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63-510: The EPCglobal Tag Data Standard also defines additional representations of an EPC identifier, such as the tag-encoding URI format and a compact binary format suitable for storing an EPC identifier efficiently within RFID tags (for which the low-cost passive RFID tags typically have limited memory capacity available for the EPC/UII memory bank). The EPCglobal Tag Data Standard defines the structure of

126-545: A terahertz frequency identification (TFID) tag that is barely 1 square millimeter in size. The devices are essentially a piece of silicon that are inexpensive, small, and function like larger RFID tags. Because of the small size, manufacturers could tag any product and track logistics information for minimal cost. An RFID tag can be affixed to an object and used to track tools, equipment, inventory, assets, people, or other objects. RFID offers advantages over manual systems or use of barcodes . The tag can be read if passed near

189-560: A Uniform Grocery Product Identification Code was established to find a solution. In 1973, the Universal Product Code (UPC) was selected by this group as the first single standard for unique product identification. In 1974, the Uniform Code Council (UCC) was founded to administer the standard. On 26 June 1974, a pack of Wrigley 's chewing gum became the first ever product with a barcode to be scanned in

252-512: A battery and thus can be read at a greater range from the RFID reader, up to hundreds of meters. Unlike a barcode , the tag does not need to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one method of automatic identification and data capture (AIDC). RFID tags are used in many industries. For example, an RFID tag attached to an automobile during production can be used to track its progress through

315-560: A certain distance of the reader to authenticate the holder. Tags can also be placed on vehicles, which can be read at a distance, to allow entrance to controlled areas without having to stop the vehicle and present a card or enter an access code. In 2010, Vail Resorts began using UHF Passive RFID tags in ski passes. Facebook is using RFID cards at most of their live events to allow guests to automatically capture and post photos. Automotive brands have adopted RFID for social media product placement more quickly than other industries. Mercedes

378-487: A particular product type. To ensure that an EPC always uniquely identifies an individual physical object, in the case of a GTIN, the EPC is constructed as a Serialised Global Trade Item Number ( SGTIN ) by combining a GTIN product identifier with a unique serial number. Both the Universal Product Code and EAN-13 identifiers that are still found on many trade items can be mapped into a 14-digit GTIN identifier, by padding to

441-409: A particular product. Often more than one tag will respond to a tag reader. For example, many individual products with tags may be shipped in a common box or on a common pallet. Collision detection is important to allow reading of data. Two different types of protocols are used to "singulate" a particular tag, allowing its data to be read in the midst of many similar tags. In a slotted Aloha system,

504-430: A product identification number that can be scanned electronically , making it easier for products to be tracked, processed, and stored. Barcodes improve the efficiency, safety, speed and visibility of supply chains across physical and digital channels. They have a crucial role in the retail industry, including today's online marketplaces, moving beyond just faster checkout to improved inventory and delivery management, and

567-723: A reader, even if it is covered by the object or not visible. The tag can be read inside a case, carton, box or other container, and unlike barcodes, RFID tags can be read hundreds at a time; barcodes can only be read one at a time using current devices. Some RFID tags, such as battery-assisted passive tags, are also able to monitor temperature and humidity. In 2011, the cost of passive tags started at US$ 0.09 each; special tags, meant to be mounted on metal or withstand gamma sterilization, could cost up to US$ 5. Active tags for tracking containers, medical assets, or monitoring environmental conditions in data centers started at US$ 50 and could be over US$ 100 each. Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tags were in

630-568: A shop. In 1976, the original 12-digit code was expanded to 13 digits, which allowed the identification system to be used outside the U.S. In 1977, the European Article Numbering Association (EAN) was established in Brussels, with founding members from 12 countries. In 1990, EAN and UCC signed a global cooperation agreement and expanded their overall presence to 45 countries. In 1999, EAN and UCC launched

693-551: A single numerical identifiers, as GS1 has defined a modular & arbitrarily combinable semantic encoding of defined data within GS1 barcodes through the publication of over 150 "Application Identifiers" (AI). These AIs allow encoding of details such as the GTIN - AI:(01), the "Country of Origin" - AI:(422), and the "Expiration date" - AI:(17), amongst many other possibilities, including URLs - AI:(8200). The most influential GS1 standard

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756-510: A special tool or deactivated electronically when payment is made. On leaving the shop, customers have to pass near an RFID detector; if they have items with active RFID tags, an alarm sounds, both indicating an unpaid-for item, and identifying what it is. Casinos can use RFID to authenticate poker chips , and can selectively invalidate any chips known to be stolen. RFID tags are widely used in identification badges , replacing earlier magnetic stripe cards. These badges need only be held within

