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130-546: Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy QSC CCLH PMM KGCR ( Spanish: [eˈmiljo aɣiˈnaldoj ˈfami] : March 22, 1869 – February 6, 1964) was a Filipino revolutionary, statesman, and military leader who was the youngest president of the Philippines (1899–1901) and became the first president of the Philippines and of an Asian constitutional republic. He led the Philippine forces first against Spain in

260-557: A cabeza de barangay in 1895 when the Maura Law called for the reorganization of local governments. At the age of 25, Aguinaldo became Cavite el Viejo's first gobernadorcillo capitan municipal (municipal governor-captain) while he was on a business trip in Mindoro . On January 1, 1895, Aguinaldo became a Freemason , joining Pilar Lodge No. 203, Imus, Cavite by the codename "Colon". On March 7, 1895, Santiago Alvarez, whose father

390-478: A cooling-off period so that eventually the Bonifacio brothers would be forgiven and pardoned. Antonio Luna was a highly regarded general in the revolution who was sometimes at odds with Aguinaldo. On June 2, 1899, Luna received one telegram (he failed to receive two others) sent by Aguinaldo himself, According to Ambeth Ocampo, the message that Aguinaldo sent stated "Felipe Buencamino is detained without ordering

520-558: A decree replacing his dictatorial government with a revolutionary government with himself as president upon the recommendation of his adviser Apolinario Mabini . The decree defined the organization of the central government and the establishment and the election of delegates to the Revolutionary Congress and to prepare the shift from a revolutionary government to a republic. By May 1898, Filipino troops had cleared Cavite of Spanish forces. In late June 1898, Aguinaldo, with

650-409: A deep ravine near the enemy position, pre-positioned for their classic "buffalo horns" pitched attack, but in accordance with tradition, waiting until the omens were good for an assault. Discovered by a British cavalry patrol, the entire Impi sprang up as one man, and launched their attack from some 4 miles away. The advance was met by withering British rifle, rocket and artillery fire that made part of

780-569: A degree as to add great prestige to the Republic of the Philippines, or as to contribute to the lasting benefit of its people". Nominations for the Quezon Service Cross need to state the services meriting the award and are made only in cases where the service performed or contribution made can be measured on the scale established by what the joint resolution terms "the benefaction" of the late President Manuel L. Quezon , after whom

910-584: A few examples of pitched battles that occurred on a large scale during the Second World War , during the Post-war period , pitched battles effectively ceased to exist because of the prevalence of irregular warfare . The largest set-piece battle in the history of warfare was the Battle of Kursk . Pitched battles were first recorded during the prehistorical period as massed organised conflict became

1040-571: A ford. Archers may have been positioned at either side of the river in the attempt to cause casualties before a series of close quarter engagements. The battle at Tollense Valley demonstrates that early pitched battles in the European prehistorical period were characterised by large semi-organised groups of combatants and the implementation of simple hand and missile weapons such as bows. Elsewhere, pitched battles had grown in frequency and size because of developments in technology and logistics during

1170-550: A headquarters there in what is now called "Aguinaldo Cave" in Biak-na-Bato National Park . In late October 1897, Aguinaldo convened an assembly of generals at Biak-na-Bato that decided to establish a constitutional republic. A constitution, patterned closely after the Cuban Constitution, was drawn up by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer and provided for the creation of a Supreme Council composed of

1300-512: A mass of projectiles at an enemy. Because these weapons were unreliable, these troops were supported by other groups of infantry, especially when confronted with enemy cavalry. In 16th century Italy, pike and shot infantry would have interweaving ranks of musket and pike armed soldiers to provide mobile cavalry protection. Furthermore, during this period artillery would evolve from basic stone throwers to barrelled cannons capable of mobility and more effective siege warfare. The battle of Nagashino

1430-609: A much bigger force to march against Silang to take on the Katipuneros from the rear, and he would engage the Filipinos head on. On February 13, 1897, Aguinaldo ordered soldiers to plant dynamite along the bridge and to place pointed bamboo sticks in the river beds below the bridge. Several hours later, 12,000 Spaniards began to cross the bridge. The trap was sprung, and the dynamite was detonated, which killed several Spanish troops and injured many more. The rebels then emerged from

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1560-629: A much larger force of 3,000 men. When Spanish troops arrived at the Isabel II Bridge , they were fired upon by the concealed rebels. The Spanish force was routed, withdrawing in disorder with substantial casualties. Among the abandoned Spanish weapons was Aguirre's sword, which was carried by Aguinaldo in future battles. Alarmed by previous siege, led by General Aguinaldo in Imus, in September 1896, Governor-General Ramón Blanco y Erenas ordered

