Misplaced Pages

#61938

52-572: The décima deals with a wide range of subject matters, including themes that are philosophical, religious, lyrical, and political. Humorous décimas would typically satirize an individual's weakness or foolish act. A decimero would frequently challenge the target of the satire or his/her defender to respond in kind with a décima, thereby setting up a duel that tests the originality and wit of contending composers. The décima in all Latin America and in Spain

104-408: A certain syllable in a word or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence . That emphasis is typically caused by such properties as increased loudness and vowel length , full articulation of the vowel , and changes in tone . The terms stress and accent are often used synonymously in that context but are sometimes distinguished. For example, when emphasis is produced through pitch alone, it

156-479: A different meaning and with stress on both words, but that descriptive phrase is then not usually considered a compound: bláck bírd (any bird that is black) and bláckbird (a specific bird species ) and páper bág (a bag made of paper) and páper bag (very rarely used for a bag for carrying newspapers but is often also used for a bag made of paper). Some languages are described as having both primary stress and secondary stress . A syllable with secondary stress

208-502: A given syllable in a word. The position of word stress in a word may depend on certain general rules applicable in the language or dialect in question, but in other languages, it must be learned for each word, as it is largely unpredictable, for example in English . In some cases, classes of words in a language differ in their stress properties; for example, loanwords into a language with fixed stress may preserve stress placement from

260-412: A higher level than the individual word – namely within a prosodic unit . It may involve a certain natural stress pattern characteristic of a given language, but may also involve the placing of emphasis on particular words because of their relative importance (contrastive stress). An example of a natural prosodic stress pattern is that described for French above; stress is placed on the final syllable of

312-477: A roughly constant rate and non-stressed syllables are shortened to accommodate that, which contrasts with languages that have syllable timing (e.g. Spanish ) or mora timing (e.g. Japanese ), whose syllables or moras are spoken at a roughly constant rate regardless of stress. It is common for stressed and unstressed syllables to behave differently as a language evolves. For example, in the Romance languages ,

364-466: A sentence; sometimes, the difference is minimal between the acoustic signals of stressed and those of unstressed syllables. Those particular distinguishing features of stress, or types of prominence in which particular features are dominant, are sometimes referred to as particular types of accent: dynamic accent in the case of loudness, pitch accent in the case of pitch (although that term usually has more specialized meanings), quantitative accent in

416-442: A string of words (or if that is a schwa , the next-to-final syllable). A similar pattern is found in English (see § Levels of stress above): the traditional distinction between (lexical) primary and secondary stress is replaced partly by a prosodic rule stating that the final stressed syllable in a phrase is given additional stress. (A word spoken alone becomes such a phrase, hence such prosodic stress may appear to be lexical if

468-504: A vowel changes from a stressed to an unstressed position. In English, unstressed vowels may reduce to schwa -like vowels, though the details vary with dialect (see stress and vowel reduction in English ). The effect may be dependent on lexical stress (for example, the unstressed first syllable of the word photographer contains a schwa / f ə ˈ t ɒ ɡ r ə f ər / , whereas the stressed first syllable of photograph does not /ˈfoʊtəˌɡræf -ɡrɑːf/ ), or on prosodic stress (for example,

520-489: A word is not predictable in that way but lexically encoded. Sometimes more than one level of stress, such as primary stress and secondary stress , may be identified. Stress is not necessarily a feature of all languages: some, such as French and Mandarin Chinese , are sometimes analyzed as lacking lexical stress entirely. The stress placed on words within sentences is called sentence stress or prosodic stress . That

572-647: Is connected with alternations in vowels and/or consonants , which means that vowel quality differs by whether vowels are stressed or unstressed. There may also be limitations on certain phonemes in the language in which stress determines whether they are allowed to occur in a particular syllable or not. That is the case with most examples in English and occurs systematically in Russian , such as за́мок ( [ˈzamək] , ' castle ' ) vs. замо́к ( [zɐˈmok] , ' lock ' ); and in Portuguese , such as

