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103-811: CDC announced it was creating ETA Systems, and a successor to the Cyber 205, on 18 April 1983 at the Frontiers of Supercomputing conference, held at the Los Alamos National Laboratory . It was then referred to tentatively as the Cyber 2XX , and later as the GF-10 , before it was named the ETA10. Prototypes were operational in mid-1986, and the first delivery was made in December 1986. The supercomputer

206-451: A Department of Energy investigation into the laboratory. The investigation found that the "missing plutonium" was a result of miscalculation by LANL's statisticians and did not actually exist; but the investigation did lead to heavy criticism of the laboratory by the DOE for security flaws and weaknesses that the DOE claimed to have found. LANL is northern New Mexico's largest institution and

309-519: A flag or switch ) modifies the operation of a command; the effect is determined by the command's program. Options follow the command name on the command line, separated by spaces. A space before the first option is not always required, such as Dir/? and DIR /? in DOS, which have the same effect of listing the DIR command's available options, whereas dir --help (in many versions of Unix) does require

412-438: A mouse pointer , such as Microsoft Windows ), text-based user interface menus (such as DOS Shell and IBM AIX SMIT ), and keyboard shortcuts . Compared with a graphical user interface, a command-line interface requires fewer system resources to implement. Since options to commands are given in a few characters in each command line, an experienced user often finds the options easier to access. Automation of repetitive tasks

515-478: A pipeline where the output of one command becomes the input to the next command. One can modify the set of available commands by modifying which paths appear in the PATH environment variable. Under Unix, commands also need be marked as executable files. The directories in the path variable are searched in the order they are given. By re-ordering the path, one can run e.g. \OS2\MDOS\E.EXE instead of \OS2\E.EXE, when

618-484: A 19 ns clock cycle. Between the highest-performing, liquid-nitrogen cooled models (ETA10-E, G, etc. ) and the cheaper, air-cooled models (ETA10-P, Q, etc. ), the ETA10 line spanned a 27:1 performance range. Peak performance on the top-of-the-line models reached 10 GFLOPS. A single-processor ETA10 achieved 52  MFLOPS on the LINPACK benchmark for a matrix with a size of 100 × 100. The ETA10

721-438: A CLI, presenting their own prompt to the user and accepting command lines. Other programs support both a CLI and a GUI. In some cases, a GUI is simply a wrapper around a separate CLI executable file . In other cases, a program may provide a CLI as an optional alternative to its GUI. CLIs and GUIs often support different functionality. For example, all features of MATLAB , a numerical analysis computer program, are available via

824-458: A Unix-like CLI. Microsoft provides MKS Inc. 's ksh implementation MKS Korn shell for Windows through their Services for UNIX add-on. Since 2001, the Macintosh operating system macOS has been based on a Unix-like operating system called Darwin . On these computers, users can access a Unix-like command-line interface by running the terminal emulator program called Terminal , which

927-504: A command procedure or script which itself can be treated as a command. These advantages mean that a user must figure out a complex command or series of commands only once, because they can be saved, to be used again. The commands given to a CLI shell are often in one of the following forms: where doSomething is, in effect, a verb , how an adverb (for example, should the command be executed verbosely or quietly ) and toFiles an object or objects (typically one or more files) on which

1030-551: A drum containing nuclear waste was ruptured due to a ' deflagration ' according to an inspector general report of the Dept. of Energy, which due to lab mistakes, also occurred in 2014 at the Carlsbad plant with significant disruptions and costs across the industry. In 2009, 69 computers which did not contain classified information were lost. The same year also saw a scare in which 1 kg (2.2 lb) of missing plutonium prompted

1133-402: A factor of four, in practice the liquid nitrogen cooling yielded an approximately twofold speed increase over air-cooled systems. However, because liquid nitrogen cooling yielded only marginal performance benefits, none of the ETA10 systems used such cooling for either the local or shared memories. It is of particular note that in order for this type of cooling to be effective, a closed-loop system

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1236-409: A file server, a batch server, a printer and graphics output server and numerous other general purpose and specialized systems. IBM Roadrunner , which was part of this network, was the first supercomputer to hit petaflop speeds. Until 1999, The Los Alamos National Laboratory hosted the arXiv e-print archive. The arXiv is currently operated and funded by Cornell University . The coreboot project

1339-454: A fraction of the heat of previous ICs. The planned 1987 follow-on was supposed to be designated Cyber 250 or ETA30, as in 30 GFLOPS. ETA was eventually reincorporated back into CDC, ceasing operations on April 17, 1989. The ETA10 series could run either ETA's EOS operating system , which was widely criticized for various problems, or a port by Lachman Associates, a software personnel firm, of UNIX System V (Release 3). While EOS suffered

