obregón had been more lenient to Catholics during his time in office than Calles, but it
10434-566: The constitutional provisions, which triggered a ten-year-long religious conflict in which thousands of armed civilians were killed by the Mexican Army. Some have characterized Calles as the leader of an atheist state and his program as being one to eradicate religion in Mexico, although Calles also supported the creation of the Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church in 1925, a national church independent from
10575-428: The desecration of religious objects as well as the persecution and the murder of members of the clergy. When Calles and his Labor Party came to power in 1924, the administration believed that the Church was challenging its revolutionary initiatives and legal basis and resolved to strictly enforce the Constitution's secularist articles. To confront the Church's influence, laws were brought into force to execute on
10716-716: The end of the war, it numbered some 25,000. Several female Catholic activists groups formed during this women were instrumental in the formation of activist groups to promote a movement in response to the anticlerical campaigns of the period. With close ties to the Church and the clergy, the De La Torre family was instrumental in bringing the Cristero Movement to northern Mexico. The family, originally from Zacatecas and Guanajuato, moved to Aguascalientes and then, in 1922, to San Luis Potosí. It moved again to Tampico for economic reasons and finally to Nogales (both
10857-472: The establishment of the U.S. Army Air Corps in July 1926. Morrow was appointed United States Ambassador to Mexico by Coolidge from 1927 to 1930. Upon learning the news, the Mexican press had expected that the appointment of a partner of the financial firm J.P. Morgan was "a return to Dollar Diplomacy ." However, the Coolidge administration planned on changing relations between Mexico and the U.S., which Morrow
10998-469: The faithful masses by engaging in war for so long. They also lacked the overwhelming sympathy or support from many aspects of Mexican society, even among many Catholics. In October 1927, the American ambassador, Dwight Morrow , initiated a series of breakfast meetings with Calles at which they would discuss a range of issues from the religious uprising to oil and irrigation. That earned him the nickname "the ham and eggs diplomat" in U.S. papers. Morrow wanted
11139-522: The family at Englewood and in Maine for several months, drawing on interviews with them, Morrow's partners at J.P. Morgan, and with former Mexican president Plutarco Elias Calles for his book. It was published as Dwight Morrow in October 1935. Dwight Morrow High School , founded in 1932, was named in his honor. It is a public school serving students in Englewood and Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. The World War II Liberty Ship SS Dwight W. Morrow
11280-506: The first Women's Brigade was formed in Zapopan . It began with 16 women and one man, but after a few days, it grew to 135 members and soon came to number 17,000. Its mission was to obtain money, weapons, provisions, and information for the combatant men and to care for the wounded. By March 1928, some 10,000 women were involved in the struggle, with many smuggling weapons into combat zones by carrying them in carts filled with grain or cement. By
11421-579: The first chapter would be made up of mostly Irish and Irish-Mexicans before more Mexicans would join the organization. The Knights of Columbus would eventually become one of Mexico's biggest and most monumental Catholic organizations, with a total of 5,102 members across 45 councils nationwide. The Knights of Columbus would start out in western states, an area where the Catholic Church was widespread, such as Puebla , Hidalgo , Michoacán , Guanajuato , and Jalisco , before spreading to Nayarit , Veracruz , Coahuila , Durango , and Chihuahua . Mexican members of
11562-565: The first president under the 1917 Constitution but he was overthrown by his former ally Álvaro Obregón in 1919. Obregón took over the presidency in late 1920 and effectively applied the Constitution's anticlerical laws in areas in which the Church was fragile. The uneasy truce with the Church ended with Obregón's 1924 handpicked succession of the atheist Plutarco Elías Calles . Mexican Jacobins , supported by Calles's central government, engaged in secularization campaigns to eradicate what they called "superstition" and "fanaticism", which included
11703-512: The focal point of the Mexican Revolution. The peasantry was still upset of the usurpation of its rightful title to the land. The Mexican episcopate never officially supported the rebellion, but the rebels had some indications that their cause was legitimate. Bishop José Francisco Orozco of Guadalajara remained with the rebels. Although he formally rejected armed rebellion, he was unwilling to leave his flock. On 23 February 1927,
