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108-541: Dyothelitism as a position stands in opposition to the view of monothelitism , the doctrine of Jesus having one will, in Christological thought. Dyothelitism was championed by Maximus the Confessor . The conflict arose between varying views of the constitution of a 'person' and 'will': monothelites believe that a single person can only possess a single will without arising in conflict, whereas dyothelites emphasize

216-536: A Sunday in the lunar month of Nisan . To determine which lunar month was to be designated as Nisan, Christians relied on the Jewish community. By the late 3rd century some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with what they took to be the disorderly state of the Jewish calendar . They argued that contemporary Jews were identifying the wrong lunar month as the month of Nisan, choosing a month whose 14th day fell before

324-519: A circle of Christian violence, and of Christian resistance couched in terms of martyrdom. There is no record of any discussion of the biblical canon at the council. The development of the biblical canon was nearly complete (with exceptions known as the Antilegomena , written texts whose authenticity or value is disputed) by the time the Muratorian fragment was written. The main source of

432-637: A compromise position. The Byzantine emperor Heraclius tried to unite all of the various factions within the empire with this new formula that was more inclusive and more elastic. That approach was needed to win over the non-Chalcedonians since they already believed that Christ has a single nature and so necessarily believed that he holds a single will. However, it was unclear whether the Chalcedonians should believe in Christ's human and divine energy and/or will as well as his human and divine nature because

540-422: A decree to Arcadius, Bishop of Cyprus , requesting him to teach the doctrine of "one hegumenic energy". By all accounts, that was met with notable success, particularly as there was then a large colony of Armenians on the island, which encouraged Heraclius to attempt to seek a wider approval of his compromise. In 626, he asked Patriarch Sergius to approach Cyrus, Bishop of Phasis , to secure his cooperation. With

648-573: A doctrine. However, Sergius and the emperor refused to give up. Three years later, the patriarch came up with a slightly-modified formula, which Heraclius released as the Ecthesis in 638. The edict was considered to be the official response to Sophronius's letter. It forbade all mention of Christ possessing one or two energies; instead, it now proclaimed that Christ has two natures but a single will . This did not deny Christ human volition, but insisted that this volition could never be in opposition to

756-411: A matter of grammar, rather than theology. Though he used the expression "one will", he was no Monothelite, for he placed "one energy" and "two energies" on exactly the same footing. Further, his second letter to Sergius was by and large orthodox. Maximus the Confessor, in his Disputation with Pyrrhus , interprets the statement "one will" as referring to the integrity of Christ's human will, in contrast to

864-666: A means of inclusion and recognition, especially at baptism. In Rome, for example, the Apostles' Creed was popular, especially for use in Lent and the Easter season. In the Council of Nicaea, one specific creed was used to define the Church's faith clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who did not. The original Nicene Creed read as follows: We believe in one God,

972-579: A process that took centuries and generated numerous controversies , some of which remain unresolved. In particular, the Council did not seem to decree that Easter must fall on Sunday. This was unnecessary as it resolved against the Quartodecimani , who celebrated on any day of the week, in favour of the Churches who postponed the celebration to the following Sunday. See the extract from the Letter of

1080-473: A resolution on the Melitian schism and issued twenty canons. The council closed in the first weeks of July, with the bishops invited to attend Constantine's celebration of his twentieth anniversary on the throne on 25 July. Both the bishops and the emperor issued letters recounting the councils' decisions to be circulated throughout the empire. The First Council of Nicaea was the first ecumenical council of

1188-589: A synod at Alexandria concerning the date of Easter, before calling a council of Eastern bishops in Antioch. This council endorsed Alexander's position and issuing a statement of faith that held that the Son was "begotten not from non-existence, but from the Father, not as made, but as genuine product" and contained anathemas against Arius. Eusebius of Caesaria was also temporarily excommunicated because of his contention that

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1296-585: A way that the Word made flesh willed humanly in obedience to his Father all that he had decided divinely with the Father and the Holy Spirit for our salvation. Christ's human will 'does not resist or oppose but rather submits to his divine and almighty will.'" Monothelitism Monothelitism , or monotheletism was a theological doctrine in Christianity that was proposed in the 7th century, but

1404-460: Is assumed to be limited to the known inhabited Earth, and at this time in history is nearly synonymous with the Roman Empire . The earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius ' Life of Constantine around 338, which states "he convoked an ecumenical council" ( σύνοδον οἰκουμενικὴν συνεκρότει , sýnodon oikoumenikḕn synekrótei ) and a letter in 382 to Pope Damasus I and

1512-585: Is but one will and one operation in the two natures of our one Lord Jesus Christ our true God, we anathematize. Chalcedonian Christianity accepts dyothelitism as theologically orthodox. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "Similarly, at the Sixth ecumenical council, Constantinople III in 681, the Church confessed that Christ possesses two wills and two natural operations, divine and human. They are not opposed to each other, but co-operate in such