1442-568: A goal of producing a supercomputer with a cycle time less than 10ns. To accomplish this, several innovations were made. Among these was the use of liquid nitrogen for cooling the CMOS -based CPUs. The ETA10 successfully met the company's initial goals (10  GFLOPS ), with some models achieving a cycle time of about 7 ns (143 MHz) - considered rapid by mid-1980s standards. They delivered seven liquid nitrogen-cooled versions and 27 smaller, air-cooled versions. The CMOS circuits produced only

1545-504: A hybrid OS. The OS was intended to be effective for both batch work that drove the hardware to its maximum or for interactive use in development from a UNIX workstation. EOS was written mainly in Cybil , a Pascal -like programming language created by Control Data for its later Cyber operating systems. It was a new effort, as VSOS was implemented in IMPL , a Fortran -like language created for

1648-408: A peak performance of 8.32 GFLOPS. The later Model G, whose processors had a 7 ns clock cycle (approximately 142 MHz), had a peak performance of 10.3 GFLOPS in its maximal eight-processor configuration. The Models P and Q were slower, less-costly, air-cooled versions. The Model P, codenamed " Piper ", had processors with a 24 ns clock cycle. The faster, two-processor Model Q had

1751-459: A photo nearly led to a criticality incident. The photo shoot, which was directed by the laboratory's management, was one of several factors relating to unsafe management practices that led to the departure of 12 of the lab's 14 safety staff. The criticality incident was one of several that led the Department of Energy to seek alternative bids to manage the laboratory after the 2018 expiration of

1854-588: A pure GUI. This is typically the case with operating system command shells . CLIs are also used by systems with insufficient resources to support a graphical user interface. Some computer language systems (such as Python , Forth , LISP , Rexx , and many dialects of BASIC ) provide an interactive command-line mode to allow for rapid evaluation of code. CLIs are often used by programmers and system administrators, in engineering and scientific environments, and by technically advanced personal computer users. CLIs are also popular among people with visual disabilities since

1957-589: A reputation for poor quality, ETA's UNIX was better received by customers. EOS was preceded by and was binary executable compatible with the CDC VSOS operating system for Cyber 205 . Like VSOS, EOS had demand paged virtual memory (the VS part) with 2 page sizes for improved virtual memory performance with the ETA's faster hardware pipelines. Though it had roots in the interactive Livermore Time Sharing System (LTSS), VSOS

2060-554: A result of NASA saying no (and in a domino effect DOD, etc.). There were four models of the ETA10. Any of these models could be built in either single- or multi-processor configurations. The Models E and G were the highest-performing members of the ETA10 line, and used liquid nitrogen cooling to achieve rapid cycle times. The first to be announced was the Model E, whose processors had a 10.5 ns clock cycle (approximately 95 MHz). The Model E could support up to eight processors, for

2163-722: A second design lab under the direction of the University of California, Berkeley , which became the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). The two labs competed on a wide variety of bomb designs, but with the end of the Cold War , have focused increasingly on civilian missions. Today, Los Alamos conducts multidisciplinary research in fields such as national security , space exploration , nuclear fusion , renewable energy , medicine , nanotechnology , and supercomputing . While owned by

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2266-444: A secure area within the laboratory, but were later found behind a photocopier. Los Alamos National Laboratory's mission is to "solve national security challenges through simultaneous excellence". The laboratory's strategic plan reflects U.S. priorities spanning nuclear security, intelligence, defense, emergency response, nonproliferation, counterterrorism, energy security , emerging threats, and environmental management. This strategy

2369-589: A short distance northwest of Santa Fe, New Mexico , in the American southwest . Best known for its central role in helping develop the first atomic bomb , LANL is one of the world's largest and most advanced scientific institutions. Los Alamos was established in 1943 as Project Y , a top-secret site for designing nuclear weapons under the Manhattan Project during World War II . Chosen for its remote yet relatively accessible location, it served as

2472-403: A single-processor kernel which did not transparently exploit the hardware architecture with up to 8 large application CPUs for applications. Despite eventual adoption of UNIX , poorly developed system software remained one flaw of the ETA10 line. According to one description of the system: The late delivery and operating problems contributed to this demise as well as management problems. It

2575-617: A strong history of creating powerful supercomputers, starting with the CDC 6600 . One of the most famous computer architects to emerge from CDC was Seymour Cray . After a disagreement with CDC management regarding the development of the CDC 8600 , he went on to form his own supercomputer company, Cray Research . Meanwhile, work continued at CDC in developing a high-end supercomputer, the CDC STAR-100 —led by another famous architect, Neil Lincoln. Cray Research's Cray-1 vector supercomputer

