71-458: Dyfi Furnace is a restored mid 18th century charcoal fired blast furnace used for smelting iron ore . It has given its name to the adjoining hamlet of Furnace ( Welsh : Ffwrnais ). The Dyfi Furnace is in the village of Furnace, Ceredigion , Wales , adjoining the A487 trunk road from Machynlleth to Aberystwyth , near Eglwysfach . The site for Dyfi Furnace was chosen downstream of
142-413: A charcoal pile or clamp . This was essentially a pile of wooden logs (e.g. seasoned oak) leaning in a circle against a chimney. The chimney consisted of 4 wooden stakes held up by some rope. In the clamp too the logs were completely covered with soil and straw allowing no air to enter. It must be lit by introducing some burning fuel into the chimney. The logs burned slowly and transformed into charcoal over
213-539: A protection forest against an avalanche) is not the sole management objective of the woodland. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the technology of charcoal iron production became widely established in England, continuing in some areas until the late 19th century Along with the growing need for oak bark for tanning , this required large amounts of coppice wood. With this coppice management, wood could be provided for those growing industries in principle indefinitely. This
284-468: A wood gas generator . In 1931, Tang Zhongming developed an automobile powered by charcoal, and these cars were popular in China until the 1950s, and in occupied France during World War II , where they were called gazogènes . Charcoal is used in the production of black powder , which is used extensively in the production of fireworks. It is usually ground into a fine powder, with air float grade being
355-459: A closed retort . Modern charcoal briquettes used for outdoor cooking may contain many other additives, e.g. coal . The history of wood charcoal production spans ancient times, rooted in the abundance of wood in various regions. The process typically involves stacking wood billets to form a conical pile, allowing air to enter through openings at the bottom, and igniting the pile gradually. Charcoal burners, skilled professionals tasked with managing
426-472: A construction material was gradually replaced by newer materials. Coppicing died out first in the north of Britain and steadily contracted toward the south-east until by the 1960s active commercial coppice was heavily concentrated in Kent and Sussex. The shoots (or suckers ) may be used either in their young state for interweaving in wattle fencing (as is the practice with coppiced willows and hazel ), or
497-405: A coppiced woodland is harvested in sections or coups on a rotation. In this way, a crop is available each year somewhere in the woodland. Coppicing has the effect of providing a rich variety of habitats, as the woodland always has a range of different-aged coppice growing in it, which is beneficial for biodiversity . The cycle length depends upon the species cut, the local custom, and the use of
568-435: A deep brown-black after some time at 280 °C (540 °F), and an easily powdered mass at 310 °C (590 °F). Charcoal made at 300 °C (570 °F) is brown, soft and friable, and readily inflames at 380 °C (720 °F); made at higher temperatures it is hard and brittle, and does not fire until heated to about 700 °C (1,300 °F). Modern methods employ retorting technology, in which process heat
639-400: A filter, catalyst , or adsorbent. Charcoal burns at temperatures exceeding 1,100 degrees Celsius (2,010 degrees Fahrenheit). By comparison, the melting point of iron is approximately 1,200 to 1,550 °C (2,190 to 2,820 °F). Due to its porosity, it is sensitive to the flow of air and the heat generated can be moderated by controlling the air flow to the fire. For this reason charcoal
710-456: A filter. Activated charcoal readily adsorbs a wide range of organic compounds dissolved or suspended in gases and liquids. In certain industrial processes, such as the purification of sucrose from cane sugar, impurities cause an undesirable color, which can be removed with activated charcoal. It is also used to absorb odors and toxins in gaseous solutions, as in home air purifiers and some types of gas mask . The medical use of activated charcoal
781-432: A high-forest structure. Coppice and pollard growth is a response of the tree to damage, and can occur naturally. Trees may be browsed or broken by large herbivorous animals , such as cattle or elephants , felled by beavers or blown over by the wind . Some trees, such as linden , may produce a line of coppice shoots from a fallen trunk, and sometimes these develop into a line of mature trees. For some trees, such as