1620-477: Is generally considered the beginning of the period of the first seven ecumenical councils in the history of Christianity . The Council formulated a creed, a declaration and summary of the Christian faith. Several creeds were already in existence; many creeds were acceptable to the members of the council, including Arius. From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification for Christians, as

1728-569: Is that Christ remains in two distinct natures, yet these two natures come together within his one hypostasis . More simply, Christ is known as "both fully human and fully Divine, one in being with the Father". This position was opposed by the Monophysites who held that Christ possesses one nature only. The term Monophysitism of which Eutychianism is one type, held that the human and divine natures of Christ were fused into one new single ( mono ) nature. As described by Eutyches , his human nature

1836-499: Is the christological doctrine of the Oriental Orthodox churches. Nevertheless, the resultant debates led the Chalcedonians to accuse the non-Chalcedonians of teaching Christ's humanity to be of a different kind from our own. Meanwhile, the non-Chalcedonians accused the Chalcedonians of espousing a form of Nestorianism , a rejected doctrine that held that Jesus Christ was two distinct subsistences. This internal division

1944-693: The Book of Genesis . Lists of signatories to the final decisions of the council contain 200–220 names. With presbyters and deacons attending each bishop, the total attendance may have been between 1200 and 1900. Most of the bishops were eastern, with about twenty from Egypt and Libya, another fifty from Palestine and Syria, and more than one hundred from Asia Minor. One bishop each from Persia and Scythia were present. The few western attendees were Hosius, Caecilianus of Carthage , Nicasius of Die , Marcus of Calabria , Domnus of Pannonia , and Victor and Vicentius, two presbyters representing Bishop Sylvestor of Rome . Of

2052-528: The Christological issue of the divine nature of God the Son and his relationship to God the Father , the construction of the first part of the Nicene Creed , mandating uniform observance of the date of Easter , and promulgation of early canon law . The major impetus for the calling of the Council of Nicaea arose in a theological dispute among the Christian clergy of Alexandria concerning

2160-572: The Council of Hatfield in 680, convoked by Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury . All of the western synods condemned monothelitism, and a report of the Roman synod's acts was sent to Constantinople, along with the western delegates to the council. The council met from 680 to 681. Apart from the Roman representatives, it also hosted representatives from the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem, and

2268-536: The Ecthesis but also the Type . After the synod, Pope Martin wrote to Constans to inform him of its conclusions and to require him to condemn both the monothelite doctrine and his own Type . However, Constans was not the sort of emperor to take such a rebuke of imperial authority lightly. Even while the Lateran Synod was sitting, Olympius arrived as the new exarch of Ravenna , with instructions to ensure that

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2376-548: The Roman Catholic Church . That brought to an end the controversy over monothelitism. A side issue over the statements of Pope Honorius I and his condemnation by the council arose in discussions concerning papal infallibility . In the view of historians such as John Bagnell Bury , Honorius, with a traditional Latin dislike for dialectics , did not fully comprehend the issues. The question of Monoenergism, as presented by Patriarch Sergius, seemed to Honorius to be

2484-477: The Third Council of Constantinople , the sixth ecumenical council. During the 5th century, some regions of the Church were thrown into confusion because of the debates that erupted over the nature of Jesus Christ. Although the Church had already determined that Christ is the son of God, his exact nature remained open to debate. The Church had declared heretical the notion that Jesus is not fully divine in

2592-509: The Type was followed in Italy and to use whatever means necessary to ensure that the Pope adhered to it. He was unable to complete his mission and soon died, but his successor, Theodore I Calliopas , seized Pope Martin and abducted him to Constantinople, where he was imprisoned and tortured before he was condemned for breaking the imperial commands and banished before he died from his treatment at

2700-400: The ecumenical councils had made no ruling on that subject. A ruling for the new doctrine would provide common ground for the non-Chalcedonians and the Chalcedonians to come together, as the non-Chalcedonians could agree that Jesus has two natures if he has only one will, and some Chalcedonians could agree that Jesus has one will if he has two natures. Patriarch Sergius I of Constantinople

2808-563: The pillaging and the tearing down of Roman temples . Constantine's role regarding Nicaea was that of supreme civil leader and authority in the empire. As Emperor, the responsibility for maintaining civil order was his, and he sought that the Church be of one mind and at peace. When first informed of the unrest in Alexandria due to the Arian disputes, he was "greatly troubled" and, "rebuked" both Arius and Bishop Alexander for originating

2916-402: The spring equinox . Christians, these thinkers argued, should abandon the custom of relying on Jewish informants and instead do their own computations to determine which month should be styled Nisan, setting Easter within this independently computed, Christian Nisan, which would always locate the festival after the equinox. They justified this break with tradition by arguing that it was in fact