2678-544: A third accident occurred during an annual physical inventory in December 1958. Several buildings associated with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos were declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965. At the end of the Cold War , both labs went through a process of intense scientific diversification in their research programs to adapt to the changing political conditions that no longer required as much research towards developing new nuclear weapons and has led

2781-527: A total of 25 systems were delivered. Among the recipients were: By the end of the 1980s, the remaining ETA10 systems were donated to high schools through a computer science competition, SuperQuest : Los Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos National Laboratory (often shortened as Los Alamos and LANL ) is one of the sixteen research and development laboratories of the United States Department of Energy (DOE), located

2884-465: Is a communication buffer used for CPU synchronization and other multiprocessor-related protocol communication. I/O was facilitated by one to eighteen I/O processors that each have a direct path to the shared memory. The ETA10 used fiber-optic lines for communication between the CPUs and I/O devices, a novel approach for systems interconnection in the 1980s. Before ETA Systems was reincorporated into CDC,

2987-517: Is a means of interacting with a computer program by inputting lines of text called command-lines . Command-line interfaces emerged in the mid-1960s, on computer terminals , as an interactive and more user-friendly alternative to the non-interactive interface available with punched cards . Today, most computer users rely on graphical user interfaces ("GUIs") instead of CLIs. However, many programs and operating system utilities lack GUIs, and are intended to be used through CLIs. Knowledge of CLIs

3090-501: Is a mistake to believe that ETA's demise was based solely on operating system choice or existence. The Fortran compiler (ftn200) had not changed from the CDC205. This compiler retained vendor-specific programming performance features (known as the Q8* subroutine calls) in an era when supercomputer users were realizing the necessity of source code portability between architectures. Additionally,

3193-513: Is active a program is typically invoked by typing its name followed by command-line arguments (if any). For example, in Unix and Unix-like environments, an example of a command-line argument is: file.s is a command-line argument which tells the program rm to remove the file named file.s . Some programming languages, such as C , C++ and Java , allow a program to interpret the command-line arguments by handling them as string parameters in

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3296-911: Is aligned with priorities set by the Department of Energy (DOE), the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), and national strategy guidance documents, such as the Nuclear Posture Review , the National Security Strategy , and the Blueprint for a Secure Energy Future. Los Alamos is the senior laboratory in the DOE system , and executes work in all areas of the DOE mission: national security, science, energy, and environmental management. The laboratory also performs work for

3399-415: Is also useful for writing scripts . Programs that have CLIs are generally easy to automate via scripting, since command-lines, being mere lines of text, are easy to specify in code. CLIs are made possible by command-line interpreters or command-line processors , which are programs that read command-lines and carry out the commands. Alternatives to CLIs include GUIs (most notably desktop metaphors with

3502-600: Is found in the Utilities sub-folder of the Applications folder, or by remotely logging into the machine using ssh . Z shell is the default shell for macOS; Bash, tcsh , and the KornShell are also provided. Before macOS Catalina , Bash was the default. A CLI is used whenever a large vocabulary of commands or queries, coupled with a wide (or arbitrary) range of options, can be entered more rapidly as text than with

3605-406: Is simplified by line editing and history mechanisms for storing frequently used sequences; this may extend to a scripting language that can take parameters and variable options. A command-line history can be kept, allowing review or repetition of commands. A command-line system may require paper or online manuals for the user's reference, although often a help option provides a concise review of

3708-516: Is the grammar that all commands must follow. In the case of operating systems , DOS and Unix each define their own set of rules that all commands must follow. In the case of embedded systems , each vendor, such as Nortel , Juniper Networks or Cisco Systems , defines their own proprietary set of rules. These rules also dictate how a user navigates through the system of commands. The semantics define what sort of operations are possible, on what sort of data these operations can be performed, and how

3811-466: The Army-Navy "E" Award for Excellence in production on October 16, 1945. After the war, Oppenheimer retired from the directorship, and it was taken over by Norris Bradbury , whose initial mission was to make the previously hand-assembled atomic bombs "G.I. proof" so that they could be mass-produced and used without the assistance of highly trained scientists. Other founding members of Los Alamos left

3914-503: The Department of Defense (DoD), Intelligence Community (IC), and Department of Homeland Security (DHS), among others. The laboratory's multidisciplinary scientific capabilities and activities are organized into six Capability Pillars: Los Alamos operates three main user facilities: As of 2017, the Los Alamos National Laboratory is using data and algorithms to possibly protect public health by tracking