1690-612: A president, a vice president, a Secretary of War, and a Secretary of the Treasury. Aguinaldo was named president. In March 1897, Fernando Primo de Rivera, 1st Marquis of Estella , the Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines , had been encouraging prominent Filipinos to contact Aguinaldo for a peaceful settlement of the conflict. On August 9, the Manila lawyer Pedro Paterno met with Aguinaldo at Biak-na-Bato with

1820-459: A proclamation upon the advice of his war counselor Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista , and Aguinaldo assumed the command of all Philippine forces and established a dictatorial government with himself as titular dictator and power vested upon him to administer decrees promulgated under his sole responsibility. The dictatorial government was provisional in character until peace was established and unrestrained liberty attained. Dean Worcester wrote, "although

1950-457: A proposal for peace based on reforms and amnesty. In succeeding months, Paterno conducted shuttle diplomacy , acting as an intermediary between de Rivera and Aguinaldo. On December 14–15, 1897, Aguinaldo signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato under which Aguinaldo effectively agreed to end hostilities and to dissolve his government in exchange for amnesty and "₱800,000 (Mexican)" (Aguinaldo's description of

2080-577: A revolutionary government in place of the Katipunan. Though Bonifacio already considered the Katipunan to be a government, he acquiesced and presided over a convention held on March 22, 1897, in Tejeros, San Francisco de Malabon, Cavite. Aguinaldo was elected president, even though he was occupied with military matters in Imus and not in attendance. Mariano Trias was elected as vice-president, Artemio Ricarte as captain-general, Emiliano Riego de Dios as

2210-555: A series of skirmishes at Imus that eventually ended in open hostilities against Spanish troops stationed there. On September 1, with the aid of Captain Jose Tagle of Imus, they laid siege against Imus to draw the Spanish out. A Spanish relief column commanded by Brigadier-General Ernesto de Aguirre had been dispatched from Manila to aid the beleaguered Spanish defenders of Imus. Supported only by 100 troops and by cavalry, Aguirre gave

2340-412: A steep slope. The English formation held heavy infantry, referred to as housecarls , at the centre and light infantry on the flanks. Across the front of Godwinson's battle line was a shield wall made from soldiers interlocking their shields holding spears and missile troops behind. The Normans under William deployed in three groups which consisted of their origins, Bretons on the left flank, Normans in

2470-684: A telegram to Aguinaldo to confirm his arrival. Upon arriving at Cabanatuan on June 5, Luna alone proceeded to the headquarters to communicate with the president. As he went up the stairs, he ran into two men: Felipe Buencamino, Minister of Foreign Affairs and a member of the Cabinet; and Captain Pedro Janolino. The commander of the Kawit Battalion, Janolino was an old enemy whom Luna had disarmed for insubordination, and once threatened with arrest for favoring American autonomy. General Luna

2600-613: A ten-year transition to complete independence. Aguinaldo returned to public life and ran for the presidency as the candidate of the National Socialist Party (no relation to the German Nazi Party ) against the highly popular Nacionalista Party candidate Manuel L. Quezon and Republican Party candidate Gregorio Aglipay . However, Aguinaldo's capture by the Americans in 1901 as well as his allegations in

2730-543: Is humanly possible to assist you in any plan that promises to get us the elbow room we need. The air and everything else will be available. Montgomery's overall pitched conception of the battle eventually bore fruit, but it took two months of bitter fighting in and around the city of Caen to come to fruition. During the Post war period, pitched battles became outdated because of increasing emphasis on camouflage , guerrilla warfare and strategic bombing , all of which prevented

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2860-630: Is known as a national hero in the Philippines. However, he is also known to be somewhat controversial in the country due to his alleged involvement in the deaths of the revolutionary leader Andrés Bonifacio and general Antonio Luna , and for his collaboration with the Japanese Empire during their occupation of the Philippines in World War II . Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy was born on March 22, 1869 in Cavite el Viejo (present-day Kawit ) in

2990-494: Is marching towards Aguinaldo's rear. On February 15, 1897, the Spaniards launched the powerful Cavite offensive to drive and crush Filipino revolutionaries under Aguinaldo and his Magdalo forces that held numerous victories against the Spanish in the early stages of the revolution. Renewed and fully equipped with 100 cannons, 23,000 Spanish cazadores forces under Major General Jose de Lachambre saw town after town fall back to

3120-557: The Middle Ages decreased in overall size and frequency because states were unable to field armies as large as those during the Classical period. The potential decisiveness and possibility of the death of the leader also decreased the number of pitched battles fought. Battlefield strategy also began to favour control through sieges and garrisons in fortifications such as castles . However, the few examples of pitched battles during

3250-648: The Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain in his own mansion house in Cavite El Viejo, believing that declaration would inspire the Filipino people to eagerly rise against the Spaniards. On June 18, he issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government in which he also provided the organization of the local government and the establishment and the composition of the Revolutionary Congress. On June 23, Aguinaldo issued