3024-489: The state religion of the Roman Empire until the Edict of Thessalonica in 380. In the meantime, paganism remained legal and present in public affairs. Constantine's coinage and other official motifs, until the Council of Nicaea, had affiliated him with the pagan cult of Sol Invictus . At first, Constantine encouraged the construction of new temples and tolerated traditional sacrifices . Later in his reign, he gave orders for

3132-536: The 4th century (see First Council of Nicaea ), during the debates over Arianism , and had declared that he is God the Son who became human. However, in arguing that he is both God and man, there then emerged a dispute over exactly how the human and divine natures of Christ actually exist within the person of Christ. The Christological definition of Chalcedon , as accepted by the Eastern Orthodox , Catholic , Anglican , Lutheran , and Reformed churches ,

3240-469: The Chalcedonians. In Egypt for instance, some 30,000 Greeks of Chalcedonian persuasion were ranged against some five million Coptic non-Chalcedonians. Meanwhile, Syria and Mesopotamia were divided between Nestorianism and Jacobitism, while the religion of Armenia was wholly Cyrilline Non-Chalcedonian, and Palestine fully adhered to Chalcedonianism. Consequently, the Monothelite teaching emerged as

3348-503: The Church. However, he was concerned about the effect that the debate had on the Roman Empire and so he issued an imperial edict , the Type of Constans . The edict made it illegal to discuss in any manner Christ possessing either one or two wills or one or two energies. He declared that the whole controversy was to be forgotten: "the scheme which existed before the strife arose shall be maintained, as it would have been if no such disputation had arisen". However, he would soon discover that

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3456-552: The Council of Nicaea to the Egyptian Church , cited above. Nor did the Council decree that Easter must never coincide with Nisan 15 (the first Day of Unleavened Bread, now commonly called "Passover") in the Hebrew calendar. The Finnish Orthodox Church explains, "According to the definition of the Council of Nicaea in 325, Pascha is celebrated on the first Sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox, but always after

3564-520: The Council promulgated one which was clearly opposed to Arianism and incompatible with the distinctive core of their beliefs. The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius' works, and elsewhere. The Homoousians (from the Koine Greek word translated as "of same substance" which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264–268) were

3672-513: The East also gave their approval to the doctrine now referred to as monothelitism and so it looked as if Heraclius would finally heal the divisions in the imperial church. Unfortunately, he had not counted on the popes at Rome . During the same year, 638, Pope Honorius I had died as well. His successor Pope Severinus (640) condemned the Ecthesis outright and so was forbidden his seat until 640. His successor, Pope John IV (640–42), also rejected

3780-537: The Father almighty, maker of all things visible and invisible; And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten from the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the substance of the Father, God from God, light from light, true God from true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the Father, through Whom all things came into being, things in heaven and things on earth, Who because of us men and because of our salvation came down, and became incarnate and became man, and suffered, and rose again on

3888-537: The Father and the Son were of two different natures. The bishops were then to assemble Ancyra in Asia Minor for a "great and hierarchic council", either at their own impetus or Constantine's command. Constantine moved the council to Nicaea in Bithynia, a venue that would allow him to attend personally (due to its proximity to his capital at Nicomedia ) and would allow easier access for bishops from throughout

3996-486: The Holy Scriptures with: "Let, then, all contentious disputation be discarded; and let us seek in the divinely-inspired word the solution of the questions at issue." Thereupon, the debate about Arius and church doctrine began. "The emperor gave patient attention to the speeches of both parties" and "deferred" to the decision of the bishops. The bishops first pronounced Arius' teachings to be anathema, formulating

4104-658: The Holy Spirit was referred to by several Church fathers), though many scholars believe that the way the term was used indicates that it was known previously to his readers. Also, over a century before, the term " Trinity " ( Τριάς in Greek; trinitas in Latin) was used in the writings of Origen and Tertullian , and a general notion of a "divine three", in some sense, was expressed in the 2nd-century writings of Polycarp , Ignatius , and Justin Martyr . In Nicaea, questions regarding

4212-435: The Holy Spirit were left largely unaddressed until after the relationship between the Father and the Son was settled around the year 362. The doctrine in a more full-fledged form was not formulated until the Council of Constantinople in 381 and a final form formulated primarily by Gregory of Nyssa . While Constantine had sought a unified church after the council, he did not force the homoousian view of Christ's nature on

4320-546: The Jewish Passover. The date of the vernal equinox was then defined as March 21." L'Huillier notes the success of this strategy - Orthodox Easter has never preceded Passover. The suppression of the Melitian schism, an early breakaway sect, was another important matter that came before the Council of Nicaea. Melitius, it was decided, should remain in his own city of Lycopolis in Egypt but without exercising authority or