SECTION 10

#1732793068062

624-475: Is a tonal language , stressed syllables have been found to have tones that are realized with a relatively large swing in fundamental frequency , and unstressed syllables typically have smaller swings. (See also Stress in Standard Chinese .) Stressed syllables are often perceived as being more forceful than non-stressed syllables. Word stress, or sometimes lexical stress , is the stress placed on

676-418: Is a pause between stanzas, as well as a pause between the fourth and fifth lines of each ten-line stanza. This is reflected in the structure of the poems as well: a transcription of a décima will invariably have a period or a semicolon at the end of the fourth line. Some older decimeros add an additional pause between the eighth and ninth line of each ten-line stanza. The structure of the décima suggests that it

728-448: Is a style of poetry that is octosyllabic and has 10 lines to the stanza. The espinela rhyming scheme (ABBAACCDDCC) is the de facto scheme in use. It is spoken, sung and written throughout Latin America with variations in different countries. It is often improvised . Each country has its own melody and tone ("tonada") and a different instrument, but the style and structure is exactly the same. A person who writes or improvises décima

780-645: Is a sung duel of improvised décimas. The Ecuadorian décima is an oral poetic form that exists among the black population of the Esmeraldas Province . A décima consists of 44 lines , each of which generally has eight syllables . A décima consists of one stanza of four lines, and four more stanzas of ten lines each. Each of the four lines of the first stanza is repeated later in the poem. Sometimes when these lines are repeated, they are slightly altered. Patterns of rhyme and meter are not governed by any particular rules. During declamation , there

832-482: Is being spoken. Stressed syllables are often louder than non-stressed syllables, and they may have a higher or lower pitch . They may also sometimes be pronounced longer . There are sometimes differences in place or manner of articulation . In particular, vowels in unstressed syllables may have a more central (or " neutral ") articulation, and those in stressed syllables have a more peripheral articulation. Stress may be realized to varying degrees on different words in

884-449: Is called pitch accent , and when produced through length alone, it is called quantitative accent . When caused by a combination of various intensified properties, it is called stress accent or dynamic accent ; English uses what is called variable stress accent . Since stress can be realised through a wide range of phonetic properties, such as loudness, vowel length, and pitch (which are also used for other linguistic functions), it

936-436: Is conditioned by the weight of particular syllables. They are said to have a regular stress rule. Statements about the position of stress are sometimes affected by the fact that when a word is spoken in isolation, prosodic factors (see below) come into play, which do not apply when the word is spoken normally within a sentence. French words are sometimes said to be stressed on the final syllable, but that can be attributed to

988-503: Is derived from the Spanish glosa , which also employs eight-syllable lines and a break between the fourth and fifth lines of a ten-line Istanza. Décimas are generally anonymous . Though many decimeros claim to have composed the décimas they recite, this is rarely the case. One scholar of décimas said he met only one decimero who actually composed his own décimas, and that decimeros living in different areas often claimed to have composed

1040-424: Is difficult to define stress solely phonetically. The stress placed on syllables within words is called word stress . Some languages have fixed stress , meaning that the stress on virtually any multisyllable word falls on a particular syllable, such as the penultimate (e.g. Polish ) or the first (e.g. Finnish ). Other languages, like English and Russian , have lexical stress , where the position of stress in

1092-541: Is even represented in writing using diacritical marks, for example in the Spanish words c é lebre and celebr é . Sometimes, stress is fixed for all forms of a particular word, or it can fall on different syllables in different inflections of the same word. In such languages with phonemic stress, the position of stress can serve to distinguish otherwise identical words. For example, the English words insight ( / ˈ ɪ n s aɪ t / ) and incite ( / ɪ n ˈ s aɪ t / ) are distinguished in pronunciation only by