3380-743: The Philippine Revolution (1896–1898), then in the Spanish–American War (1898), and finally against the United States during the Philippine–American War (1899–1901). Though he was not recognized as president outside of the revolutionary Philippines , he is regarded in the Philippines as having been the country's first president during the period of the First Philippine Republic . Aguinaldo

3510-617: The Romans who established a large professional army consisting of heavily armoured infantry units and units of auxiliaries . An example of a pitched battle that occurred during the Classical period was the battle of Cannae fought between the Roman Republic under the consuls Lucius Aemllius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro and the Carthaginians under Hannibal . The pitched battle occurred on 2 August in 216 BCE near

3640-571: The Tejeros Convention , Aguinaldo was voted in absentia as president of the reorganized revolutionary government. Colonel Vicente Riego de Dios was sent by the assembly to fetch Aguinaldo, who was in Pasong Santol. Aguinaldo refused to come and Crispulo Aguinaldo , his older brother, was sent to talk to him. Crispulo greeted and talked to his brother and explained his purpose, but Aguinaldo was hesitant to leave his post because of

3770-772: The Treaty of Paris had been signed; it transferred the Philippines from Spain to the United States for the sum of $ 20 million. The First Philippine Republic was formally established with the proclamation of the Malolos Constitution on January 21, 1899, in Malolos , Bulacan and endured until capture of Aguinaldo by the American forces on March 23, 1901, in Palanan, Isabela , which effectively dissolved

3900-615: The United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands , with Major-General Wesley Merritt as the first American Military Governor . On the night of February 4, 1899, a Filipino was shot by an American sentry. That incident was considered to be the beginning of the Philippine–American War and culminated in the 1899 Battle of Manila between American and Filipino forces. Superior American military technology drove Filipino troops away from

4030-719: The "Supreme Council of the Nation". On April 25, the Spanish–American War began. The war mostly focused on Cuba, but the US Navy 's Asiatic Squadron was in Hong Kong and, commanded by Commodore George Dewey , it sailed for the Philippines. On May 1, 1898, in the Battle of Manila Bay , the squadron engaged attacked and destroyed the Spanish Army and Navy's Pacific Squadron and proceeded to blockade Manila. Several days later, Dewey agreed to transport Aguinaldo from Hong Kong to

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4160-413: The $ MXN800,000 amount) as an indemnity. The documents were signed on December 14–15, 1897. On December 23, Aguinaldo and other revolutionary officials departed for Hong Kong to enter voluntary exile . MXN$ 400,000, representing the first installment of the indemnity, was deposited into Hong Kong banks. In exile, Aguinaldo reorganized his revolutionary government into the "Hong Kong Junta" and enlarged it into

4290-567: The 1962 Independence Day observances. On August 4, 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 officially proclaimed June 12 to be Philippine Independence Day and renamed the Fourth of July holiday as "Philippine Republic Day". On January 1, 1896, he married his first wife, Hilaria del Rosario (1877–1921). They had five children: Carmen Aguinaldo-Melencio, Emilio "Jun" R. Aguinaldo Jr., Maria Aguinaldo-Poblete, Cristina Aguinaldo-Suntay, and Miguel Aguinaldo. Hilaria died of pulmonary tuberculosis on March 6, 1921, at

4420-537: The 20th century, pitched battles decreased in frequency because of the increasing size of armies and developments in weapons technology. Larger armies meant that combat could not be resolved in single events and the introduction of the machine gun , advanced artillery, and barbed wire by the First World War meant that deploying infantry in large moveable blocks was ineffective as they could be easily made immobile and destroyed. Barbed wire alone brought an end to

4550-415: The 4th Battalion of Cazadores from Spain to aid him in quelling the rebellion in Cavite. On November 3, 1896, the battalion arrived carrying a squadron of 1,328 men and some 55 officers. Also, Blanco ordered about 8,000 men who recently came from Cuba and Spain to join in suppressing the rebellion. Prior to the land attacks, Spanish naval raids were conducted on the shores of Cavite, where cannons bombarded

4680-635: The British front to the deep shelter of the Ngwebeni valley. This was truly a masterful manoeuvre. The amabutho moved rapidly in small units, mainly concealed from the Isandlwana camp nine miles away by the Nyoni Heights. The British mounted patrols that sighted some of the apparently isolated Zulu units had no inkling an entire army was on the move. The total Zulu host was then concentrated in

4810-447: The Cavite rebels won major victories in carefully planned and well-timed set-piece battles and temporarily drove the Spanish out of their area. On August 31, 1896, Aguinaldo started the assault by beginning as a skirmish to the full-blown revolt Kawit Revolt . He marched with his army of bolomen to the town center of Kawit. Prior to the battle, Aguinaldo strictly ordered his men not to kill anyone in his hometown. Upon his men's arrival at