819-436: A tiny radio transponder called a tag, a radio receiver , and a transmitter . When triggered by an electromagnetic interrogation pulse from a nearby RFID reader device, the tag transmits digital data, usually an identifying inventory number , back to the reader. This number can be used to track inventory goods. Passive tags are powered by energy from the RFID reader's interrogating radio waves . Active tags are powered by

882-410: A transfer hose can read an RFID tag affixed to the tank, positively identifying it. At least one company has introduced RFID to identify and locate underground infrastructure assets such as gas pipelines , sewer lines , electrical cables, communication cables, etc. GS1 GS1 is a not-for-profit , international organization developing and maintaining its own standards for barcodes and

945-487: A worldwide basis. Whilst "GS1" is not an acronym, it refers to the organisation offering one global system of standards. In August 2018, the GS1 Web URI Structure Standard was ratified, allowing unique ID's to be added to products by storing a URI (a webpage-like address) as a QR code. Barcodes defined by GS1 standards are very common. GS1 introduced the barcode in 1974. A barcode encodes

1008-478: Is a URI - the 'pure-identity URI' that is intended for use when referring to a specific physical object in communications about EPCs among information systems and business application software. Each coding scheme within the EPC identifier framework is distinguished through the use of a separate namespace. In the URI notations, this is indicated using a URI prefix such as urn:epc:id:sgtin or urn:epc:id:sscc In

1071-441: Is a fuzzy method for process support. From the perspective of cost and effect, bulk reading is not reported as an economical approach to secure process control in logistics. RFID tags are easy to conceal or incorporate in other items. For example, in 2009 researchers at Bristol University successfully glued RFID micro-transponders to live ants in order to study their behavior. This trend towards increasingly miniaturized RFIDs

1134-460: Is a strategy for interrogating multiple tags at the same time, but lacks sufficient precision for inventory control. A group of objects, all of them RFID tagged, are read completely from one single reader position at one time. However, as tags respond strictly sequentially, the time needed for bulk reading grows linearly with the number of labels to be read. This means it takes at least twice as long to read twice as many labels. Due to collision effects,

1197-466: Is expected to rise from US$ 12.08 billion in 2020 to US$ 16.23 billion by 2029. In 1945, Leon Theremin invented the "Thing", a listening device for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with the added audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator , which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device

1260-507: Is likely to continue as technology advances. Hitachi holds the record for the smallest RFID chip, at 0.05 mm × 0.05 mm. This is 1/64th the size of the previous record holder, the mu-chip. Manufacture is enabled by using the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) process. These dust-sized chips can store 38-digit numbers using 128-bit Read Only Memory (ROM). A major challenge is the attachment of antennas, thus limiting read range to only millimeters. In early 2020, MIT researchers demonstrated

1323-408: Is not reliable. Bulk reading can be a rough guide for logistics decisions, but due to a high proportion of reading failures, it is not (yet) suitable for inventory management. However, when a single RFID tag might be seen as not guaranteeing a proper read, multiple RFID tags, where at least one will respond, may be a safer approach for detecting a known grouping of objects. In this respect, bulk reading

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1386-424: Is the GTIN . It identifies products uniquely around the world and forms the base of the GS1 system. Main GS1 standards are as follows: Many GS1 standards are also ISO standards, including the GTIN , GLN , and SSCC . GS1 also acts as the secretariat for ISO's Automatic identification and data capture techniques technical committee ( ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 31 ). GS1 standards are developed and maintained through

1449-438: Is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, who predicted that "Considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored." Mario Cardullo 's device, patented on January 23, 1973, was the first true ancestor of modern RFID, as it was a passive radio transponder with memory. The initial device

1512-428: Is used in intelligent transportation systems . In New York City , RFID readers are deployed at intersections to track E-ZPass tags as a means for monitoring the traffic flow. The data is fed through the broadband wireless infrastructure to the traffic management center to be used in adaptive traffic control of the traffic lights. Where ship, rail, or highway tanks are being loaded, a fixed RFID antenna contained in

1575-557: The Auto-ID Centre to develop Electronic Product Code (EPC) , enabling GS1 standards to be used for RFID. In 2004, EAN and UCC launched the Global Data Synchronization Network (GDSN) , a global, internet-based initiative that enables trading partners to efficiently exchange product master data. By 2005, the organisation was present in over 90 countries, and it started to use the name GS1 on