4428-466: The Jewish calendar was formally resolved by the council, which endorsed the independent procedure that had been in use for some time at Rome and Alexandria. Easter was henceforward to be a Sunday in a lunar month chosen according to Christian criteria—in effect, a Christian Nisan—not in the month of Nisan as defined by Jews. Those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar (called "protopaschites" by later historians) were urged to come around to

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4536-522: The Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople . Historically significant as the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom , the council was the first occasion where the technical aspects of Christology were discussed. Through it a precedent was set for subsequent general councils to adopt creeds and canons . This council

4644-402: The Patriarchs of Constantinople and Antioch were present in person. With the exception of two individuals, it condemned the monothelite doctrine as one that diminished the fullness of Christ's humanity and asserted dyothelitism to be the true doctrine, with Christ possessing "two natural wills and two natural energies, without division, alteration, separation or confusion". It also anathematised

4752-402: The Son was eternally generated from the Father, while Arius and his followers asserted that the Father alone was eternal, and that the Son was created or begotten by the Father, and thus had a defined point of origin and was subordinate to the Father. Arius accused Alexander of following the teachings of Sabellius , who taught that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were one person, rather than

4860-478: The authority of Peter's successors Achillas or Alexander. In 324, the western Roman emperor Constantine defeated the eastern emperor Licinius and became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. It was at this time that, likely from Eusebius of Nicomedia, he became aware of the controversy between Alexander and Arius. Constantine wrote a letter to the two, urging them to end their dispute and reconcile. This

4968-454: The basis of church tradition; and that, with special reference to Alexandria, on account of the troubles existing there. Rome was named only for illustration; and Antioch and all the other eparchies or provinces were secured their admitted rights. The bishoprics of Alexandria , Rome , and Antioch were placed substantially on equal footing." Thus, according to Schaff, the Bishop of Alexandria

5076-513: The center of Christological disputes during the 7th century. Monothelitism is from Greek : μονοθελητισμός , romanized :  monothelētismós , lit.   'doctrine of one will'. Theological notions related to the oneness of Christ's will emerged as a result of some earlier Christological controversies that were related to monophysitism as formulated by Eutyches (d. 456) and miaphysitism as formulated by non-Chalcedonian followers of Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444). Since

5184-733: The chief representatives of the discredited doctrine, including Pope Honorius. The churches condemned at Constantinople included the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Maronite Church , but the Oriental Orthodox have denied that they ever held the monothelite view and describe their own Christology as Miaphysite , and the Maronites accept the Chalcedonian formula since they are in communion with

5292-639: The church in Alexandria. Alexander also circulated letters defending his own position. Parallel to the theological controversy between Alexander and Arius was the Melitian schism in the Alexandrian church. Melitius , bishop of Lycopolis , had acted in the stead of the imprisoned bishop Peter I of Alexandria during the Diocletianic Persecution , but after Peter's death in 311 refused to give up his right to ordain clergy or recognize

5400-401: The church. Nicaea "was the first time that any attempt had been made to summon a general council of the whole church at which, at least in theory, the church in every part of the Roman Empire should be represented". Derived from Greek ( Ancient Greek : οἰκουμένη , romanized :  oikouménē , lit.   'the inhabited one'), "ecumenical" means "worldwide" but generally

5508-527: The consent of Bishop Alexander. In the event of the death of a non-Melitian bishop or ecclesiastic, the vacant see might be given to a Melitian, provided he was worthy and the popular election were ratified by Alexander. Melitius' episcopal rights and prerogatives were taken from him. These mild measures, however, were in vain; the Melitians joined the Arians and caused more dissension than ever, being among

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5616-453: The contemporary Jewish calendar that had broken with tradition by ignoring the equinox and that in former times the 14th of Nisan had never preceded the equinox. Others felt that the customary practice of reliance on the Jewish calendar should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error from a Christian point of view. The controversy between those who argued for independent computations and those who argued for continued reliance on

5724-560: The controversy would not die down. In Rome and the West, opposition to monothelitism was reaching fever pitch, and the Type of Constans did nothing to defuse the situation but indeed made it worse by implying that either doctrine was as good as the other. Theodore planned the Lateran Council of 649 to condemn the Ecthesis but died before he could convene it, which his successor, Pope Martin I (649–653), did. The council condemned

5832-481: The council by arranging that travel expenses to and from the bishops' episcopal sees , as well as lodging at Nicaea, be covered out of public funds. He also provided and furnished a "great hall ... in the palace" as a place for discussion so that his guests "should be treated with becoming dignity". In addressing the opening of the council, he "exhorted the Bishops to unanimity and concord" and called on them to follow

5940-457: The council. Constantine did not commission any Bibles at the council. Despite Constantine's sympathetic interest in the Church, he was not baptized until some 11 or 12 years after the council, putting off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much sin as possible. According to Protestant theologian Philip Schaff : "The Nicene fathers passed this canon not as introducing anything new, but merely as confirming an existing relation on