4940-406: The Classical period as weapons technology and battlefield tactics became more complex. The widespread introduction of iron weapons increased emphasis on close quarter infantry combat as improvements in armour and larger infantry block formations made projectiles less effective. The Classical Greeks implemented a new and highly effective formation of spear infantry called a phalanx . By 550 BCE

5070-461: The Crown. Starting the offensive at Pamplona, Cavite, and Bayungyungan, Batangas, Lachambre's men later marched deep into the heart of Aguinaldo's home province. Having just won the Battle of Zapote Bridge , Aguinaldo turned his attention at the new Spanish threat and was determined to recapture most of Cavite. Aguinaldo decided to deploy his forces at Pasong Santol, a bottleneck of Perez Dasmariñas on

5200-658: The Empire of Japan and as a result, Aguinaldo's charges were dropped and his trial was never held. On July 4, 1946, after the end of World War II and Japanese occupation of the Philippines, the U.S. recognized the Philippines as an independent and sovereign nation. In 1950, President Elpidio Quirino appointed Aguinaldo as a member of the Philippine Council of State , where he served a full term. He returned to retirement soon afterward and dedicated his time and attention to veteran soldiers' "interests and welfare." He

5330-744: The First Republic. Aguinaldo wrote in Tarlac during the First Republic the Tagalog manuscript of his autobiographical work, which would later be translated by Felipe Buencamino into Spanish and released as Reseña Veridica de la Revolucion Filipina (in English, True Account of the Philippine Revolution ). On August 13, 1898, American forces had captured Manila during the "mock" Battle of Manila and on August 14, 1898, established

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5460-689: The Germans, the Americans were to push in the west on the right of the Allied line, breaking through the German defences. The British role in the strategy would thus not be a glamorous one, but a brutal battle in a punishing cauldron of attrition, in and around the key city of Caen . Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower affirmed Montgomery's overall strategy in a message of 10 July, urging stronger efforts: I am familiar with your plan for generally holding firmly with your left, attracting thereto all of

5590-462: The Greeks had perfected the formation, which consisted of individual soldiers called hoplites forming rows of spears and shields. These units would engage in pitched battles against enemies in tight formations that would press against the enemy. Only if one side faltered was the formation able to break and the pursuing side engage in individual arms. The success of the phalanx was demonstrated against

5720-616: The Hittite chariots which were plundering the Egyptian camp and pushed them back towards the Orontes River and main force of the Hittite army. The third stage was a dedicated series of charges launched by both sides as the Hittite reserve was positioned and refused to retreat over the river. The pitched battle resulted in an Egyptian tactical victory but a strategic stalemate for both sides. Pitched battles continued to evolve into

5850-470: The Kawit Battalion. Janolino swung his bolo at Luna, wounding him in the head. Janolino's men fired at Luna while others started stabbing him even as he tried to fire his revolver at one of his attackers. He staggered out into the plaza where Román and Rusca were rushing to his aid, but as he lay dying, they too were set upon and shot, with Román being killed and Rusca being severely wounded. Luna received more than 30 wounds and uttered "Traitors! Assassins!" He

5980-515: The Middle Ages. Consequently, infantry tactics during pitched battles would evolve towards the late Middle Ages to emphasise the use of polearms such as pikes and halberds . Furthermore, pitched battles during this period saw the widespread introduction of the crossbow , as evidenced at the battle of Hastings, provided a powerful alternative to bows and were effective against most forms of armour. An important pitched battle that demonstrated

6110-650: The Persians at Marathon in 490 BCE and then at Plataea in 479 BCE. The Macedonians under Phillip II and Alexander the Great would develop this formation further to be deeper and wield longer spears called a sarrisa . The Macedonian phalanx was extremely successful against the Persian Empire and dominated Mediterranean warfare during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. The effective nature of these heavy infantry formations would be further developed by

6240-577: The Philippines Basilio Augustín , who refused them initially since he believed that more Spanish troops would be sent to lift the siege. As the combined forces of Filipinos and Americans were closing in, Augustín realized that his position was hopeless, secretly continued to negotiate with Aguinaldo, and even offered ₱1 million, but Aguinaldo refused. When the Spanish Cortes learned of Augustín's attempt to negotiate

6370-477: The Philippines aboard the USS McCulloch , which left Hong Kong with Aguinaldo on May 16 and arrived in Cavite on May 19. Aguinaldo promptly resumed the command of revolutionary forces and besieged Manila. Aguinaldo had brought with him the draft constitution of Mariano Ponce for the establishment of federal revolutionary republic upon his return to Manila, but on May 24, 1898, in Cavite, Aguinaldo issued