11844-415: The following Oaxaca , Colima , Sonora, and Nayarit . Catholics in those areas stopped attending movies and plays and using public transportation, and Catholic teachers stopped teaching in secular schools. The fomenting conflict attracted the attention of Pope Pius XI , who issued a series of papal encyclicals from 1925 to 1937. On 18 November 1926, he issued Iniquis afflictisque ("On
11985-470: The government to serve 15 million Catholics. The rest had been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, assassination, or not obtaining licenses. In 1935, 17 states had no registered priests. The end of the Cristero War affected emigration to the United States. "In the aftermath of their defeat, many of the Cristeros ;– by some estimates as much as 5 percent of Mexico's population – fled to
12126-456: The half-hour time limit in his earliest broadcasts, and was cut off in mid-sentence. To correct this, he brought in a wind-up alarm clock, and its on-air buzzing alerted him to begin wrapping up his comments. By 1935, his show was being announced as "Will Rogers and his Famous Alarm Clock". In 1908, Rogers married Betty Blake (1879–1944), and the couple had four children: Will Rogers Jr. , Mary Amelia, James Blake , and Fred Stone. Will Jr. became
12267-560: The harshness of his father. The personality clash increased after his mother's death when the boy was ten. Young Will went from one venture to another with little success. Only after Will won acclaim in vaudeville did the rift begin to heal. Clement's death in 1911 precluded a full reconciliation. Will Rogers attended school in Indian Territory, at the Willie Halsell College at Vinita in 1895 and 1896, and then
12408-510: The height of the rebellion, they held a region including the entire northern part of Jalisco. Luis Navarro Origel, mayor of Pénjamo , Guanajuato , led another uprising on 28 September. His men were defeated by federal troops in the open land around the town but retreated into the mountains, where they engaged in guerrilla warfare . In support of the two guerrilla Apache clans, the Chavez and Trujillos helped smuggle arms, munitions and supplies from
12549-518: The hour, and from him I learned the great secret of the show business—knowing when to get off. It's the fellow who knows when to quit that the audience wants more of. Grateful for the guidance but anxious to move on, Rogers quit the circus and went to Australia. Texas Jack gave him a reference letter for the Wirth Brothers Circus there, and Rogers continued to perform as a rider and trick roper, and worked on his pony act. He returned to
12690-554: The implementation of secularist and anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution . The rebellion was instigated as a response to an executive decree by Mexican President Plutarco Elías Calles to strictly enforce Article 130 of the Constitution, a decision known as the Calles Law . Calles sought to limit the power of the Catholic Church in Mexico , its affiliated organizations and to suppress popular religiosity. The rural uprising in north-central Mexico
12831-421: The law. In 1992, the Mexican government amended the constitution by granting all religious groups legal status, conceding them property rights, and lifting restrictions on the number of priests in the country. While the war was raging on in Mexico, Cristero exiles and other Mexican immigrants and refugees would attend sermons by banished Cristero priests denouncing President Plutarco Elías Calles ' regime and
12972-565: The law." The Mexican Revolution was the costliest conflict in Mexican history . The overthrow of the dictator Porfirio Díaz caused political instability, with many contending factions and regions. The Catholic Church and the Díaz government had come to an informal modus vivendi in which the state formally maintained the anticlerical articles of the liberal Constitution of 1857 but it failed to enforce them. A change of leadership or
13113-537: The leader of the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth, the region would become the main focal point of the rebellion. The formal rebellion began on 1 January 1927, with a manifesto sent by Garza, A la Nación ("To the Nation"). It declared that "the hour of battle has sounded" and that "the hour of victory belongs to God." With the declaration, the state of Jalisco, which had been seemingly quiet since
13254-542: The leader of the civilian wing of the Cristiada, Anacleto González Flores , was captured, tortured, and killed. The media and the government declared victory, and plans were made for a re-education campaign in the areas that had rebelled. As if to prove that the rebellion was not extinguished and to avenge his death, Vega led a raid against a train carrying a shipment of money for the Bank of Mexico on 19 April 1927. The raid
13395-429: The length and breadth of the United States in a "lecture tour". (He began his lectures by pointing out that "A humorist entertains, and a lecturer annoys.") During this time he became the first civilian to fly from coast to coast with pilots flying the mail in early air mail flights. The National Press Club dubbed him "Ambassador at Large of the United States". He visited Mexico City , along with Charles Lindbergh , as