6048-567: The creed as a statement of correct doctrine. When Arius and two followers refused to agree, the bishops pronounced clerical judgement by excommunicating them from the Church. Respecting the clerical decision, and seeing the threat of continued unrest, Constantine also pronounced civil judgement, banishing them into exile. This was the beginning of the practice of using secular power to establish doctrinal orthodoxy within Christianity, an example followed by all later Christian emperors, which led to

6156-488: The dazzling brilliance of gold and precious stones." He then gave an opening speech in Latin (rather than the Greek spoken by most of the attendees). Fifth-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople gives the date of the opening as 20 May 325, though may have been later in June. It is most likely that Hosius presided over the council's debates and proceedings as Constantine's representative. Constantine did join in

6264-562: The debates of the council (in Greek), but did not see himself as a voting member as he was not a bishop. No detailed acta of the council exist as they do for later councils, so the exact sequence of the council's debates is uncertain. Church councils at the time were modeled after the proceedings of the Roman Senate , with the presiding officer having a large degree of control, and participants speaking in turn based on hierarchy. Probably

6372-465: The disturbance and allowing it to become public. Aware also of "the diversity of opinion" regarding the celebration of Easter and hoping to settle both issues, he sent the "honored" Bishop Hosius of Cordova (Hispania) to form a local church council and "reconcile those who were divided". When that embassy failed, he turned to summoning a synod at Nicaea, inviting "the most eminent men of the churches in every country". Constantine assisted in assembling

6480-455: The divine will; but the opponents of one will misinterpreted the doctrine as denying Christ any human volition whatever. Sophronius had died before the release of the new doctrine, and his replacement, Bishop Sergius of Jaffa, as Patriarch Abraham I of Jerusalem, approved the modified formula. Sergius died by the end of 638, and his replacement, Pyrrhus , was also a devoted monothelite and a close friend of Heraclius. The two remaining patriarchs in

6588-518: The doctrine completely, leading to a major schism between the eastern and western halves of the Chalcedonian Church. When news reached Heraclius of the Pope's condemnation, he was already old and ill, and the news only hastened his death. He declared with his dying breath that the controversy was all due to Sergius and that the patriarch had pressured him to give his unwilling approval to the Ecthesis . This state of schism remained for

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6696-440: The doctrine of two energies could lead to the erroneous belief that Jesus has two conflicting wills. Honorius's reply in 635 endorsed that view that all discussions should cease and agreed that Jesus has only one will, not two conflicting wills, since Jesus assumed not the vitiated human nature, tainted by Adam's fall, but human nature as it existed prior to Adam's fall. In the meantime the epistola synodica of Sophronius appeared,

6804-409: The eastern bishops, the principal supporters of Arius were Eusebius of Nicomedia, Eusebius of Caesarea, Menophantus of Ephesus , Patrophilus of Scythopolis , Narcissus of Neronias , Theonas of Marmarike, Secundus of Ptolemais , and Theognis of Nicaea . The principal anti-Arians included Alexander of Alexandria, Eustathius of Antioch , Marcellus of Ancyra and Macarius of Jerusalem . The council

6912-476: The empire. The emperor had also planned a commemoration of the twentieth year of his reign in Nicaea. The expenses of the council, including the travel of the bishops, were paid by the imperial treasury. Contemporary reports of attendance range from 250 to 300, with the figure of 318 given by Athanasius of Antioch becoming traditionally accepted. 318 is also the number of members of Abraham 's household given in

7020-467: The fallen human will, which seeks diverse and contradictory goods. The Third Council of Constantinople posthumously anathematised Honorius as a heretic: "And with these we define that there shall be expelled from the holy Church of God and anathematized Honorius who was some time Pope of Old Rome, because of what we found written by him to Sergius, that in all respects he followed his view and confirmed his impious doctrines" (13th session) and "To Honorius,

7128-402: The first matter considered was the status of Eusebius of Caesarea and the other bishops excommunicated at Antioch, as this would determine whether they could participate in the rest of the council. According to Eusebius, his profession of faith was accepted and he was restored. An account by Eustathius of Antioch records a statement of faith by a Eusebius being rejected by the council, though this

7236-553: The first round in the battle after the Council of Nicaea was ended". Christianity had only recently been legalised in the empire, the Diocletianic Persecution having ended in 311 under Galerius . Although Galerius stopped the Persecution, Christianity was not legally protected until 313, when the emperors Constantine and Licinius agreed to what became known as the Edict of Milan , guaranteeing Christians legal protection and tolerance. However, Nicene Christianity did not become

7344-505: The flames , while his supporters were considered as "enemies of Christianity". Nevertheless, the controversy continued in various parts of the empire. The feast of Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread, as Christians believe that the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus occurred at the time of those observances. As early as Pope Sixtus I in the 2nd century, some Christians had set Easter to