6500-555: The Philippines nonetheless charged Aguinaldo with 11 counts of treason for his "wholehearted" support for and collaboration with the Empire of Japan. Aguinaldo was 77 when the US government recognized Philippine independence in the Treaty of Manila on July 4, 1946, in accordance with the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934. On January 28, 1948, Philippine president Manuel Roxas granted amnesty to all Filipinos who had collaborated with

6630-452: The Romans in an encirclement. Hannibal's deployment tactic worked and although precise numbers of casualties are disputed, eight Roman legions or roughly 45,500-70,000 Roman infantry were slain. The battle resulted in a decisive victory for Hannibal and illustrates the importance of heavy infantry and advanced deployment strategies for pitched battles during the period. Pitched battles during

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6760-515: The Romans the narrow field between the river Aufidus and the village of Cannae to make full effect of their powerful infantry. Both sides carefully deployed their troops ensuring to make full advantage of their respective strategies. The Romans had deployed their heavy infantry in a deep formation with the intention of breaking through the Carthaginian centre whilst their 6000 cavalry had been deployed on each flank positioned to defend against

6890-407: The United States, formally ending the First Republic and recognizing the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines. He published a manifesto in which he acknowledged that most of the Filipino people had united around the United States, declaring "unmistakably in favor of peace", said, "a complete termination of hostilities and lasting peace are not only desirable, but absolutely essential to

7020-568: The United States... And the Spaniards made way for me and treated me as their brother on that significant day..." On May 12, 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal changed the celebration of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 to honor Aguinaldo and the Revolution of 1898, rather than the establishment of the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands by the United States. Although in poor health by that point, Aguinaldo attended

7150-473: The Western equivalent of divisional strength. Coordination of tactical movements was supplied by the indunas who used hand signals and messengers. Generally before deploying for combat, the regiments were made to squat in a semicircle. This semi-circular squat served to align all echelons towards the coming pitched battle, while the commanders made final assignments and adjustments. While formidable in action,

7280-415: The Zulu arrangements for a pitched struggle could be predictable, as they usually used the same 3-part layout in their operations. At Isandlwana, Zulu forces first lured the British into splitting their strength by diversionary actions around Magogo Hills and Mangeni Falls, and then moved to take advantage of this British error in a careful approach march, using dispersed units that hid the full strength of

7410-417: The advance falter. The British however had divided their forces- fooled in part by preliminary Zulu feints- and other errors, such as failure to base the camp on a strong central wagon or laager fortification for example also contributed to fatal weaknesses in the British defences. When pressure by the maneuvering Zulu formations caused the crumbling of the redcoat line, the Zulu prongs surged through and around

7540-458: The age of 44. Nine years later, on July 14, 1930, Aguinaldo married his second wife, Maria Agoncillo (1879–1963), at Barasoain Church . She died on May 29, 1963, a year before Aguinaldo himself. Quezon Service Cross The Quezon Service Cross ( Filipino : Krus ng Serbisyo ni Quezon ) is the highest order of the Republic of the Philippines . It has been awarded to only a handful of Filipinos since its creation in 1946. The award

7670-413: The army. As one historian notes: Meanwhile, the joint Zulu commanders, who had indeed been considering a flank march to Chelmsford's east to join with Matshana and cut the British column off from Natal, decided instead to take advantage of the general's division of forces. They detached men to reinforce Matshana, but on the same evening of 21 January and during the next they transferred the main army across

7800-423: The assassination of Luna. During the American period, Aguinaldo largely retired from public life, though continued to support groups that advocated for immediate independence and helped veterans of the struggle. He organized the Asociación de los Veteranos de la Revolución ( Association of Veterans of the Revolution ) to secure pensions for its members and made arrangements for them to buy land by installments from

7930-461: The battle as they were able to draw the English into a pursuit which was then counter charged and broken. The effective deployment of heavy cavalry by the Normans during this battle demonstrates the importance of technological improvements through arms and armour and evolving tactics to pitched battles during the Middle Ages. Pitched battles developed significantly during the early Modern era as tactics and deployment strategies evolving rapidly with

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8060-572: The battle of Isandlwana in 1879 between the Zulu Empire and the British . The mobility and accuracy of artillery was also improved with rifling and sophisticated reload mechanisms and would be utilised to great effect alongside infantry throughout the 19th century. Furthermore, cavalry would continue to be an effective force for pitched battles during this period as they were implemented to harass infantry formations and artillery positions. These tactics would remain in warfare until developments in technology would make pitched battles less effective towards

8190-414: The battle was the deployment of 10,000 Ashigaru arquebusiers. Firearms had been introduced to Japan by European traders as early as 1543 and were adopted quickly. Nagashino was one of the earliest examples of their effective tactical deployment. Before the battle, Nobunaga had positioned his arquebusiers in formations to be protected from enemy cavalry by supporting Ashigaru spearmen. The Takeda strategy