SECTION 20

#1732793068062

1144-437: Is known as a decimista or decimero . The décima afro-pacífica is an extension of the décima espinela into four décima stanzas with an introductory four-line stanza (or copla ) that often summarizes the entire work using the 10th line of each décima stanza, making a total of forty four octosyllabic lines (one quatrain plus four décima espinelas). The term "octosyllabic" may be misleading to English speakers as in Spanish

1196-511: Is often used in French , Italian , Spanish and Portuguese poetry. While commonly used in couplets , typical stanzas using octosyllables are: décima , some quatrains , redondilla . In Spanish verse, an octosyllable is a line that has its seventh syllable stressed, on the principle that this would normally be the penultimate syllable of a word ( Lengua Castellana y Literatura , ed. Grazalema Santillana. El Verso y su Medida, p. 46). If

1248-423: Is one of the three components of prosody , along with rhythm and intonation . It includes phrasal stress (the default emphasis of certain words within phrases or clauses ), and contrastive stress (used to highlight an item, a word or part of a word, that is given particular focus). There are various ways in which stress manifests itself in the speech stream, and they depend to some extent on which language

1300-595: Is recognized and unstressed syllables are phonemically distinguished for vowel reduction . They find that the multiple levels posited for English, whether primary–secondary or primary–secondary–tertiary , are not phonetic stress (let alone phonemic ), and that the supposed secondary/tertiary stress is not characterized by the increase in respiratory activity associated with primary/secondary stress in English and other languages. (For further detail see Stress and vowel reduction in English .) Prosodic stress , or sentence stress , refers to stress patterns that apply at

1352-405: Is stressed relative to unstressed syllables but not as strongly as a syllable with primary stress. As with primary stress, the position of secondary stress may be more or less predictable depending on language. In English, it is not fully predictable, but the different secondary stress of the words organization and accumulation (on the first and second syllable, respectively) is predictable due to

1404-467: The East and South Slavic languages , Lithuanian , Greek , as well as others, in which the position of stress in a word is not fully predictable, are said to have phonemic stress . Stress in these languages is usually truly lexical and must be memorized as part of the pronunciation of an individual word. In some languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan , Lakota and, to some extent, Italian, stress

1456-639: The prosodic stress , which is placed on the last syllable (unless it is a schwa in which case the stress is placed on the second-last syllable) of any string of words in that language. Thus, it is on the last syllable of a word analyzed in isolation. The situation is similar in Mandarin Chinese . French and Georgian (and, according to some authors, Mandarin Chinese) can be considered to have no real lexical stress. With some exceptions above, languages such as Germanic languages , Romance languages ,

1508-839: The case of length, and qualitative accent in the case of differences in articulation. They can be compared to the various types of accents in music theory . In some contexts, the term stress or stress accent specifically means dynamic accent (or as an antonym to pitch accent in its various meanings). A prominent syllable or word is said to be accented or tonic ; the latter term does not imply that it carries phonemic tone . Other syllables or words are said to be unaccented or atonic . Syllables are frequently said to be in pretonic or post-tonic position, and certain phonological rules apply specifically to such positions. For instance, in American English , /t/ and /d/ are flapped in post-tonic position. In Mandarin Chinese , which

1560-540: The couplet. The Anglo-Norman poets from the 12th-13th centuries brought the French octosyllablic verse to England and influenced the 4 stress tetrameter verse used in narration (as in Chaucer ). This poetry -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Stress accent In linguistics , and particularly phonology , stress or accent is the relative emphasis or prominence given to

1612-437: The fact that the stress falls on the first syllable in the former and on the second syllable in the latter. Examples from other languages include German Tenor ( [ˈteːnoːɐ̯] ' gist of message ' vs. [teˈnoːɐ̯] ' tenor voice ' ); and Italian ancora ( [ˈaŋkora] ' anchor ' vs. [aŋˈkoːra] ' more, still, yet, again ' ). In many languages with lexical stress, it