7452-418: The hands of the emperor. The emperor continued to persecute any who spoke out against monothelitism, including Maximus the Confessor and a number of his disciples. Maximus lost his tongue and his right hand in an effort to have him recant. Nevertheless, his brutality had an effect, with the patriarchs, including the popes, remaining silent throughout the remainder of his reign. After Constans's death in 668,

7560-404: The heretic, anathema!" (16th session). However, Pope Leo II's letter of confirmation of the Council interprets the council as intending to criticise Honorius not for error of belief but for "imprudent economy of silence". Leo's letter stated: "We anathematize the inventors of the new error, that is, Theodore, Sergius,... and also Honorius, who did not attempt to sanctify this Apostolic Church with

7668-513: The idea that the canon was created at the Council of Nicaea seems to be Voltaire , who popularised a story that the canon was determined by placing all the competing books on an altar during the council and then keeping the ones that did not fall off. The original source of this "fictitious anecdote" is the Synodicon Vetus , a pseudo-historical account of early Church councils from 887. In 331, Constantine commissioned fifty Bibles for

7776-422: The majority position. That they did not all immediately do so is revealed by the existence of sermons, canons, and tracts written against the protopaschite practice in the late 4th century. These two rules—independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity—were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice,

7884-413: The monothelite question be decided entirely by a church council. He asked if the pope (now Pope Agatho , 678–681) would be willing to send delegates to an ecumenical council to be held at Constantinople so that the question could be firmly ended. Pope Agatho agreed but first held a preliminary synod at Rome 680 to obtain the opinion of the western theologians. Other synods were also held at Milan and at

7992-432: The most vocal of anti-Arians and were able to advance the use of the term, thus the creed was accepted by the council. The emperor carried out his earlier statement: everybody who refused to endorse the creed would be exiled . Arius, Theonas, and Secundus refused to adhere to the creed and were thus exiled to Illyria , in addition to being excommunicated . The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and consigned to

8100-555: The nature of Jesus , his origin, and relation to God the Father . Scholars propose dates between 318 and 322 for the beginning of the dispute. The precise origins of the controversy are unclear, but the principal actors were Archbishop Alexander of Alexandria and the presbyter Arius . Arius' teachings are known partially from a few of his writing which survive, but principally from his opponents, primarily Alexander and Athanasius of Alexandria . Arius criticized Alexander's teachings on Christology ; Alexander taught that Jesus as God

8208-430: The new pope, Theodore I (642–649), who, in turn, wrote to Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople to outline the heretical nature of monothelitism. Paul, another devoted monothelite, replied in a letter directing the pope to adhere to the doctrine of one will. Theodore, in turn, excommunicated the patriarch in 649 and declared Paul a heretic. Constans II was only 17 and was indifferent to the religious debates convulsing

8316-571: The next few years. The death of Heraclius in 641 had thrown the political situation in Constantinople into chaos, and his young grandson Constans II (641–668) succeeded him. Meanwhile, in Africa, a monk, Maximus the Confessor , carried on a furious campaign against monothelitism, and in 646, he convinced the African councils to draw up a manifesto against the doctrine, which they forwarded to

8424-477: The notion of Christ's one nature implied the oneness of his will, ecclesiastical and political elites of the Eastern Roman Empire tried during the 7th century to promote monothelitism as a unifying doctrine that would reconcile divided Christian factions. In spite of strong imperial support, those attempts failed, and monothelitism was consequently rejected and denounced as heresy in 680–681 at

8532-558: The number of the Sacred Scriptures". However, modern scholars such as Edmon Gallagher have doubted that this indicates any canon selection in the council. The Council of Nicaea dealt primarily with the issue of the deity of Christ . The term "Trinity" was already in use, with the earliest existing reference being by Theophilus of Antioch (AD 115–181), referring to Theos, the Logos, and Sophia (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, as

8640-501: The outcome of the Synod of Cyprus. It attempted to show that the new doctrine was inconsistent with orthodoxy . Sophronius declared that it was nothing more than a bastardised form of monophysitism, which went against the hard-fought achievements at Chalcedon. Suddenly, support for the doctrine began to subside, and soon, former supporters were busy finding flaws and inconsistencies in the proposal. Soon, Sergius and Heraclius abandoned it as

8748-460: The perfect humanity in Christ's nature. The debate concerning the monothelite and dithelite churches came to a conclusion at the Third Council of Constantinople in 681. The Council declared that, in line with the declarations of the Council of Chalcedon in 451, just as there are two natures in the one person of Jesus Christ, there are equally two "wills" or "modes of operation" in the one person of Jesus as well: And we, most pious Lord, accepting

8856-489: The power to ordain new clergy; he was forbidden to go into the environs of the town or to enter another diocese for the purpose of ordaining its subjects. Melitius retained his episcopal title, but the ecclesiastics ordained by him were to receive again the laying on of hands , the ordinations performed by Melitius being therefore regarded as invalid. Clergy ordained by Melitius were ordered to yield precedence to those ordained by Alexander, and they were not to do anything without