13536-418: The lives of some 90,000 people: 56,882 federals, 30,000 Cristeros, and numerous civilians and Cristeros who were killed in anticlerical raids after the war had ended. As promised by Portes Gil, the Calles Law remained on the books, but there were no organized federal attempts to enforce it. Nonetheless, in several localities, officials continued persecution of Catholic priests, based on their interpretation of
13677-535: The local militia, but were at first always defeated by regular federal troops, who guarded the main cities. The Federal Army then had 79,759 men. When the Jalisco federal commander, General Jesús Ferreira, moved in on the rebels, wired to army headquarters that "it will be less a campaign than a hunt". That sentiment was held also by Calles. However, the rebels planned their battles fairly well considering that most of them had little to no previous military experience. The most successful rebel leaders were Jesús Degollado,
13818-528: The local parish priests who aided them but also blamed high-ranking Catholic clergy for supporting Huerta. The 1917 Constitution was drafted by the Constituent Congress convened by Venustiano Carranza in September 1916, and it was approved on 5 February 1917. It was based on the previous 1857 Constitution , which had been instituted by Benito Juárez . Articles 3, 27, and 130 of
13959-399: The mass-circulation upscale magazine The Saturday Evening Post . Rogers advised Americans to embrace the frontier values of neighborliness and democracy on the domestic front, while remaining clear of foreign entanglements. He took a strong, highly popular stand in favor of aviation, including a military air force of the sort his flying buddy General Billy Mitchell advocated. Rogers began
14100-526: The measures, Catholic organizations began to intensify their resistance. The most important Catholic group was the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty , founded in 1924, which was joined by the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth, founded in 1913, and the Popular Union, a Catholic political party founded the previous year. Later in 1926, Calles intensified tensions against
14241-494: The money we do spend on Government and it's not one bit better than the government we got for one-third the money twenty years ago." Rogers served as a goodwill ambassador to Mexico, and had a brief stint as mayor of Beverly Hills , a largely ceremonial position that allowed Rogers to joke about do-nothing politicians such as himself. During the depths of the Great Depression , angered by Washington's inability to feed
14382-490: The more conservative Curtis from the Hoover ticket, Rogers defended him, and took credit for keeping him on the ticket: "I saved my 'Injun' Charley Curtis for vice presidency. The rascals was just ready to stab him when we caught 'em." In 1932 Rogers supported Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt , who was his favorite president and politician. Although he supported Roosevelt's New Deal , he could just as easily joke about it: "Lord,
14523-400: The nation's policies regarding the Church still fell into federal jurisdiction. Under Camacho, bans against Church anticlerical laws were no longer enforced anywhere in Mexico. The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934, at least 40 priests were killed. There were 4,500 priests serving the people before the rebellion, but by 1934, there were only 334 licensed by
14664-587: The necessary assets to achieve their objectives." The first paragraph of Article 130 stated: "The rules established at this article are guided by the historical principle according to which the State and the churches are separated entities from each other. Churches and religious congregations shall be organized under the law." The Constitution also provided for mandatory registration of all churches and religious congregations and forbade priests to involve themselves in politics or inherit from anyone other than close relatives. It also allowed each state to control
14805-449: The news of the day followed a similar routine every night. He appeared on stage in his cowboy outfit, nonchalantly twirling his lasso, and said, "Well, what shall I talk about? I ain't got anything funny to say. All I know is what I read in the papers." He would make jokes about what he had read in that day's newspapers. The line "All I know is what I read in the papers" is often incorrectly described as Rogers's most famous punch line, when it
14946-507: The number of priests in its territory (some reduced it to zero), forbade the wearing of religious garb outside of church premises, and excluded offenders from a trial by jury. Carranza declared himself opposed to the final draft of Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, 123 and 130, but the Constitutional Congress contained only 85 conservatives and centrists who were close to Carranza's moderate liberalism. Against them were 132 delegates of
15087-489: The other hand, since the rebels themselves had not been consulted in the talks, many felt betrayed, and some continued to fight. The Church threatened those rebels with excommunication and the rebellion gradually died out. The officers, fearing that they would be tried as traitors, tried to keep the rebellion alive. Their attempt failed, and many were captured and shot, and others escaped to San Luis Potosí , where General Saturnino Cedillo gave them refuge. The war had claimed