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#1732773131203852-503: A large range of purposes including art and medicine, but by far its most important use has been as a metallurgical fuel. Charcoal is the traditional fuel of a blacksmith's forge and other applications where an intense heat is required. Charcoal was also used historically as a source of black pigment by grinding it up. In this form charcoal was important to early chemists and was a constituent of formulas for mixtures such as black powder . Due to its high surface area , charcoal can be used as
923-574: A living wholly or partly by working coppices in the area today, at places such as at the Weald and Downland Living Museum . Coppices provided wood for many purposes, especially charcoal before coal was economically significant in metal smelting . A minority of these woods are still operated for coppice today, often by conservation organisations , producing material for hurdle -making, thatching spars, local charcoal-burning or other crafts. The only remaining large-scale commercial coppice crop in England
994-414: A microscopic scale. Charcoal may be used as a source of carbon in chemical reactions. One example of this is the production of carbon disulphide through the reaction of sulfur vapors with hot charcoal. In that case, the wood should be charred at high temperature to reduce the residual amounts of hydrogen and oxygen that lead to side reactions. Charcoal may be activated to increase its effectiveness as
1065-425: A period of 5 days. If the soil covering became torn or cracked by the fire, additional soil was placed on the cracks. Once the burn was complete, the chimney was plugged to prevent air from entering. The true art of this production method was in managing the sufficient generation of heat, by combusting part of the wood material, and the transfer of the heat to the wood in the process of being carbonized. The operation
1136-539: A raw material in pyrotechnics. It is also utilized in cosmetics, horticulture, animal husbandry, medicine, and environmental sustainability efforts, such as carbon sequestration. However, the production and utilization of charcoal can have adverse environmental impacts, including deforestation and emissions. Illegal and unregulated charcoal production, particularly in regions like South America and Africa, poses significant challenges to environmental conservation efforts. The production of wood charcoal in locations where there
1207-465: A regulated charcoal industry that required replanting and sustainable use of the forests "would give their people clean efficient energy – and their energy industries a strong competitive advantage". Recent assessments of charcoal imported to Europe have shown that many charcoal products are produced from tropical wood, often of undeclared origin. In an analysis of barbecue charcoal marketed in Germany,
1278-660: A short time, research on Terra preta soils in Amazonia has discovered the widespread use of biochar by pre-Columbian natives to ameliorate unproductive soil into soil rich in carbon . The technique may find modern application, both to improve soils and as a means of carbon sequestration . Charcoal is mixed with feed, added to litter , or used in the treatment of manure . Poultry benefits from using charcoal in this manner. A concern that activated charcoal might be used unscrupulously to allow livestock to tolerate low quality feed contaminated with aflatoxins resulted in
1349-597: A smelting fuel has been experiencing a resurgence in South America resulting in severe environmental, social and medical problems. Charcoal production at a sub-industrial level is one of the causes of deforestation. Charcoal production is now usually illegal and nearly always unregulated, as in Brazil , where charcoal production is a large illegal industry for making pig iron . Massive forest destruction has been documented in areas such as Virunga National Park in
1420-550: A tri-annual cut can happen. This seems to maximize the production volume from the stand. Such frequent growth means the soils can be easily depleted and so fertilizers are often required. The stock also becomes exhausted after some years and so will be replaced with new plants. The method of harvesting of energy wood can be mechanized by adaptation of specialized agricultural machinery. Species and cultivars vary in when they should be cut, regeneration times and other factors. However, full life cycle analysis has shown that poplars have
1491-426: A way to improve the health of people burning raw biomass for cooking and/or heating. Modern "charcoal" briquettes, widely used for outdoor cooking, are made with charcoal but may also include coal as an energy source as well as accelerants, binders and filler. To contain the charcoal and use it for cooking purposes, a barbecue grill may be used. A small Japanese charcoal grill is known as a shichirin . A brazier