4017-756: The Human Immunodeficiency Virus were being tested by lab scientist Bette Korber and her team. "These vaccines might finally deal a lethal blow to the AIDS virus ", says Chang-Shung Tung, leader of the Lab's Theoretical Biology and Biophysics group. The laboratory has attracted negative publicity from a number of events. In 1999, Los Alamos scientist Wen Ho Lee was accused of 59 counts of mishandling classified information by downloading nuclear secrets—"weapons codes" used for computer simulations of nuclear weapons tests—to data tapes and removing them from

4120-757: The National Science Foundation , LANL operates one of the three National High Magnetic Field Laboratories in conjunction with and located at two other sites Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida , and University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida . Los Alamos National Laboratory is a partner in the Joint Genome Institute (JGI) located in Walnut Creek, California . JGI was founded in 1997 to unite

4223-546: The University of Texas System partnered with Lockheed-Martin . In December 2005, the Department of Energy announced that LANS had won the next seven-year contract to manage and operate the laboratory. On June 1, 2006, the University of California ended its sixty years of direct involvement in operating Los Alamos National Laboratory, and management control of the laboratory was taken over by Los Alamos National Security, LLC with effect October 1, 2007. Approximately 95% of

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4326-517: The flow cytometry technology. In the 1950s, researcher Mack Fulwyler developed a technique for sorting erythrocytes that combined the Coulter Principle of Coulter counter technologies, which measures the presence of cells and their size, with ink jet technology, which produces a laminar flow of liquid that breaks up into separate, fine drops. In 1969, Los Alamos reported the first fluorescence detector apparatus, which accurately measured

4429-476: The main function . Other languages, such as Python , expose operating system specific API (functionality) through sys module , and in particular sys.argv for command-line arguments . In Unix-like operating systems , a single hyphen used in place of a file name is a special value specifying that a program should handle data coming from the standard input or send data to the standard output . A command-line option or simply option (also known as

4532-533: The CLI, whereas the MATLAB GUI exposes only a subset of features. In Colossal Cave Adventure from 1975, the user uses a CLI to enter one or two words to explore a cave system. The command-line interface evolved from a form of communication conducted by people over teleprinter (TTY) machines. Sometimes these involved sending an order or a confirmation using telex . Early computer systems often used teleprinter as

4635-632: The LANL director no longer reports to the UC Regents or UC Office of the President. On June 8, 2018, the NNSA announced that Triad National Security, LLC, a joint venture between Battelle Memorial Institute , the University of California, and Texas A&M University, would assume operation and management of LANL beginning November 1, 2018. In August 2011, the close placement of eight plutonium rods for

4738-599: The LANS contract. The lab was penalized with a $ 57 million reduction in its 2014 budget over the February 14, 2014, accident at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant for which it was partly responsible. In August 2017, the improper storage of plutonium metal could have triggered a criticality accident , and subsequently staff failed to declare the failure as required by procedure. With support of

4841-563: The LTSS implementation. The command line appearance of all these systems was similar to the lineage going back to UNIVAC EXEC*8 . EOS was released with early hardware deliveries and had some of the typical problems for early OS releases. Some customers delayed payment for their supercomputer installations. ETA later released a port of UNIX for the ETA-10 line, which was more quickly accepted by their customer base. However, this port started as

4944-524: The Manhattan Project, Los Alamos hosted thousands of employees, including many Nobel Prize -winning scientists. The location was a total secret. Its only mailing address was a post office box, number 1663, in Santa Fe , New Mexico. Eventually two other post office boxes were used, 180 and 1539, also in Santa Fe. Though its contract with the University of California was initially intended to be temporary,

5047-524: The PC's serial ports . These were typically used to interface an organization's new PC's with their existing mini- or mainframe computers, or to connect PC to PC. Some of these PCs were running Bulletin Board System software. Early operating system CLIs were implemented as part of resident monitor programs, and could not easily be replaced. The first implementation of the shell as a replaceable component

5150-522: The Secretary-Treasurer Robert Underhill, who was in charge of wartime contracts and liabilities. The work of the laboratory culminated in several atomic devices, one of which was used in the first nuclear test near Alamogordo, New Mexico , codenamed " Trinity ", on July 16, 1945. The other two were weapons, " Little Boy " and " Fat Man ", which were used in the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Laboratory received

5253-498: The Windows CMD.EXE programs, the latter groups being based heavily on DEC's RSX-11 and RSTS CLIs. Under most operating systems, it is possible to replace the default shell program with alternatives; examples include 4DOS for DOS, 4OS2 for OS/2, and 4NT / Take Command for Windows. Although the term 'shell' is often used to describe a command-line interpreter, strictly speaking, a 'shell' can be any program that constitutes