15228-458: The ouster of Huerta in 1914, members of the National Catholic Party and high-ranking Church figures were accused of collaborating with the Huerta regime, and the Catholic Church was subjected to revolutionary hostilities and fierce anticlericalism by many northern revolutionaries. The Constitutionalist faction won the revolution and its leader, Venustiano Carranza , had a new constitution drawn up,
15369-594: The outside world. Many common people believed that World War I had resulted in extensive and largely senseless carnage, and they supported isolationism for the US. According to scholar Peter Rollins (1976), Rogers appeared to be an anchor of stability; his conventional home life and traditional moral code reminded people of a recent past. His newspaper column, which ran from 1922 to 1935, expressed his traditional morality and his belief that political problems were not as serious as they sounded. In his films, Rogers began by playing
15510-533: The parish church. The priest and his vicar were killed in the ensuing violence. On 14 August, government agents staged a purge of the Chalchihuites , Zacatecas , chapter of the Association of Catholic Youth and executed its spiritual adviser, Father Luis Bátiz Sainz. The execution caused a band of ranchers, led by Pedro Quintanar, to seize the local treasury and to declare themselves in rebellion. At
15651-403: The peasants were allowed to return to the harvest, and there was now more support than ever for the Cristeros. By August 1927, they had consolidated their movement and had begun constant attacks on federal troops garrisoned in their towns. They would soon be joined by Enrique Gorostieta , a retired general hired by the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty . On 21 June 1927,
15792-455: The people, he embarked on a cross-country fundraising tour for the Red Cross . Rogers thought all campaigning was bunk. To prove the point, he mounted a mock campaign in 1928 for the presidency. His only vehicle was the pages of Life , a weekly humor magazine. The campaign was in large part an effort to boost circulation for the struggling magazine. Rogers ran as the "bunkless candidate" of
15933-456: The properties. In the convenient arrangement for both parties, the Church ostensibly ended its support for the rebels. Over the previous two years, anticlerical officers, who were hostile to the federal government for reasons other than its position on religion, had joined the rebels. When the agreement between the government and the Church was made known, only a minority of the rebels went home, mainly those who felt their battle had been won. On
16074-528: The repeal of the laws but only their more lenient enforcement. Morrow managed to bring the parties to agreement on 21 June 1929. His office drafted a pact called the arreglos ("agreement"), which allowed worship to resume in Mexico and granted three concessions to the Catholics. Only priests who were named by hierarchical superiors would be required to register; religious instruction in churches but not in schools would be permitted; and all citizens, including
16215-613: The rest of his career around that skill. A 1922 editorial in The New York Times said that "Will Rogers in the Follies is carrying on the tradition of Aristophanes , and not unworthily." Rogers branched into silent films too, for Samuel Goldwyn 's company Goldwyn Pictures . He made his first silent movie, Laughing Bill Hyde (1918), which was filmed in Fort Lee, New Jersey . Many early films were filmed and produced in
16356-655: The school day. His most unusual role may have been in the first talking version of Mark Twain 's novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court . His popularity soared to new heights with films including Young As You Feel , Judge Priest , and Life Begins at 40 , with Richard Cromwell and Rochelle Hudson. Rogers was an indefatigable worker. He toured the lecture circuit. The New York Times syndicated his weekly newspaper column from 1922 to 1935. Going daily in 1926, his short column "Will Rogers Says" reached 40 million newspaper readers. He also wrote frequently for
16497-628: The state of New Jersey enabled the state to balance their books. In addition, a $ 1 million trust fund had been set up for Anne Morrow Lindbergh in 1929. Morrow's personal papers are held by the Archives & Special Collections in Robert Frost Library at Amherst College . In 1934, Betty Morrow requested that the British diplomat and writer Harold Nicolson write the definitive biography of her late husband. Nicolson stayed with
16638-517: The trial, and seeking to shape aviation policy in accordance with his own economic views, Coolidge asked Morrow to head a board of military and civilian aviation experts to inquire into all aspects of aviation. The board's report, published before Mitchell's conviction, recommended the creation of an Air Corps within the Army equivalent to the Signal Corps or Quartermaster Corps , which resulted in