8320-450: The bushes, fought hand to hand, and repelled consecutive waves of enemy troops charging across the river. Edilberto Evangelista was shot in the head and died. Cavite Province gradually emerged as the Revolution's hotbed, and the Aguinaldo-led Katipuneros had a string of victories there. After the battle, the demoralized Spanish soldiers retreated towards Muntinlupa. While Polavieja was poised to strike at Zapote, another Spanish contingent

8450-415: The cathedral for the surprise of the Spaniards. And they asked me why I had come to the funeral of the King of Spain against whom I rose up in rebellion... And, I told them that he is still my King because under Spain we were always Spanish subjects, or citizens, but now, under the United States, we are only a consumer market for their exports, if not pariahs, because they never made us citizens of any state of

8580-489: The centre and Franco-Flemings on the right flank. William deployed his missile troops which included crossbowmen , at the front of his lines with his heavy infantry and cavalry behind. William's heavily armoured Norman knights were essential in the battle as they were deployed in cavalry feints which thinned and at occasions broke Godwinson's shield wall as they pursued fleeing Norman cavalry. The repeated implementation of this battle tactic eventually led to Norman victory in

8710-422: The city's liberation. The Magdalo faction of the Katipunan, which also operated in Cavite under Gen. Aguinaldo, used flags similar to those used by the Magdiwang faction and featuring a white sun with a red baybayin symbol for Ka . The symbol has recently been revived by a breakaway group of army officers to show the end of war with Spain after the peace agreement. The flag became the first official banner of

8840-435: The city, and Aguinaldo's government had to move from one place to another as defeats mounted. At the Battle of Marilao River , Aguinaldo himself took command in a desperate attempt to prevent American crossings. The Americans gained superiority in the battle only after severe fighting and the use of gunboats in the river that "made great execution" of Filipino soldiers. On November 13, 1899, Aguinaldo issued an order disbanding

8970-489: The deaths of Bonifacio and Luna had since made him an unpopular figure among the Filipino people, and he lost to Quezon in a landslide, gaining only 17.5% of the popular vote. Despite his decisive defeat, however, Aguinaldo refused to accept the results of the election, believing it to be rigged against him. In Cavite, the only province he had won, Aguinaldo's supporters plotted a rally in Manila to disrupt Quezon's inauguration and even assassinate him. However, this planned event

9100-414: The decoration is named. The Quezon Service Cross was proposed by President Manuel Roxas . It is also referred to as the Congressional Quezon Service Cross , as conferment requires the approval of the Congress of the Philippines and is seldom awarded. Only six Filipinos have been conferred this decoration: Pitched battle During the Prehistorical period , pitched battles were established as

9230-469: The deployment of cavalry as they would be rendered immobile and made easy targets. Developments in tactics would emphasise fortified positions in trenches and would result in battles that would take months and be determined by attrition and supply rather than tactics and mobility. The introduction of mechanised armour and aircraft in the late First World War meant that trench warfare would be less effective as trenches could be outmanoeuvred and surrounded. This

9360-491: The director of war, and Andres Bonifacio as director of the interior. The results were questioned by Daniel Tirona for Bonifacio's qualifications for that position. Bonifacio was insulted and declared, "I, as chairman of this assembly, and as President of the Supreme Council of the Katipunan, as all of you do not deny, declare this assembly dissolved, and I annul all that has been approved and resolved." Regardless of

9490-552: The earliest battles in Europe occurred in the Tollense Valley where a pitched battle was fought during the 13th century BCE, consisting of at least several hundred combatants. Evidence of bronze weaponry and flint and bronze arrow heads indicates that archers were used alongside infantry during the battle. A possible reason for the battle was the attempted crossing of a river by a large group of armed men who were confronted at

9620-693: The end of the 19th century. The Battle of Isandlwana was fought between the Zulu Empire and the British Empire on 22 January 1879. This pitched battle saw the implementation of superior tactics to overwhelm a technologically superior force. The Zulu army usually deployed in its well known "buffalo horns" formation. The attack layout was composed of three elements: The Zulu forces were generally grouped into 3 levels: regiments; corps of several regiments; and "armies" or bigger formations. With enough manpower, these could be marshaled and maneuvered in

9750-538: The enemy armour, while your right pushes down the Peninsula and threatens the rear and flank of the forces facing the Second British Army.. It appears to me that we must use all possible energy in a determined effort to prevent a stalemate or facing the necessity of fighting a major defensive battle with the slight depth we now have in the bridgehead... please be assured that I will produce everything that

9880-534: The evolution of tactics and technology during the Middle Ages was the battle of Hastings fought on the 14 October 1066. This battle was fought between the Norman-French Army under William the Conqueror and the English army under Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson . This pitched battle was fought as William engaged Godwinson who deployed his army of infantry in a small dense formation at the top of