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5356-423: The command In zsh the $ RPROMPT variable controls an optional prompt on the right-hand side of the display. It is not a real prompt in that the location of text entry does not change. It is used to display information on the same line as the prompt, but right-justified. In RISC OS the command prompt is a * symbol, and thus (OS) CLI commands are often referred to as star commands . One can also access

5459-670: The command line interface as the primary user interface replaced by the Graphical User Interface . The command line remained available as an alternative user interface, often used by system administrators and other advanced users for system administration, computer programming and batch processing . In November 2006, Microsoft released version 1.0 of Windows PowerShell (formerly codenamed Monad ), which combined features of traditional Unix shells with their proprietary object-oriented .NET Framework . MinGW and Cygwin are open-source packages for Windows that offer

5562-399: The command should act. The > in the third example is a redirection operator , telling the command-line interpreter to send the output of the command not to its own standard output (the screen) but to the named file. This will overwrite the file. Using >> will redirect the output and append it to the file. Another redirection operator is the vertical bar ( | ), which creates

5665-431: The commands and responses can be displayed using refreshable Braille displays . The general pattern of a command line interface is: In this format, the delimiters between command-line elements are whitespace characters and the end-of-line delimiter is the newline delimiter. This is a widely used (but not universal) convention. A CLI can generally be considered as consisting of syntax and semantics . The syntax

5768-465: The compiler optimizations were not keeping up with existing technology as shown by the Japanese supercomputer vendors as well as the newer minisupercomputer makers and competition at Cray Research. In general, computer hardware manufacturers prior and up to that period tended to be weak on software. Libraries and available commercial and non-commercial applications help build an installed user base. CDC

5871-490: The country indicated the need for a laboratory dedicated solely to that purpose. General Leslie Groves wanted a central laboratory at an isolated location for safety, and to keep the scientists away from the populace. It should be at least 200 miles from international boundaries and west of the Mississippi. Major John Dudley suggested Oak City, Utah , or Jemez Springs, New Mexico , but both were rejected. Jemez Springs

5974-807: The country's nuclear arsenal. Additional work included basic scientific research, particle accelerator development, health physics, and fusion power research as part of Project Sherwood . Many nuclear tests were undertaken in the Marshall Islands and at the Nevada Test Site . During the late-1950s, a number of scientists including Dr. J. Robert "Bob" Beyster left Los Alamos to work for General Atomics (GA) in San Diego . Three major nuclear-related accidents have occurred at LANL. Criticality accidents occurred in August 1945 and May 1946, and

6077-407: The current time, user, shell number or working directory) in order, for instance, to make the prompt more informative or visually pleasing, to distinguish sessions on various machines, or to indicate the current level of nesting of commands. On some systems, special tokens in the definition of the prompt can be used to cause external programs to be called by the command-line interpreter while displaying

6180-422: The default is the opposite. Renaming of the executables also works: people often rename their favourite editor to EDIT, for example. The command line allows one to restrict available commands, such as access to advanced internal commands. The Windows CMD.EXE does this. Often, shareware programs will limit the range of commands, including printing a command 'your administrator has disabled running batch files' from

6283-758: The effectiveness of the United States' vaccine distribution infrastructure. Additional advancements include the ASPECT airplane that can detect bio threats from the sky. In 2008, development for a safer, more comfortable and accurate test for breast cancer was ongoing by scientists Lianjie Huang and Kenneth M. Hanson and collaborators. The new technique, called ultrasound-computed tomography (ultrasound CT), uses sound waves to accurately detect small tumors that traditional mammography cannot. The lab has made intense efforts for humanitarian causes through its scientific research in medicine. In 2010, three vaccines for

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6386-402: The environment. It also contributed to thousands of dumpsites at 108 locations in 29 US states. Continuing efforts to make the laboratory more efficient led the Department of Energy to open its contract with the University of California to bids from other vendors in 2003. Though the university and the laboratory had difficult relations many times since their first World War II contract, this was

6489-420: The expertise and resources in genome mapping , DNA sequencing , technology development, and information sciences pioneered at the three genome centers at University of California's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and LANL. The Integrated Computing Network (ICN) is a multi-security level network at the LANL integrating large host supercomputers,

6592-501: The features that are commonly considered to produce structured programs. The Bourne shell led to the development of the KornShell (ksh), Almquist shell (ash), and the popular Bourne-again shell (or Bash). Early microcomputers themselves were based on a command-line interface such as CP/M , DOS or AppleSoft BASIC . During the 1980s and 1990s, the introduction of the Apple Macintosh and of Microsoft Windows on PCs saw