8964-584: The process of formation of the Byzantine Patriarchate, and from the authority of the ancients" in favor of an alternative understanding of the canon. According to this interpretation, the canon shows the role the Bishop of Rome had when he, by his authority, confirmed the jurisdiction of the other patriarchs—an interpretation which is in line with the Catholic understanding of the Pope. Thus, the Bishop of Alexandria presided over Egypt, Libya and

9072-561: The proto-orthodox Nicene bishops to the Arians. Eustathius of Antioch was deposed and exiled in 330. Athanasius, who had succeeded Alexander as Bishop of Alexandria, was deposed by the First Synod of Tyre in 335, and Marcellus of Ancyra followed him in 336. Arius returned to Constantinople to be readmitted into the Church but died shortly before he could be received. Constantine died the next year, after finally receiving baptism from Arian Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and "with his passing

9180-479: The seat of the emperor (see Arbogast and Julian the Apostate ). Arians and Meletians soon regained nearly all of the rights they had lost, and consequently Arianism continued to spread and be a subject of debate within the Church during the remainder of the 4th century. Almost immediately, Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop and cousin to Constantine I, used his influence at court to sway Constantine's favor from

9288-527: The successful conclusion to the Persian War, Heraclius could devote more time to promoting his compromise, which was now more urgent because of the administration of the recovered monophysite (also referred to as "non-Chalcedonian" for rejecting of that particular council) provinces of Syria and Egypt. In 629, a meeting took place between the emperor and Athanasius the Jacobite at Hierapolis . An agreement

9396-557: The teaching of Apostolic tradition, but by profane treachery permitted its purity to be polluted." First Council of Nicaea Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: The First Council of Nicaea ( / n aɪ ˈ s iː ə / ny- SEE -ə ; Ancient Greek : Σύνοδος τῆς Νίκαιας , romanized :  Sýnodos tês Níkaias )

9504-507: The teaching of the suggestion sent to your most gentle Fortitude by the most holy and blessed Agatho, Pope of Old Rome, and of that other suggestion which was adopted by the council subject to him, and following the sense therein contained, so we are minded, so we profess, and so we believe that in our one Lord Jesus Christ, our true God, there are two natures unconfusedly, unchangeably, undividedly, and two natural wills and two natural operations; and all who have taught, and who now say, that there

9612-460: The third day, and ascended to the heavens, and will come to judge the living and dead, And in the Holy Spirit. But as for those who say, There was when He was not, and, Before being born He was not, and that He came into existence out of nothing, or who assert that the Son of God is of a different hypostasis or substance, or created, or is subject to alteration or change – these the Catholic and apostolic Church anathematizes. The creed

9720-402: The throne passed to his son Constantine IV . Pope Vitalian (657–672), who had hosted the visit of Constans II to Rome in 663, almost immediately declared himself for the doctrine of the two wills of Christ. In response, Patriarch Theodore I of Constantinople and Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch, both pressed Constantine to take some measures against the pope. Constantine, however, decided to let

9828-616: The use of the Bishop of Constantinople, but little else is known (in fact, it is not even certain whether his request was for fifty copies of the entire Old and New Testaments, only the New Testament, or merely the Gospels). Some scholars believe that this request provided motivation for canon lists. In Jerome 's Prologue to Judith , he claims that the Book of Judith was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among

9936-544: The view held throughout the east that they were distinct. Alexander called a local council of bishops from Egypt and Libya, which sided with Alexander's view. Arius refused to subscribe to the council's decision, and he and several followers were excommunicated and exiled from Alexandria by Alexander. Arius then traveled to churches around the Roman east and wrote to bishops to gain support of his view. Among Arius' supporters were Eusebius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of Caesarea , and they advocated for his view and his restoration to

10044-411: The worst enemies of Athanasius. The Melitians ultimately died out around the middle of the 5th century. The Council promulgated twenty new church laws, called canons (though the exact number is subject to debate), that is, rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the works of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers are as follows: In the short-term, the Council did not completely solve the problems it

10152-403: Was "dissolved like a drop of honey in the sea", and therefore his nature is really divine. This is distinct from Miaphysitism , which holds that, after the union, Christ is in one theanthropic (human-divine) nature and is generated from the union of two natures. The two are thus united without separation, without confusion, and without alteration, and with each having a particularity. Miaphysitism

10260-596: Was a council of Christian bishops convened in the Bithynian city of Nicaea (now İznik , Turkey ) by the Roman Emperor Constantine I . The Council of Nicaea met from May until the end of July 325. This ecumenical council was the first of many efforts to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all Christendom . Hosius of Corduba may have presided over its deliberations. Its main accomplishments were settlement of