10010-638: The formation of the case. I await your reply to my previous telegram where I request the basis for your accusation. Beseech urgency." Luna wrote to Arcadio Maxilom , military commander of Cebu , to stand firm in the war. Luna set off from Bayambang , first by train, then on horseback, and eventually in three carriages, to Nueva Ecija with 25 of his men. During the journey, two of the carriages broke down and so he proceeded with just one carriage with Colonel Francisco Román and Captain Eduardo Rusca, having earlier shed his cavalry escort. On June 4, Luna sent

10140-626: The gaps, annihilating the camp's defenders. The liquidation of almost 1,000 European troops with modern arms by the African spearmen sparked disbelief and uproar in Britain. Aside from the losses of British regulars, and the supporting native levies, the Zulu impi killed more British officers at Isandlwana than Napoleon killed at Waterloo. Towards the late 19th century and into the World Wars of

10270-688: The government. Displaying the Philippine flag was declared illegal by the Sedition Act of 1907, but it was amended on October 30, 1919. Then, Aguinaldo transformed his home in Kawit into a monument to the flag, the revolution, and the Declaration of Independence. After Aguinaldo's death, the government declared the mansion as a National Shrine in June 1964. In 1935, the Philippines became a commonwealth , and presidential elections were held as part of

10400-436: The help of American allies, who were now landing in Cavite, was now preparing to drive the Spaniards out of Manila. The first contingent of American troops arrived in Cavite on June 30, the second under General Francis V. Greene on July 17, and the third under General Arthur MacArthur Jr on July 30. By then, 12,000 US troops had landed in the Philippines. Aguinaldo had presented surrender terms to Spanish Governor-General of

10530-478: The implementation of chariots and larger infantry formations that used spears and swords for close-quarter fighting. The battle itself occurred in three stages. Initially, Hittite chariots were deployed and charged an Egyptian division that was en route to the main Egyptian camp on the North-West side of the fortress of Kadesh . In the second phase of the battle, Ramesses II launched a chariot counterattack on

10660-453: The impression that he had been sent out to suppress a minor disturbance. Aguinaldo and his men counterattacked but suffered heavy losses that almost cost his own life. Despite the success, Aguirre did not press the attack, felt the inadequacy of his troops, and hastened back to Manila to get reinforcements. During the lull in the fighting, Aguinaldo's troops reorganized and prepared for another Spanish attack. On September 3, Aguirre came back with

10790-530: The introduction of early firearms and artillery . There was a general increase in the size of pitched battles during this period as states grew and could wield larger standing armies using improved logistics. Firearms were introduced in Europe during the 16th century and revolutionised pitched battles because of their devastating effect when fired in sequence. Despite this, early firearms were inaccurate and slow to fire meaning that they were most effectively deployed in smaller, mobile blocks of infantry who would fire

10920-547: The introduction of rudimentary firearms and artillery developing new tactics to respond to the rapidly changing state of gunpowder warfare . The late modern period saw improvements to firearms technology which saw the standardisation of rifle infantry , cavalry and artillery during battles. Pitched battles declined towards the late 19th century and had ceased by the First World War because of technological developments establishing trench warfare . Whilst there are

11050-460: The islands from American occupation. In January 1942, Aguinaldo met with General Masami Maeda at the former's Cavite residence to discuss the creation of a pro-Japanese provisional government. On February 1, Aguinaldo delivered a radio address calling upon General Douglas MacArthur and all American and Filipino troops fighting in the Battle of Bataan to surrender to the Japanese army. Following

11180-455: The lake around Dalahican was strategic by connecting to the interior of Cavite. Apart from defending Binakayan, the Magdalo soldiers also kept the lower part of Dagatan up to Cavite's border near Manila province . Between the barrios of Binakayan and Dalahican, the Spanish forces lost decisively since the Filipino rebels, led by Aguinaldo and Alvarez, routed them back to Cavite Nuevo in which

11310-485: The later prehistorical period. Technological improvements included the addition of iron weaponry, shields, and cavalry which were deployed in organised formations. An example of a pitched battle that demonstrated these developments was the battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE between New Kingdom Egypt under Ramses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II . Evidence from reliefs at the temple of Ramesses II depict

11440-468: The normal population of about 10,000 was now 70,000. Realizing that it was only a matter of time before the city fell and fearing vengeance and looting if the city fell to Filipino revolutionaries, Jáudenes, suggested to Dewey, through the Belgian consul, Édouard André , for the city to be surrendered to the Americans after a short, "mock" battle. Dewey had initially rejected the suggestion because he lacked