6695-500: The federal government, LANL is privately managed and operated by Triad National Security, LLC . The laboratory was founded during World War II as a secret, centralized facility to coordinate the scientific research of the Manhattan Project , the Allied project to develop the first nuclear weapons . In September 1942, the difficulties encountered in conducting preliminary studies on nuclear weapons at universities scattered across

6798-506: The first Multics shell was developed by Glenda Schroeder . The first Unix shell , the V6 shell , was developed by Ken Thompson in 1971 at Bell Labs and was modeled after Schroeder's Multics shell. The Bourne shell was introduced in 1977 as a replacement for the V6 shell. Although it is used as an interactive command interpreter, it was also intended as a scripting language and contains most of

6901-542: The first time that the university ever had to compete for management of the laboratory. The University of California decided to create a private company with the Bechtel Corporation, Washington Group International , and the BWX Technologies to bid on the contract to operate the laboratory. The UC/Bechtel led corporation— Los Alamos National Security, LLC (LANS)—was pitted against a team formed by

7004-499: The former 10,000 plus UC employees at LANL were rehired by LANS to continue working at LANL. Other than UC appointing three members to the eleven member board of directors that oversees LANS, UC now has virtually no responsibility or direct involvement in LANL. UC policies and regulations that apply to UC campuses and its two national laboratories in California ( Lawrence Berkeley and Lawrence Livermore ) no longer apply to LANL, and

7107-412: The grammar represents these operations and data—the symbolic meaning in the syntax. Two different CLIs may agree on either syntax or semantics, but it is only when they agree on both that they can be considered sufficiently similar to allow users to use both CLIs without needing to learn anything, as well as to enable re-use of scripts. A simple CLI will display a prompt, accept a command line typed by

7210-636: The growth of infectious diseases . Digital epidemiologists at the lab's Information Systems and Modeling group are using clinical surveillance data, Google search queries, census data, Misplaced Pages , and even tweets to create a system that could predict epidemics. The team is using data from Brazil as its model; Brazil was notably threatened by the Zika virus as it prepared to host the Summer Olympics in 2016 . Within LANL's 43-square-mile property are approximately 2,000 dumpsites which have contaminated

7313-504: The interconnection of the logic circuits. However, CMOS circuitry at that time was significantly slower than that of bipolar circuitry, especially the emitter-coupled logic that was widely used in vector supercomputer CPUs at the time. To compensate for this, the CPU was immersed in -196.15 °C liquid nitrogen for cooling. Although such cooling could potentially speed up the CMOS logic by

7416-501: The interface mode. At this point, commands from the system mode may not be accessible until the user exits the interface mode and enters the system mode. A command prompt (or just prompt ) is a sequence of (one or more) characters used in a command-line interface to indicate readiness to accept commands. It literally prompts the user to take action. A prompt usually ends with one of the characters $ , % , # , : , > or - and often includes other information, such as

7519-521: The lab to increase research for "non-war" science and technology. Los Alamos' nuclear work is currently thought to relate primarily to computer simulations and stockpile stewardship . The development of the Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test Facility will allow complex simulations of nuclear tests to take place without full explosive yields. The laboratory contributed to the early development of

7622-448: The lab. After ten months in jail, Lee pleaded guilty to a single count and the other 58 were dismissed with an apology from U.S. District Judge James Parker for his incarceration. Lee had been suspected for having shared U.S. nuclear secrets with China , but investigators were never able to establish what Lee did with the downloaded data. In 2000, two computer hard drives containing classified data were announced to have gone missing from

7725-490: The laboratory and became outspoken opponents to the further development of nuclear weapons. The name officially changed to the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ( LASL ) on January 1, 1947. By this time, Argonne had already been made the first National Laboratory the previous year. Los Alamos would not become a National Laboratory in name until 1981. In the years since the 1940s, Los Alamos

7828-490: The largest employer with approximately 8,762 direct employees, 277 guard force, 505 contractors, 1,613 students, 1,143 unionized craft workers, and 452 post-doctoral researchers. Additionally, there are roughly 120 DOE employees stationed at the laboratory to provide federal oversight of LANL's work and operations. Approximately one-third of the laboratory's technical staff members are physicists , one-quarter are engineers , one-sixth are chemists and materials scientists , and

7931-415: The logic technology and incorporated two key technologies known as JTAG and BIST . The gate arrays were designed using a combination of internally developed simulator and placement tools, and one of the first commercial electronic design automation tools (an application for schematic capture) from Mentor Graphics . Prior to the use of schematic capture at ETA, designers used textual netlists to describe