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#17327731312031562-632: Is sweet chestnut which is grown in parts of Sussex and Kent . Much of this was established as plantations in the 19th century for hop-pole production (hop-poles are used to support the hop plant while growing hops ) and is nowadays cut on a 12 to 18-year cycle for splitting and binding into cleft chestnut paling fence , or on a 20- to 35-year cycle for cleft post-and-rail fencing, or for sawing into small lengths to be finger-jointed for architectural use. Other material goes to make farm fencing and to be chipped for modern wood-fired heating systems. In northwest England , coppice-with-standards has been
1633-591: Is a container used to burn charcoal or other solid fuel. To start the charcoal burning is harder than starting a wood fire and charcoal lighter fluid may be employed. A chimney starter or electric charcoal starter are tools to help with starting to light charcoal. Approximately 75% of fuel burned in Haiti is charcoal. Certain types of charcoal, such as wood charcoal, are used for reducing heated metallic oxides to their respective metals: Charcoal can also be used to reduce super heated steam to hydrogen (along with
1704-479: Is a habitat of relatively low biodiversity —it does not support the open-woodland species, but neither does it support many of the characteristic species of high forest , because it lacks many high-forest features such as substantial dead-wood, clearings and stems of varied ages. Suitable conservation management of these abandoned coppices may be to restart coppice management, or in some cases it may be more appropriate to use singling and selective clearance to establish
1775-439: Is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, called charcoal burning, often by forming a charcoal kiln , the heat is supplied by burning part of the starting material itself, with a limited supply of oxygen . The material can also be heated in
1846-533: Is a similar Japanese technique. Many silviculture practices involve cutting and regrowth; coppicing has been of significance in many parts of lowland temperate Europe. The widespread and long-term practice of coppicing as a landscape-scale industry is something that remains of special importance in southern England. Many of the English language terms referenced in this article are particularly relevant to historic and contemporary practice in that area. Typically
1917-537: Is always another recently cut coup nearby, and the populations therefore move around, following the coppice management. However, most British coppices have not been managed in this way for many decades. The coppice stems have grown tall (the coppice is said to be overstood ), forming a heavily shaded woodland of many closely spaced stems with little ground vegetation. The open-woodland animals survive in small numbers along woodland rides or not at all, and many of these once-common species have become rare. Overstood coppice
1988-479: Is an abundance of wood dates back to ancient times. It generally began with piling billets of wood on their ends to form a conical pile. Openings were left at the bottom to admit air , with a central shaft serving as a flue . The whole pile was covered with turf or moistened clay . The firing began at the bottom of the flue, and the fire gradually spread outward and upward. The traditional method in Britain used
2059-424: Is based on a Czech legend about a king who gets lost in a forest and is rescued by a charcoal burner. Coppicing Coppicing / ˈ k ɒ p ɪ s ɪ ŋ / is the traditional method in woodland management of cutting down a tree to a stump , which in many species encourages new shoots to grow from the stump or roots, thus ultimately regrowing the tree. A forest or grove that has been subject to coppicing
2130-481: Is called a copse / k ɒ p s / or coppice , in which young tree stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground level. The resulting living stumps are called stools . New growth emerges, and after a number of years, the coppiced trees are harvested, and the cycle begins anew. Pollarding is a similar process carried out at a higher level on the tree in order to prevent grazing animals from eating new shoots. Daisugi (台杉, where sugi refers to Japanese cedar ),
2201-485: Is generally more effective as an adsorption filter due to its increased porosity and surface area. Charcoal is used for drawing , making rough sketches in painting , and is one of the possible media used for making a parsemage . It usually must be preserved by the application of a fixative . Artists generally utilize charcoal in four forms: One additional use of charcoal was rediscovered recently for horticulture . Although American gardeners have used charcoal for