Décima - Misplaced Pages Continue

1664-414: The final word of a line does not fit this pattern, the line could have eight or seven or nine syllables (as normally counted), thus – In Medieval French literature , the octosyllable rhymed couplet was the most common verse form used in verse chronicles , romances (the romans ), lais and dits . The meter reached Spain in the 14th century, although commonly with a more varied rhyme scheme than

1716-576: The first syllable in American English , with a secondary stress on the "tor" syllable ( láboratory often pronounced "lábratory"). The Spanish word video is stressed on the first syllable in Spain ( v í deo ) but on the second syllable in the Americas ( vid e o ). The Portuguese words for Madagascar and the continent Oceania are stressed on the third syllable in European Portuguese ( Madag á scar and Oce â nia ), but on

1768-480: The fourth syllable in Brazilian Portuguese ( Madagasc a r and Ocean i a ). With very few exceptions, English compound words are stressed on their first component. Even the exceptions, such as mankínd , are instead often stressed on the first component by some people or in some kinds of English. The same components as those of a compound word are sometimes used in a descriptive phrase with

1820-440: The last word of the verse also allows for different numbers of metric syllables: "Juyzio hallado y trobado" "La vida es sueño" Pedro Calderón de la Barca wrote in décimas some stanzas of Life is a Dream . Nicomedes Santa Cruz made poems about Afro-Peruvian life and culture in décimas. Many songs are in the form of décima. For example, Violeta Parra 's Volver a los Diecisiete and 21 son los Dolores . A payada

1872-409: The main stress was on the penultimate syllable. An operational definition of word stress may be provided by the stress "deafness" paradigm. The idea is that if listeners perform poorly on reproducing the presentation order of series of stimuli that minimally differ in the position of phonetic prominence (e.g. [númi]/[numí] ), the language does not have word stress. The task involves a reproduction of

1924-436: The meaning of a sentence; for example: I didn't take the test yesterday. (Somebody else did.) I didn't take the test yesterday. (I did not take it.) I didn't take the test yesterday. (I did something else with it.) I didn't take the test yesterday. (I took one of several, or I didn't take the specific test that would have been implied.) I didn't take the test yesterday. (I took something else.) I didn't take

1976-415: The order of stimuli as a sequence of key strokes, whereby key "1" is associated with one stress location (e.g. [númi] ) and key "2" with the other (e.g. [numí] ). A trial may be from two to six stimuli in length. Thus, the order [númi-númi-numí-númi] is to be reproduced as "1121". It was found that listeners whose native language was French performed significantly worse than Spanish listeners in reproducing

2028-525: The original Latin short vowels /e/ and /o/ have often become diphthongs when stressed. Since stress takes part in verb conjugation, that has produced verbs with vowel alternation in the Romance languages. For example, the Spanish verb volver (to return, come back) has the form v o lví in the past tense but v ue lvo in the present tense (see Spanish irregular verbs ). Italian shows

2080-439: The pronunciation of words is analyzed in a standalone context rather than within phrases.) Another type of prosodic stress pattern is quantity sensitivity – in some languages additional stress tends to be placed on syllables that are longer ( moraically heavy ). Prosodic stress is also often used pragmatically to emphasize (focus attention on) particular words or the ideas associated with them. Doing this can change or clarify

2132-437: The reason why Persian listeners are stress "deaf" is that their accent locations arise postlexically. Persian thus lacks stress in the strict sense. Stress "deafness" has been studied for a number of languages, such as Polish or French learners of Spanish. The orthographies of some languages include devices for indicating the position of lexical stress. Some examples are listed below: Though not part of normal orthography,

Décima - Misplaced Pages Continue

2184-440: The same phenomenon but with /o/ alternating with /uo/ instead. That behavior is not confined to verbs; note for example Spanish v ie nto ' wind ' from Latin v e ntum , or Italian f uo co ' fire ' from Latin f o cum . There are also examples in French, though they are less systematic : v ie ns from Latin venio where the first syllable was stressed, vs v e nir from Latin venire where