8034-490: The main hub for conducting and coordinating nuclear research, bringing together scientists from around the world, among them numerous Nobel Prize winners. The town of Los Alamos , directly north of the lab, grew extensively through this period. After the war ended in 1945, Project Y's existence was made public, and it became known universally as Los Alamos. In 1952, the Atomic Energy Commission formed

8137-598: The means of interaction with an operator. The mechanical teleprinter was replaced by a "glass tty" , a keyboard and screen emulating the teleprinter. "Smart" terminals permitted additional functions, such as cursor movement over the entire screen, or local editing of data on the terminal for transmission to the computer. As the microcomputer revolution replaced the traditional – minicomputer + terminals – time sharing architecture, hardware terminals were replaced by terminal emulators  — PC software that interpreted terminal signals sent through

8240-461: The newer C:\> style, unless used on floppy drives A: or B:; on those systems PROMPT $ N$ G can be used to override the automatic default and explicitly switch to the older style. Many Unix systems feature the $ PS1 variable (Prompt String 1), although other variables also may affect the prompt (depending on the shell used). In the Bash shell, a prompt of the form: could be set by issuing

8343-406: The number and size of ovarian cells and blood cells. As of 2017, other research performed at the lab included developing cheaper, cleaner biofuels and advancing scientific understanding around renewable energy. Non-nuclear national security and defense development is also a priority at the lab. This includes preventing outbreaks of deadly diseases by improving detection tools and the monitoring

8446-515: The operating system. A program that implements such a text interface is often called a command-line interpreter, command processor or shell . Examples of command-line interpreters include Nushell , DEC's DIGITAL Command Language (DCL) in OpenVMS and RSX-11 , the various Unix shells ( sh , ksh , csh , tcsh , zsh , Bash , etc.), CP/M 's CCP , DOS ' COMMAND.COM , as well as the OS/2 and

8549-462: The options of a command. The command-line environment may not provide graphical enhancements such as different fonts or extended edit windows found in a GUI. It may be difficult for a new user to become familiar with all the commands and options available, compared with the icons and drop-down menus of a graphical user interface, without reference to manuals. Operating system (OS) command-line interfaces are usually distinct programs supplied with

8652-468: The path of the current working directory and the hostname . On many Unix and derivative systems , the prompt commonly ends in $ or % if the user is a normal user, but in # if the user is a superuser ("root" in Unix terminology). End-users can often modify prompts. Depending on the environment, they may include colors, special characters, and other elements (like variables and functions for

8755-428: The prompt. Some CLIs, such as those in network routers , have a hierarchy of modes , with a different set of commands supported in each mode. The set of commands are grouped by association with security, system, interface, etc. In these systems the user might traverse through a series of sub-modes. For example, if the CLI had two modes called interface and system , the user might use the command interface to enter

8858-548: The prompt. In DOS' COMMAND.COM and in Windows NT's cmd.exe users can modify the prompt by issuing a PROMPT command or by directly changing the value of the corresponding %PROMPT% environment variable . The default of most modern systems, the C:\>; style is obtained, for instance, with PROMPT $ P$ G . The default of older DOS systems, C> is obtained by just PROMPT , although on some systems this produces

8961-447: The relationship was maintained long after the war. Until the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Japan , University of California president Robert Sproul did not know what the purpose of the laboratory was and thought it might be producing a " death ray ". The only member of the UC administration who knew its true purpose—indeed, the only one who knew its exact physical location—was

9064-475: The remainder work in mathematics and computational science , biology , geoscience , and other disciplines. Professional scientists and students also come to Los Alamos as visitors to participate in scientific projects. The staff collaborates with universities and industry in both basic and applied research to develop resources for the future. The annual budget is approximately US$ 2.2 billion. Command-line interface A command-line interface ( CLI )

9167-463: The same commands from other command lines (such as the BBC BASIC command line), by preceding the command with a * . A command-line argument or parameter is an item of information provided to a program when it is started. A program can have many command-line arguments that identify sources or destinations of information, or that alter the operation of the program. When a command processor

9270-455: The user terminated by the Enter key , then execute the specified command and provide textual display of results or error messages. Advanced CLIs will validate, interpret and parameter-expand the command line before executing the specified command, and optionally capture or redirect its output. Unlike a button or menu item in a GUI, a command line is typically self-documenting, stating exactly what