16779-437: The views of the "common man" in America. He downplayed academic credentials, noting, "Everybody is ignorant, only on different subjects." Americans of all walks admired his individualism, his appreciation for democratic ideas, and his liberal philosophies on most issues. Moreover, Rogers extolled hard work in order to succeed, and such expressions affirmed American theories about how to realize individual success. Rogers symbolized
16920-488: The views of the bishops, severely attacked Huerta and so the new regime jailed the party's president and halted the publication of the newspaper. Nevertheless, some members of the party participated in Huerta's regime, such as Eduardo Tamariz. The revolutionary generals Venustiano Carranza , Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata , who won against Huerta's Federal Army under the Plan of Guadalupe , had friends among Catholics and
17061-521: The war. Immigration to other countries such as Canada, Rome, Cuba occurred as well. The Calles Law was repealed after Cárdenas became president in 1934. Cárdenas earned respect from Pope Pius XI and befriended Mexican Archbishop Luis María Martínez , a major figure in Mexico's Catholic Church who successfully persuaded Mexicans to obey the government's laws peacefully. The Church refused to back Mexican insurgent Saturnino Cedillo's failed revolt against Cárdenas although Cedillo endorsed more power for
17202-418: The world three times, made 71 films (50 silent films and 21 "talkies"), and wrote more than 4,000 nationally syndicated newspaper columns. By the mid-1930s, Rogers was hugely popular in the United States for his leading political wit and was the highest paid of Hollywood film stars. He died in 1935 with aviator Wiley Post when their small airplane crashed in northern Alaska. Rogers began his career as
17343-453: The year 1803. Before this, Alexander's ancestors had come from Scotland. After graduating from Amherst College in 1895, Morrow studied law at Columbia Law School and began practicing at the law firm Simpson Thacher & Bartlett in New York City. In 1903, he married Elizabeth Reeve Cutter , his college sweetheart, with whom he had four children. Anne Morrow , his daughter, later married Charles A. Lindbergh , whom she met while her father
17484-548: Was Ambassador to Mexico. In 1913, he became a partner at J.P. Morgan & Co. , one of the largest and most powerful commercial and investment banks in the United States during this era, financially backing industrial giants such as General Motors and 3M . As a partner at Morgan, he served as a director on many corporate and financial boards. With the onset of World War I in Europe, the bank lent Britain and France large sums of money with which they purchased war materials in
17625-461: Was a featured star in Ziegfeld's Follies on Broadway, as he moved into satire by transforming the "Ropin' Fool" to the "Talkin' Fool". At one performance, with President Woodrow Wilson in the audience, Rogers improvised a "roast" of presidential policies that had Wilson, and the entire audience, in stitches and proved his remarkable skill at off-the-cuff, witty commentary on current events. He built
17766-661: Was a leader in the Cherokee Nation . An attorney and Cherokee judge, Clement owned two slaves he had acquired from his father, and was a Confederate combat veteran of the American Civil War. He was promoted to regimental captain under Confederate colonel (later Brigadier General) Stand Watie and fought at the Battle of Pea Ridge (1862). Clement served as a delegate to the Oklahoma Constitutional Convention . Rogers County, Oklahoma ,
17907-407: Was a success, but Vega's brother was killed in the fighting. The "Reconcentración" policy, was a policy of forced resettlement by the government during the cristero period of villages destroyed during the numerous battles . rather than suppressing the revolt, gave it new life, as thousands of men began to aid and join the rebels in resentment for their treatment by the government. When rains came,
18048-409: Was aided by Father John J. Burke of the National Catholic Welfare Conference . The Vatican was also actively seeking peace in Mexico. After the assassination in 1928 of the newly re-elected President Álvaro Obregón , former president Calles was ineligible to serve again due to term limits, and the Mexican Congress named Emilio Portes Gil as president. In practice, Calles remained in power during
18189-463: Was also generally accepted among Mexicans, including the Cristeros, that Calles was his puppet leader . Two weeks after his election, Obregón was assassinated by a Catholic radical, José de León Toral , which gravely damaged the peace process. In September 1928, Congress named Emilio Portes Gil as interim president with a special election to be held in November 1929. Portes was more open to
18330-562: Was an "important step in the 'retreat from imperialism.' " He was the father of Anne Morrow and father-in-law of Charles A. Lindbergh . Of Scotch-Irish descent, Morrow was born in Huntington, West Virginia . He moved with his parents, James Elmore and Clara (Johnson) Morrow to Allegheny, Pennsylvania in 1875. His father James was principal of Marshall College, which is now Marshall University . Morrow's great-great-grandfather Alexander Morrow had immigrated to America from Ireland around