Dyfi Furnace - Misplaced Pages Continue
2272-467: Is likely that the furnace was then transferred to Kendall & Co. (Jonathan Kendall and his brother Henry), ironmasters from the West Midlands with extensive interests scattered across Staffordshire , Cheshire , The Lake District and Scotland . After the original lease expired in 1796, it appears the furnace was then owned by Bell and Gaskell, including Thomas Bell, who had managed it for
2343-427: Is mainly the absorption of poisons . Activated charcoal is available without a prescription, so it is used for a variety of health-related applications. For example, it is often used to reduce discomfort and embarrassment due to excessive gas ( flatulence ) in the digestive tract. Animal charcoal or bone black is the carbonaceous residue obtained by the dry distillation of bones. It contains only about 10% carbon,
2414-605: Is no evidence to determine its safety and effectiveness. Red colobus monkeys in Africa have been observed eating charcoal for self-medication. Because their leafy diets contain high levels of cyanide , which may lead to indigestion, they learned to consume charcoal, which absorbs the cyanide and relieves discomfort. This knowledge is transmitted from mother to infant. Production and utilization of charcoal, like any use of woody biomass as fuel, typically results in emissions and can contribute to deforestation. The use of charcoal as
2485-421: Is recovered from, and solely provided by, the combustion of gas released during carbonization. Yields of retorting are considerably higher than those of kilning, and may reach 35%-40%. The properties of the charcoal produced depend on the material charred. The charring temperature is also important. Charcoal contains varying amounts of hydrogen and oxygen as well as ash and other impurities that, together with
2556-485: Is still widely used by blacksmiths. Charcoal has been used for the production of iron and steel (where it also provided the necessary carbon) since at least 2000 BCE , with artifacts having been found in Proto-Hittite layers at Kaman-Kalehöyük . Charcoal briquettes can burn up to approximately 1,260 °C (2,300 °F) with a forced air blower forge. In the 16th century, England had to pass laws to prevent
2627-440: Is used to obtain showers of golden sparks in pyrotechnic compositions. Charcoal is also incorporated in multiple cosmetic products. It can be produced from regular bamboo cut into small pieces and boiled in water to remove soluble compounds. Raw bamboo charcoal is obtained after drying and carbonization in an oven at elevated temperature. The role of charcoal in cosmetics is based on its highly effective absorbing properties at
2698-637: The Democratic Republic of Congo , where it is considered a primary threat to the survival of the mountain gorillas. Similar threats are found in Zambia . In Malawi , illegal charcoal trade employs 92,800 workers and is the main source of heat and cooking fuel for 90 percent of the nation's population. Some experts, such as Duncan MacQueen, Principal Researcher–Forest Team, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) , argue that while illegal charcoal production causes deforestation,
2769-514: The Kingsford Company . The modern process of carbonizing wood, either in small pieces or as sawdust in cast iron retorts , is extensively practiced where wood is scarce, and also for the recovery of valuable byproducts ( wood spirit , pyroligneous acid , wood tar ), which the process permits. The question of the temperature of the carbonization is important; according to J. Percy, wood becomes brown at 220 °C (430 °F),
2840-534: The World Wildlife Fund found that most products contain tropical wood. As a notable exception, reference is made to barbecue charcoal imports from Namibia , where charcoal is typically produced from surplus biomass resulting from woody plant encroachment . Charcoal trafficking in Somalia is an economic and environmental issue with significant regional-security implications. The last section of
2911-468: The common beech ( Fagus sylvatica ), coppicing is more or less easy depending on the altitude: it is much more efficient for trees in the montane zone . Coppicing of willow , alder and poplar for energy wood has proven commercially successful. The Willow Biomass Project in the United States is an example of this. In this case the coppicing is done in a way that an annual or more likely
Dyfi Furnace - Misplaced Pages Continue