9373-410: The user wants done. In addition, command lines usually include many defaults that can be changed to customize the results. Useful command lines can be saved by assigning a character string or alias to represent the full command, or several commands can be grouped to perform a more complex sequence – for instance, compile the program, install it, and run it — creating a single entity, called

9476-615: The user-interface, including fully graphically oriented ones. For example, the default Windows GUI is a shell program named EXPLORER.EXE , as defined in the SHELL=EXPLORER.EXE line in the WIN.INI configuration file. These programs are shells, but not CLIs. Application programs (as opposed to operating systems) may also have command-line interfaces. An application program may support none, any, or all of these three major types of command-line interface mechanisms: Some applications support

9579-414: Was a multiprocessor system that supported up to eight CPUs. Each CPU was similar to that of a two-lane Cyber 205. One of the main innovations of the ETA10 was how the CPU was implemented: the CPU was made of 250 CMOS gate array integrated circuits mounted on a 44-layer printed circuit board (PCB). Each gate array contained 20,000 gates and was fabricated using 1.25- micrometre (μm) technology that

9682-482: Was accessible from the VHSIC program at Honeywell. In contrast, mainstream commercial technology at the time was in the 3 to 5 μm range. CMOS circuitry, which was not typically used in vector supercomputer CPUs at the time, was chosen because of the high density achievable, which reduces both the on-chip and off-chip delay. The CPU delays were managed through careful tuning of each PCB manufactured in conjunction with

9785-462: Was focused as a batch-oriented operating system. VSOS was not run at very many institutions and its application-oriented performance, while the historic focus for supercomputing, set its features behind the times because of its limited user base. To address this feature deficiency and to make the operating system more "normal to use", the VSOS characteristics were married with UNIX characteristics in

9888-534: Was formally announced in April 1987 at an event held at its first customer installation, the Florida State University , Tallahassee's Scientific Computational Research Institute. On 17 April 1989, CDC abruptly closed ETA Systems due to ongoing financial losses, and discontinued production of the ETA10. Many of its users, such as Florida State University, negotiated Cray hardware in exchange. CDC had

9991-786: Was initially developed at LANL. In the recent years, the Laboratory has developed a major research program in systems biology modeling , known at LANL under the name q-bio. Several serials are published by LANL: LANL also published Los Alamos Science from 1980 to 2005, as well as the Nuclear Weapons Journal , which was replaced by National Security Science after two issues in 2009. In 2005, Congress held new hearings on lingering security issues at Los Alamos National Weapons Laboratory in New Mexico; documented problems continued to be ignored. In November 2008,

10094-497: Was only a short distance from the current site. Project Y director J. Robert Oppenheimer had spent much time in his youth in the New Mexico area and suggested the Los Alamos Ranch School on the mesa . Dudley had rejected the school as not meeting Groves' criteria, but as soon as Groves saw it he said in effect "This is the place". Oppenheimer became the laboratory's first director; from 19 October 1942. During

10197-568: Was part of the Multics time-sharing operating system . In 1964, MIT Computation Center staff member Louis Pouzin developed the RUNCOM tool for executing command scripts while allowing argument substitution. Pouzin coined the term shell to describe the technique of using commands like a programming language, and wrote a paper about how to implement the idea in the Multics operating system. Pouzin returned to his native France in 1965, and

10300-481: Was relatively weak in this area, and some of the best operating systems that CDC provided to customers were productized versions of an OS written by Lawrence Livermore Laboratories . According to NASA, the hardware was very poorly designed, and failed to complete any acceptance tests at the Ames Research Center . This one event is considered among CDC insiders to be the downfall of ETA, which folded as

10403-416: Was required. ETA had to innovate to make this possible, since there were not any commercially available solutions in the market. The 44-layer PCB was also innovative, and ETA had to develop new processes to manufacture it. Each CPU had its own 4 million word local memory built from SRAM ICs. Each CPU is also connected to a 256 million word shared memory built from DRAM ICs. In addition to these memories, there

10506-419: Was responsible for the development of the hydrogen bomb , and many other variants of nuclear weapons. In 1952, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was founded to act as Los Alamos' "competitor", with the hope that two laboratories for the design of nuclear weapons would spur innovation. Los Alamos and Livermore served as the primary classified laboratories in the U.S. national laboratory system, designing all

10609-670: Was successful, beating CDC's STAR-100. CDC responded with derivatives of the STAR, the Cyber 203 and 205. The Cyber 205 was moderately successful against the Cray-1's successor, the Cray X-MP . It became apparent to CDC's top management that it needed to decrease the development time for the next generation computer—thus a new approach was considered for the follow-on to the Cyber 205. After spinning off from CDC in September 1983, ETA set

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