1638-407: The assembly line , RFID-tagged pharmaceuticals can be tracked through warehouses, and implanting RFID microchips in livestock and pets enables positive identification of animals. Tags can also be used in shops to expedite checkout, and to prevent theft by customers and employees. Since RFID tags can be attached to physical money, clothing, and possessions, or implanted in animals and people,

1701-582: The railroad industry, RFID tags mounted on locomotives and rolling stock identify the owner, identification number and type of equipment and its characteristics. This can be used with a database to identify the type, origin, destination, etc. of the commodities being carried. In commercial aviation, RFID is used to support maintenance on commercial aircraft. RFID tags are used to identify baggage and cargo at several airports and airlines. Some countries are using RFID for vehicle registration and enforcement. RFID can help detect and retrieve stolen cars. RFID

1764-481: The EPC. EPC encoding schemes are used to uniquely identify one object. Most EPCs include an element within their structure that corresponds to a serial number. EPC Version 1.3 supports the following alternative coding schemes: From Version 1.4 these new coding schemas are also additionally supported: GS1 identification keys includes detailed information about 12 GS1 ID keys, their purpose, use, allocation and maintenance rules, etc. GS1 Application Identifiers defines

1827-652: The EPCglobal, Inc. Tag Data Standard, which is an open standard, freely available for anyone to download. The Electronic Product Code is one of the industrial standards for global RFID usage, and a core element of the EPCglobal Network, an architecture of open standards developed by the GS1 EPCglobal community. Most currently deployed EPC RFID tags comply with ISO / IEC 18000-6C for the RFID air interface standard. The canonical representation of an EPC

1890-653: The French retailer Decathlon , customers perform self-checkout by either using a smartphone or putting items into a bin near the register that scans the tags without having to orient each one toward the scanner. Some stores use RFID-tagged items to trigger systems that provide customers with more information or suggestions, such as fitting rooms at Chanel and the "Color Bar" at Kendra Scott stores. Item tagging can also provide protection against theft by customers and employees by using electronic article surveillance (EAS). Tags of different types can be physically removed with

1953-778: The GS1 Global Standards Management Process (GSMP), a community-based forum that brings together representatives from different industries and businesses. Retail was the first industry that GS1 began working with and has remained their primary focus. Today, GS1 operates in four retail sub-sectors on a global level: Apparel , Fresh Foods, CPG and General Merchandise . Key focus areas in retail include sustainability , data quality , compliance with regulatory requirements, traceability of products from their origin through delivery, and upstream integration between manufacturers and suppliers. As consumers are recurring to e-commerce more often throughout

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2016-528: The URI syntax and binary format, as well as the encoding and decoding rules to allow conversion between these representations. The EPC is designed as a flexible framework that can support many existing coding schemes, including many coding schemes currently in use with barcode technology. EPC identifiers currently support 7 identification keys from the GS1 system of identifiers, as well as a General Identifier and EPC identifiers that can be used for encoding supplies to

2079-475: The US Department of Defense . EPCs are not designed exclusively for use with RFID data carriers. They can indeed be constructed based on reading of optical data carriers, such as linear bar codes and two-dimensional bar codes, such as Data Matrix symbols. The 'pure identity URI' canonical representation of an EPC is agnostic to the data carrier technology that was used to attach the unique identifier to

2142-509: The US$ 3–10 range. RFID can be used in a variety of applications, such as: In 2010, three factors drove a significant increase in RFID usage: decreased cost of equipment and tags, increased performance to a reliability of 99.9%, and a stable international standard around HF and UHF passive RFID. The adoption of these standards were driven by EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 US , which were responsible for driving global adoption of

2205-686: The barcode in the 1970s and 1980s. The EPCglobal Network was developed by the Auto-ID Center . RFID provides a way for organizations to identify and manage stock, tools and equipment ( asset tracking ), etc. without manual data entry. Manufactured products such as automobiles or garments can be tracked through the factory and through shipping to the customer. Automatic identification with RFID can be used for inventory systems. Many organisations require that their vendors place RFID tags on all shipments to improve supply chain management . Warehouse Management System incorporate this technology to speed up

2268-453: The box. Some RFID tags offer additional read/write user memory that could be used for storage of additional information, such as an expiry date or date of manufacture. Plain text and barcoding are still useful in addition to the EPC tag, as liability obligations for the producer require durable and sufficiently fail-safe labels. Currently (2010) there are no applications in which RFID tags have completely replaced conventional labeling. The EPC