2982-579: The waterfall on the River Einion to take advantage of the water power from the river and charcoal produced from the local woodlands , with the iron ore being shipped in from Cumbria via the Afon Dyfi . The furnace built around 1755 was only used for about fifty years to smelt iron ore. By 1810 it had been abandoned and the waterwheel removed. The etching by John George Wood to accompany his "The Principal Rivers of Wales", published 1813, shows
3053-469: The 17th century. A strong disadvantage of this production method is the huge amount of emissions that are harmful to human health and the environment (emissions of unburnt methane). As a result of the partial combustion of wood material, the efficiency of the traditional method is low. The massive production of charcoal (at its height employing hundreds of thousands, mainly in Alpine and neighbouring forests)
3124-593: The Association of American Feed Control Officials banning it in 2012 from use in commercial livestock feeds. Charcoal in the form of charcoal biscuits was consumed in the past for gastric problems. Now it can be consumed in tablet, capsule, or powder form for digestive effects. Research regarding its effectiveness is controversial. Charcoal has been used in combination with saccharin in research to measure mucociliary transport time. Charcoal has also been incorporated into toothpaste formulas; however, there
3195-519: The Industrial Revolution, charcoal was occasionally used as a cooking fuel . It is counted as a smokeless fuel ; that is, the carbon is sufficiently pure that burning it causes substantially less air pollution than burning the original uncarbonized organic material would. In the 20th century, clean-air legislation mandated smokeless fuels (mostly coke or charcoal) in many areas of Europe. In the 21st century, charcoal has been advocated as
3266-727: The Kendalls, whose main activity by then was running the Beaufort Ironworks in Beaufort, Ebbw Vale , in the South Wales Valleys . The water wheel , shown in the photographs, provided power for a sawmill. The site was previously a Silver Mill of the Society of Mines Royal . 52°32′18″N 3°56′25″W / 52.5382°N 3.9403°W / 52.5382; -3.9403 Charcoal Charcoal
3337-552: The base. This curve occurs as the competing stems grow out from the stool in the early stages of the cycle, then up toward the sky as the canopy closes. The curve may allow the identification of coppice timber in archaeological sites. Timber in the Sweet Track in Somerset (built in the winter of 3807 and 3806 BCE ) has been identified as coppiced Tilia species. Originally, the silvicultural system now called coppicing
3408-468: The country from becoming completely denuded of trees due to production of iron. In the 19th century charcoal was largely replaced by coke in steel production due to cost, even though coke usually adds sulphur and sometimes other deleterious contaminants to the pig iron. Wooded metallurgical regions devoid of coal like Sweden, the Urals, or Siberia transitioned from charcoal in the early 20th century. Prior to
3479-423: The delicate operation, often lived in isolation to tend their wood piles. Throughout history, the extensive production of charcoal has been a significant contributor to deforestation, particularly in regions like Central Europe. However, various management practices, such as coppicing , aimed to maintain a steady supply of wood for charcoal production. The scarcity of easily accessible wood resources eventually led to
3550-497: The end of the 19th century resulted in rapid re-forestation of affected areas. The American form of the charcoal briquette was first invented and patented by Ellsworth B. A. Zwoyer of Pennsylvania in 1897 and was produced by the Zwoyer Fuel Company . The process was further popularized by Henry Ford , who used wood and sawdust byproducts from automobile fabrication as a feedstock . Ford Charcoal went on to become
3621-561: The film Le Quattro Volte (2010) gives a good and long, if poetic, documentation of the traditional method of making charcoal. The Arthur Ransome children's series Swallows and Amazons (particularly the second book, Swallowdale ) features carefully drawn vignettes of the lives and the techniques of charcoal burners at the start of the 20th century, in the Lake District of the UK. Antonín Dvořák's opera King and Charcoal Burner
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#17327731312033692-413: The finest particle size available commercially. When used in black powder compositions, it is often ball-milled with other ingredients so that they are intimately mixed together. Certain charcoals perform better when used to make black powder; these include spruce, willow, paulownia and grapevine among others. Charcoal produces fine dark orange/golden sparks . Usually, powder with a mesh size from 10 to 325