10368-484: Was amended by the First Council of Constantinople in 381. Some distinctive elements in the Nicene Creed, perhaps from the hand of Hosius of Cordova, were added, some specifically to counter the Arian point of view. At the end of the creed came a list of anathemas , designed to repudiate explicitly the Arians' stated claims. Thus, instead of a baptismal creed acceptable to both the Arians and their opponents,

10476-464: Was appointed as Patriarch of Jerusalem in 634, he used his newfound position of authority to challenge the validity of the doctrine of monoenergism. Determined to prevent that formidable challenge to his Christological compromise, Sergius wrote to Pope Honorius I (625–638) at Rome to ask him to endorse a position that Church unity should not be endangered by having any discussions or disputes over whether Christ had one energy or two. Sergius added that

10584-484: Was convened to discuss, and a period of conflict and upheaval continued for some time. Constantine was succeeded by two Arian emperors in the Eastern Empire: his son, Constantius II , and Valens . Valens could not resolve the outstanding ecclesiastical issues and unsuccessfully confronted St. Basil over the Nicene Creed. Pagan powers within the empire sought to maintain and at times re-establish paganism into

10692-432: Was convinced, particularly a monk of Palestine named Sophronius , who believed that there was something unsound in the doctrine and so became the champion of dyothelitism, the doctrine of the two wills of Christ. He was concerned that for the sake of ecclesiastical unity, doctrinal expressions were being compromised. For the first few years, Patriarch Sergius of Constantinople managed to keep him silent, but when Sophronius

10800-476: Was dangerous for the Byzantine Empire , which was under constant threat from external enemies, especially as many of the areas most likely to be lost to the empire were the regions that were in favour of Monophysitism, and who considered the religious hierarchy at Constantinople to be heretics only interested in crushing their faith. In these provinces, the non-Chalcedonians were far more numerous than

10908-474: Was held in Nicea's imperial palace. The bishops most likely assembled in a rectangular basilica hall based on Eusebius of Caearea's description. Constantine opened the council with a formal entrance after the bishops arrived, with Eusebius describing him as "like some heavenly angel of God, his bright mantle shedding lustre like beams of light, shining with the fiery radiance of a purple robe, and decorated with

11016-455: Was likely Eusebius of Nicomedia. A statement of faith based on earlier creeds was drafted (possibly by a smaller committee), and each line was debated by the council. All but two bishops subscribed to the final form of the creed as adopted. In addition to the Arian question, the council also considered the calculation of Easter, and adopted the Roman and Alexandrian method over the objection of several eastern bishops. The bishops also agreed to

11124-558: Was not Constantine's first direct involvement in ecclesiastical controversy; he had previously attempted to resolve a schism over Donatism in North Africa, first appointing Miltiades, Bishop of Rome to hear the dispute (with the instruction "I do not wish you to leave schism or division of any kind anywhere.") and then calling the Council of Arles . Constantine's letter was carried to Alexandria by Bishop Hosius of Corduba as his representative. Hosius apparently then presided over

11232-627: Was probably then that the emperor decided to use monoenergism as a political weapon to reconcile the Non-Chalcedonian Church of Armenia with the Imperial Church. To help bring that about, a synod was held in 622 at Theodosiopolis , called the Synod of Garin, where monoenergism was discussed. Over the next few years Heraclius was preoccupied with his prosecution of the war against the Sassanids , but by 626, he had issued

11340-482: Was struck in which the Jacobites were to return to the Imperial Church on the basis of the single energy doctrine, and Athanasius was to be made Patriarch of Antioch . In 630, Bishop Cyrus was made Patriarch of Alexandria , who soon won over another non-Chalcedonian group. Very soon, three of the five patriarchates (Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria) were teaching Christ's "one theandric energy". Not everyone

11448-479: Was the driving force behind this doctrine, with the full blessing of Emperor Heraclius. Coming to the imperial throne in 610, the patriarch had long since converted the emperor to the new doctrine as by 622, Heraclius had communicated with Bishop Paul of Armenia where the emperor asserted that the energy, or the active force, of Christ was single. That doctrine of monoenergism was the precursor of monotheletism. Heraclius's interest then focused on Armenia, and it

11556-498: Was to have jurisdiction over the provinces of Egypt, Libya and the Pentapolis, just as the Bishop of Rome had authority "with reference to his own diocese." However, according to Fr. James F. Loughlin, there is an alternative Catholic interpretation. It involves five different arguments "drawn respectively from the grammatical structure of the sentence, from the logical sequence of ideas, from Catholic analogy, from comparison with

11664-439: Was ultimately rejected by the sixth ecumenical council. It held Christ as having only one will and was thus contrary to dyothelitism , the Christological doctrine accepted by most Christian denominations, which holds Christ as having two wills (divine and human). Historically, monothelitism was closely related to monoenergism , a theological doctrine that holds Jesus Christ as having only one energy . Both doctrines were at

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