2331-419: The compact binary encoding of an EPC identifier, the namespace is instead indicated using a compact binary header (typically the first 8 bits of the binary encoding of an EPC identifier). The EPCglobal Tag Data Standard provides details of the URI prefixes and corresponding binary header values. This namespace indicator (URI prefix or compact binary header value) in turn dictates the length, type and structure of

2394-466: The corresponding issue company prefixes. The best known of these standards is the barcode , a symbol printed on products that can be scanned electronically. GS1 has 118 local member organizations and over 2 million user companies. Its main office is in Brussels ( Avenue Louise ). In 1969, the retail industry in the US was searching for a way to speed up the check-out process in shops. The Ad Hoc Committee for

2457-437: The field produced by the reader by changing the electrical loading the tag represents. By switching between lower and higher relative loads, the tag produces a change that the reader can detect. At UHF and higher frequencies, the tag is more than one radio wavelength away from the reader, requiring a different approach. The tag can backscatter a signal. Active tags may contain functionally separated transmitters and receivers, and

2520-633: The individual physical object. The EPC is designed to meet the needs of various industries, while guaranteeing uniqueness for all EPC-compliant tags. Some of the existing GS1 identification keys (such as the Global Returnable Asset Identifier ( GRAI )) already provide for unique identification of individual objects. However, the Global Trade Item Number ( GTIN ) only identifies the product type or stock-keeping unit rather than an individual instance of

2583-487: The left with zero digits to reach a total of 14 digits. An SGTIN EPC identifier can therefore be constructed by combining the resulting GTIN with a unique serial number and following the encoding rules in the EPCglobal Tag Data Standard. The EPC accommodates existing coding schemes and defines new schemes where necessary. Each coding scheme within the EPC identifier framework is distinguished through

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2646-426: The manufacturer and class of products. Although RFID tags are currently still more expensive than a simple optically readable label, they offer additional capabilities such as the ability to be read by radio waves, without requiring 'line of sight' between the reader or interrogator and the tag; this enables individual items within a large cardboard box (case) to be read without first unpacking each individual item from

2709-482: The opportunity to sell online on a global scale. In the UK alone, the introduction of the barcode in the retail industry has resulted in savings of 10.5 billion pounds per year. Some of the barcodes that GS1 developed and manages are: EAN / UPC (used mainly on consumer goods), GS1 Data Matrix (used mainly on healthcare products), GS1-128 , GS1 DataBar , and GS1 QR Code. Notably, GS1 barcodes can hold more than just

2772-456: The organization number is assigned by the EPCGlobal consortium. The next 24 bits are an object class, identifying the kind of product. The last 36 bits are a unique serial number for a particular tag. These last two fields are set by the organization that issued the tag. Rather like a URL , the total electronic product code number can be used as a key into a global database to uniquely identify

2835-473: The possibility of reading personally-linked information without consent has raised serious privacy concerns. These concerns resulted in standard specifications development addressing privacy and security issues. In 2014, the world RFID market was worth US$ 8.89 billion , up from US$ 7.77 billion in 2013 and US$ 6.96 billion in 2012. This figure includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, and all other form factors. The market value

2898-494: The prefixes (AIs) used in barcodes and EPC/RFID-tags to define the meaning and format of identifiers, and currently lists 516 kinds of identifiers. The EPC Tag Data Standard (TDS) defines the possible kinds of EPC identifiers, including: The latest TDS version defines the following GS1 Identification Keys: RFID Radio-frequency identification ( RFID ) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. An RFID system consists of

2961-528: The radio energy transmitted by the reader. However, to operate a passive tag, it must be illuminated with a power level roughly a thousand times stronger than an active tag for signal transmission. Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a key into a database, or may be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags may be write-once, read-multiple; "blank" tags may be written with an electronic product code by

3024-423: The range of the RFID reader and read them simultaneously. RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader. There are 3 types: Fixed readers are set up to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly defined reading area for when tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. Mobile readers may be handheld or mounted on carts or vehicles. Signaling between

3087-410: The reader and the tag is done in several different incompatible ways, depending on the frequency band used by the tag. Tags operating on LF and HF bands are, in terms of radio wavelength, very close to the reader antenna because they are only a small percentage of a wavelength away. In this near field region, the tag is closely coupled electrically with the transmitter in the reader. The tag can modulate

3150-484: The reader broadcasts an initialization command and a parameter that the tags individually use to pseudo-randomly delay their responses. When using an "adaptive binary tree" protocol, the reader sends an initialization symbol and then transmits one bit of ID data at a time; only tags with matching bits respond, and eventually only one tag matches the complete ID string. Both methods have drawbacks when used with many tags or with multiple overlapping readers. "Bulk reading"