18471-537: Was born had been built in 1875 and was known as the "White House on the Verdigris River ". His parents, Clement V. (Clem) Rogers (1839–1911) and Mary America Schrimsher (1838–1890), were both mixed-race with Cherokee ancestry, and considered themselves Cherokee. Rogers quipped that his ancestors did not come over on the Mayflower , but they "met the boat". His mother was one quarter-Cherokee and born into
18612-629: Was directed three times by John Ford. He appeared in four films with his friend Stepin Fetchit (aka Lincoln T. Perry): David Harum (1934), Judge Priest (1934), Steamboat Round the Bend (1935) and The County Chairman (1935). With his voice becoming increasingly familiar to audiences, Rogers essentially played himself in each film, without film makeup, managing to ad-lib and sometimes work in his familiar commentaries on politics. The clean moral tone of his films resulted in various public schools taking their classes to attend special showings during
18753-463: Was his mediation of the conflict between the Mexican government and the Catholic Church in Mexico which had escalated into a violent armed revolt, known as the Cristero rebellion . It was not in the security interests of the United States for such internal disorder to be occurring in its neighbor to the south, not least because of the flight of Mexican refugees to the U.S. from the regions of conflict. Morrow's efforts at mediation were successful, and he
18894-477: Was his opening line. His run at the New Amsterdam ran into 1916, and Rogers's growing popularity led to an engagement on the more famous Ziegfeld Follies . At this stage, Rogers's act was strictly physical, a silent display of daring riding and clever tricks with his lariat. He discovered that audiences identified the cowboy as the archetypical American—doubtless aided by Theodore Roosevelt 's image as
19035-626: Was named in his honor. He was portrayed by Bruce Greenwood in the 2012 film For Greater Glory set during the Cristero War . Cristero rebellion Ceasefire [REDACTED] Mexican Government [REDACTED] Cristeros The Cristero War (Spanish: La guerra cristera ), also known as the Cristero Rebellion or La cristiada [la kɾisˈtjaða] , was a widespread struggle in central and western Mexico from 3 August 1926 to 21 June 1929 in response to
19176-411: Was no longer suppressed, but some states refused to repeal Calles's policy. Relations with the Church improved under President Cárdenas. The government's disregard for the Church, however, did not relent until 1940, when President Manuel Ávila Camacho , a practicing Catholic, took office. During Cárdenas presidency, Church buildings in the country continued in the hands of the Mexican government, and
19317-477: Was summoned by his old Amherst College classmate and friend, President Calvin Coolidge , to lead a board of inquiry into aviation in the U.S. In September of that year, Coolidge ordered the court-martial of Colonel Billy Mitchell of the Army Air Service for " conduct prejudicial to good order and military discipline ." The trial was scheduled for November. Anticipating adverse political reaction to
19458-436: Was tacitly supported by the Church hierarchy, and was aided by urban Catholic supporters. The Mexican Army received support from the United States. American Ambassador Dwight Morrow brokered negotiations between the Calles government and the Church. The government made some concessions, the Church withdrew its support for the Cristero fighters, and the conflict ended in 1929. The rebellion has been variously interpreted as
19599-503: Was the first revolutionary leader. He was elected president in November 1911 but was overthrown and executed in 1913 by conservative General Victoriano Huerta in a series of events now known as the Ten Tragic Days . After Huerta seized power, Archbishop Leopoldo Ruiz y Flóres from Morelia published a letter condemning the coup and distancing the Church from Huerta. The newspaper of the National Catholic Party, representing
19740-465: Was the youngest of eight children. He was named for the Cherokee leader Colonel William Penn Adair . Only three of his siblings, sisters Sallie Clementine, Maude Ethel, and Mary (May), survived into adulthood. His mother, Mary Schrimsher, was a sister of Martha Schrimsher Gulager, the paternal grandmother of Clu Gulager , making Rogers and Gulager first cousins, once removed. His father, Clement,
19881-436: Was to implement. One of Morrow's first acts in Mexico was to change the sign identifying the embassy from "American Embassy" to "United States Embassy"; the appropriation of the words "America" and "American" to refer solely to the United States had long rankled other countries in the hemisphere, including Mexico. Morrow was widely hailed as a brilliant ambassador, mixing popular appeal with sound economic and financial advice to
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