2236-457: The same poems. Octosyllabic The octosyllable or octosyllabic verse is a line of verse with eight syllables . It is equivalent to tetrameter verse in trochees in languages with a stress accent . Its first occurrence is in a 10th-century Old French saint's legend, the Vie de Saint Leger ; another early use is in the early 12th-century Anglo-Norman Voyage de saint Brendan . It

2288-518: The same stress of the verbs órganize and accúmulate . In some analyses, for example the one found in Chomsky and Halle's The Sound Pattern of English , English has been described as having four levels of stress: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary, but the treatments often disagree with one another. Peter Ladefoged and other phoneticians have noted that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as prosody

2340-500: The source language, or the special pattern for Turkish placenames . In some languages, the placement of stress can be determined by rules. It is thus not a phonemic property of the word, because it can always be predicted by applying the rules. Languages in which the position of the stress can usually be predicted by a simple rule are said to have fixed stress . For example, in Czech , Finnish , Icelandic , Hungarian and Latvian ,

2392-502: The stress almost always comes on the first syllable of a word. In Armenian the stress is on the last syllable of a word. In Quechua , Esperanto , and Polish , the stress is almost always on the penult (second-last syllable). In Macedonian , it is on the antepenult (third-last syllable). Other languages have stress placed on different syllables but in a predictable way, as in Classical Arabic and Latin , where stress

2444-654: The stress patterns by key strokes. The explanation is that Spanish has lexically contrastive stress, as evidenced by the minimal pairs like topo ( ' mole ' ) and topó ( ' [he/she/it] met ' ), while in French, stress does not convey lexical information and there is no equivalent of stress minimal pairs as in Spanish. An important case of stress "deafness" relates to Persian. The language has generally been described as having contrastive word stress or accent as evidenced by numerous stem and stem-clitic minimal pairs such as /mɒhi/ [mɒ.hí] ( ' fish ' ) and /mɒh-i/ [mɒ́.hi] ( ' some month ' ). The authors argue that

2496-495: The syllables of tomorrow would be small compared to the differences between the syllables of dinner , the emphasized word. In these emphasized words, stressed syllables such as din in din ner are louder and longer. They may also have a different fundamental frequency, or other properties. The main stress within a sentence, often found on the last stressed word, is called the nuclear stress . In many languages, such as Russian and English , vowel reduction may occur when

2548-406: The term refers to "metric syllables", meaning that the number of syllables is counted by the amount of spoken syllables the line carries. For example the line "Allá arriba en esa loma" carries ten grammatical syllables, but when spoken naturally it sounds like "A lláa rri baen e sa lo ma" which amounts to 8 spoken syllables. The variations based on the word's accents (agudas, graves, and esdrújulas) in

2600-401: The test yesterday . (I took it some other day.) As in the examples above, stress is normally transcribed as italics in printed text or underlining in handwriting. In English, stress is most dramatically realized on focused or accented words. For instance, consider the dialogue "Is it brunch tomorrow?" "No, it's dinner tomorrow." In it, the stress-related acoustic differences between

2652-477: The triplet sábia ( [ˈsaβjɐ] , ' wise woman ' ), sabia ( [sɐˈβiɐ] , ' knew ' ), sabiá ( [sɐˈβja] , ' thrush ' ). Dialects of the same language may have different stress placement. For instance, the English word laboratory is stressed on the second syllable in British English ( labóratory often pronounced "labóratry", the second o being silent), but

SECTION 50

#1732793068062

2704-464: The word of is pronounced with a schwa when it is unstressed within a sentence, but not when it is stressed). Many other languages, such as Finnish and the mainstream dialects of Spanish , do not have unstressed vowel reduction; in these languages vowels in unstressed syllables have nearly the same quality as those in stressed syllables. Some languages, such as English , are said to be stress-timed languages ; that is, stressed syllables appear at

#61938