3763-576: The formation of carbon monoxide): Like many other sources of carbon, charcoal can be used for the production of various syngas compositions; i.e., various CO + H 2 + CO 2 + N 2 mixtures. The syngas is typically used as fuel, including automotive propulsion, or as a chemical feedstock. In times of scarce petroleum, automobiles and even buses have been converted to burn wood gas: a gas mixture consisting primarily of diluting atmospheric nitrogen , but also containing combustible gasses (mostly carbon monoxide ) released by burning charcoal or wood in
3834-512: The furnace in its transitional form with no waterwheel attached. Some time later a new waterwheel was installed - the one that has been renovated and is visible today - and the furnace became a sawmill. The furnace site was renovated around 1988. The furnace was built by Ralph Vernon and the brothers Edward Bridge and William Bridge . Vernon retired between 1765 and 1770, and the Bridges (who also owned Conwy Furnace ) became bankrupt in 1773. It
3905-399: The introduction of more active and easily managed reagents, but it is still employed to some extent in laboratory practice. The bleaching action of the charcoal in solution diminishes as it adsorbs colored contaminants, and it must be reactivated periodically by separate washing and reheating. While wood charcoal effectively removes some pigments and contaminants from solutions, bone charcoal
3976-531: The martial art Canne de combat (also known as Bâton français ). Some Eucalyptus species are coppiced in a number of countries, including Australia, North America, Uganda, and Sudan. The Sal tree is coppiced in India, and the Moringa oleifera tree is coppiced in many countries, including India. Sometimes former coppice is converted to high-forest woodland by the practice of singling. All but one of
4047-415: The new shoots may be allowed to grow into large poles, as was often the custom with trees such as oaks or ashes . This creates long, straight poles which do not have the bends and forks of naturally grown trees. Coppicing may be practised to encourage specific growth patterns, as with cinnamon trees which are grown for their bark. Another, more complicated system is called compound coppice . Here some of
4118-500: The norm, the standards often of oak with relatively little simple coppice. After World War II , a great deal was planted up with conifers or became neglected. Coppice-working almost died out, though a few men continued in the woods. Coppice management favours a range of wildlife, often of species adapted to open woodland. After cutting, the increased light allows existing woodland-floor vegetation such as bluebell , anemone and primrose to grow vigorously. Often brambles grow around
4189-621: The product. Birch can be coppiced for faggots on a three- or four-year cycle, whereas oak can be coppiced over a fifty-year cycle for poles or firewood . Trees being coppiced do not die of old age as coppicing maintains the tree at a juvenile stage, allowing them to reach immense ages. The age of a stool may be estimated from its diameter; some are so large—as much as 5.5 metres (18 ft) across—that they are thought to have been continually coppiced for centuries. Evidence suggests that coppicing has been continuously practised since pre-history. Coppiced stems are characteristically curved at
4260-559: The regrowing stems are cut, leaving the remaining one to grow as if it were a maiden (uncut) tree. The boundaries of coppice coups were sometimes marked by cutting certain trees as pollards or stubs. In southern Britain , coppice was traditionally hazel , hornbeam , field maple , ash , sweet chestnut , occasionally sallow , elm , small-leafed lime and rarely oak or beech , grown among pedunculate or sessile oak, ash or beech standards. In wet areas alder and willows were used. A small, and growing, number of people make
4331-407: The remaining being calcium and magnesium phosphates (80%) and other inorganic material originally present in the bones. It is generally manufactured from the residues obtained in the glue and gelatin industries. Its bleaching power was applied in 1812 by Derosne for clarifying sugar syrup , but its use in this direction has now greatly diminished. Today it is seldom used for this purpose due to
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#17327731312034402-537: The resulting forest product from any one area. The woodland provides the small material from the coppice as well as a range of larger timber for such uses as house building , bridge repair , cart-making and so on. In the 18th century coppicing in Britain began a long decline. This was brought about by the erosion of its traditional markets. Firewood was no longer needed for domestic or industrial uses as coal and coke became easily obtained and transported, and wood as