3213-425: The receiving and delivery of the products and reduce the cost of labor needed in their warehouses. RFID is used for item-level tagging in retail stores. This can enable more accurate and lower-labor-cost supply chain and store inventory tracking, as is done at Lululemon , though physically locating items in stores requires more expensive technology. RFID tags can be used at checkout; for example, at some stores of

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3276-414: The tag need not respond on a frequency related to the reader's interrogation signal. An Electronic Product Code (EPC) is one common type of data stored in a tag. When written into the tag by an RFID printer, the tag contains a 96-bit string of data. The first eight bits are a header which identifies the version of the protocol. The next 28 bits identify the organization that manages the data for this tag;

3339-572: The time required is greater. A group of tags has to be illuminated by the interrogating signal just like a single tag. This is not a challenge concerning energy, but with respect to visibility; if any of the tags are shielded by other tags, they might not be sufficiently illuminated to return a sufficient response. The response conditions for inductively coupled HF RFID tags and coil antennas in magnetic fields appear better than for UHF or SHF dipole fields, but then distance limits apply and may prevent success. Under operational conditions, bulk reading

3402-403: The transmission and sensor data, respectively. RFID tags can be either passive, active or battery-assisted passive. An active tag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal. A battery-assisted passive tag has a small battery on board and is activated when in the presence of an RFID reader. A passive tag is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery; instead, the tag uses

3465-649: The use of a separate namespace. In the URI notations, this is indicated using a URI prefix such as urn:epc:id:sgtin or urn:epc:id:sscc In the compact binary encoding of an EPC identifier, the namespace is instead indicated using a compact binary header (typically the first 8 bits of the binary encoding of an EPC identifier). The EPCglobal Tag Data Standard provides details of the URI prefixes and corresponding binary header values. Low-cost passive RFID tags were designed to uniquely identify each item manufactured. In contrast, bar codes for trade items and consumer products have limited capacity and typically only identify

3528-410: The user. The RFID tag receives the message and then responds with its identification and other information. This may be only a unique tag serial number, or may be product-related information such as a stock number, lot or batch number, production date, or other specific information. Since tags have individual serial numbers, the RFID system design can discriminate among several tags that might be within

3591-654: The years, GS1 has developed standards that uniquely identify products for the benefit of consumers and for search engines, providing accurate and complete product information digitally. Major e-commerce companies such as eBay, Amazon and Google Shopping require companies to use a GS1 GTIN to sell on their websites. Since 2005, GS1 has operated in Healthcare with the primary objective to enhance patient safety, and to drive supply chain efficiencies. More than 70 countries have healthcare-related regulations or trading partner requirements where GS1 standards are being used for

3654-650: Was a covert listening device , rather than an identification tag, it is considered to be a predecessor of RFID because it was passive, being energised and activated by waves from an outside source. Similar technology, such as the Identification friend or foe transponder , was routinely used by the Allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friendly or hostile. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft. An early work exploring RFID

3717-554: Was an early adopter in 2011 at the PGA Golf Championships , and by the 2013 Geneva Motor Show many of the larger brands were using RFID for social media marketing. To prevent retailers diverting products, manufacturers are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchandise so that they can track exactly which product has sold through the supply chain at fully discounted prices. Yard management, shipping and freight and distribution centers use RFID tracking. In

3780-484: Was granted to David Everett, John Frech, Theodore Wright, and Kelly Rodriguez. A radio-frequency identification system uses tags , or labels attached to the objects to be identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read its response. RFID tags are made out of three pieces: The tag information is stored in a non-volatile memory. The RFID tag includes either fixed or programmable logic for processing

3843-939: Was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and was demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other potential users. It consisted of a transponder with 16 bit memory for use as a toll device . The basic Cardullo patent covers the use of radio frequency (RF), sound and light as transmission carriers. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identification, automatic toll system, electronic license plate , electronic manifest, vehicle routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic chequebook, electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automatic gates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history). In 1973, an early demonstration of reflected power (modulated backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive,

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3906-532: Was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle and Robert Freyman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory . The portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of today's UHFID and microwave RFID tags. In 1983, the first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton . In 1996, the first patent for a batteryless RFID passive tag with limited interference

3969-467: Was the creation of the MIT Auto-ID Center , a consortium of over 120 global corporations and university labs. EPC identifiers were designed to identify each item manufactured, as opposed to just the manufacturer and class of products, as bar codes do today. The EPC system is currently managed by EPCglobal, Inc., a subsidiary of GS1 . The specifications for the EPC identifiers can be found in

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