4473-529: The standards would be left, some harvested. Some of the coppice would be allowed to grow into new standards and some regenerated coppice would be there. Thus there would be three age classes. Coppiced hardwoods were used extensively in carriage and shipbuilding , and they are still sometimes grown for making wooden buildings and furniture. Withies for wicker -work are grown in coppices of various willow species, principally osier . In France, sweet chestnut trees are coppiced for use as canes and bâtons for
4544-464: The stools, encouraging insects, or various small mammals that can use the brambles as protection from larger predators. Woodpiles (if left in the coppice) encourage insects such as beetles to come into an area. The open area is then colonised by many animals such as nightingale , European nightjar and fritillary butterflies . As the coup grows, the canopy closes and it becomes unsuitable for these animals again—but in an actively managed coppice there
4615-403: The structure, determine the properties. The approximate composition of charcoal for gunpowders is sometimes empirically described as C 7 H 4 O. To obtain a coal with high purity, source material should be free of non-volatile compounds. Wood charcoal is obtained as the residue by destructive distillation of wood such that the products are: Charcoal has been used since earliest times for
4686-497: The transition to fossil fuel equivalents like coal. Modern methods of charcoal production involve carbonizing wood in retorts, yielding higher efficiencies compared to traditional kilning methods. The properties of charcoal depend on factors such as the material charred and the temperature of carbonization. Charcoal finds diverse applications, including metallurgical fuel in iron and steel production, industrial fuel, cooking and heating fuel, reducing agent in chemical processes, and as
4757-548: Was a major cause of deforestation , especially in Central Europe . Complaints (as early as the Stuart period ) about shortages may stem from over-exploitation or the impossibility of increasing production to match growing demand. In England , many woods were managed as coppices , which were cut and regrown cyclically, so that a steady supply of charcoal was available. But the increasing scarcity of easily harvested wood
4828-492: Was a major factor behind the switch to fossil fuel equivalents, mainly coal and brown coal for industrial use. In Finland and Scandinavia , the charcoal was considered the by-product of wood tar production. The best tar came from pine , thus pinewoods were cut down for tar pyrolysis . The residual charcoal was widely used as substitute for metallurgical coke in blast furnaces for smelting . Tar production led to rapid local deforestation. The end of tar production at
4899-860: Was practiced solely for small wood production. In German this is called Niederwald , which translates as low forest. Later on in Mediaeval times, farmers encouraged pigs to feed from acorns, and so some trees were allowed to grow bigger. This different silvicultural system is called in English coppice with standards . In German this is called Mittelwald (middle forest). As modern forestry ( Hochwald in German, which translates as High forest ) seeks to harvest timber mechanically, and pigs are generally no longer fed from acorns, both systems have declined. However, there are cultural and wildlife benefits from these two silvicultural systems, so both can be found where timber production or some other main forestry purpose (such as
4970-435: Was regulated by a statute of 1544 of Henry VIII , which required woods to be enclosed after cutting (to prevent browsing by animals) and 12 standels ( standards or mature uncut trees) to be left in each acre, to be grown into timber. Coppice with standards (scattered individual stems allowed to grow on through several coppice cycles) has been commonly used throughout most of Europe as a means of giving greater flexibility in
5041-648: Was so delicate that it was generally left to colliers (professional charcoal burners). They often lived alone in small huts to tend their wood piles. For example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany, charcoal burners lived in conical huts called Köten which still exist today. The success of the operation depends upon the rate of the combustion . Under average conditions wood yields about 60% charcoal by volume , or 25% by weight ; small-scale production methods often yield only about 50% by volume, while large-scale methods enabled higher yields of about 90% by
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