11570-428: The nullification, Aguinaldo traveled surreptitiously to San Francisco de Malabon where, on the evening of March 23, he took an oath assuming the office to which he had been elected as Generalissimo of the Philippine Islands. The Spanish Army launched an attack that forced the revolutionary forces under Aguinaldo into a retreat. On June 24, 1897, Aguinaldo arrived at Biak-na-Bato, San Miguel, Bulacan , and established

11700-632: The pending attack of the Spanish in Dasmariñas. Crispulo took over Aguinaldo's leadership in the battle, which had been stalemated since March 7, and Aguinaldo traveled to San Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias , Cavite) to take his oath as president. Conflict within the ranks of the Katipunan factions, specifically between the Magdalo and Magdiwang , led to the Imus assembly in Cavite Province, presided over by Bonifacio. The rebels of Cavite were rumored to have made overtures to establish

11830-458: The period demonstrate developments in arms and armour and their effect upon tactics and deployment. Technological improvements in metalworking permitted the increased introduction of plate armour which provided superior protection in combat. Wealthy soldiers, often called knights , would combine heavy plate armour and a mount. These would be deployed in devastatingly effective charges or dismounted to fight on foot dominating battlefields throughout

11960-527: The primary method for organised conflict and placed an emphasis on the implementation of rudimentary hand and missile weapons in loose formations. This developed into the Classical period as weapons and armour became more sophisticated and increased the efficacy of heavy infantry . Pitched battles decreased in size and frequency during the Middle Ages and saw the implementation of heavy cavalry and new counter cavalry formations. The early modern period saw

12090-466: The primary method for the expansion of territory for early states. During the Neolithic period, from 10,000 BCE to 3000 BCE, violence was experienced endemically rather than in concentrated large-scale events. Later during the prehistorical period, after 3000 BCE, battles became increasingly organised and were typified by the implementation of bronze weaponry and rudimentary missile weapons . One of

12220-522: The proclamation of Philippine independence. On December 8, 1941, the Imperial Japanese Army invaded the Philippines . The invasion came ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor that had brought the United States into World War II. Aguinaldo, a longtime admirer of the Japanese Empire , sided with them, as he had previously supported groups that demanded the immediate independence of the Philippines, and entrusted that Japan would free

12350-665: The province of Cavite to Carlos Aguinaldo y Jamir and Trinidad Famy y Villanueva , a couple that had eight children, the seventh of whom was Emilio. He was baptized and raised in Roman Catholicism . The Aguinaldo family was quite well-to-do as his father, Carlos Aguinaldo, was the community's appointed gobernadorcillo (municipal governor) in the Spanish Viceregal administration. He studied at Colegio de San Juan de Letran , but could not finish his studies because of an outbreak of cholera in 1882. He became

12480-450: The reliability and accuracy of the weapons. The efficacy of firearms increased dramatically during the 18th century with the introduction of rifling for enhanced range and accuracy, cartridge ammunition and magazines. As a result, most armies during this period would strictly deploy firearm infantry. Notable exceptions to this would be in colonial Africa where native armies would still employ close quarter fighting to some success, such as at

12610-463: The remaining Spanish troops would eventually surrender. The successful defenses of Binakayan and Dalahican was considered to be the first major victory of the Filipinos over a colonial power. Newly appointed Governor-General Camilo de Polavieja , was now fully aware that the main weight of the revolution was in Cavite and so decided to launch a two-pronged assault to defeat the revolutionaries, led by Aguinaldo. He ordered General José de Lachambre with

12740-423: The remnants of the Filipino national army; in the same order, he formulated a strategy of guerrilla warfare . Aguinaldo subsequently fled to Northern Luzon , where he continued to exercise command. On March 23, 1901, with the aid of Macabebe Scouts forces led by General Frederick Funston , Aguinaldo was captured in his headquarters in Palanan, Isabela . On April 19, 1901, Aguinaldo took an oath of allegiance to

12870-640: The retreat of American forces, Aguinaldo continued his collaboration with the Japanese. He was appointed as a member of both the provisional Council of State as well as the Preparatory Committee for Philippine Independence , which was tasked with creating a new constitution for a Japanese puppet state in the Philippines. Aguinaldo also played a key role in the Kenpeitai's campaign to suppress anti-Japanese resistance , urging guerrilla fighters to lay down their arms and surrender to Japan. Aguinaldo

13000-403: The revolution, forced Aguinaldo to withdraw the order for the sake of preserving unity. According to Aguinaldo, in his two books "Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan" and "A Second Look at America", he stated that his withdrawal of the commutation order/exile did not mean immediate implementation of the death verdict, that Noriel had misconstrued this and acted hastily. He says he wanted a little more time for

13130-483: The revolutionary forces and was blessed in a crowd celebrated at Imus. Aguinaldo referred to this flag in his proclamation of October 31, 1896: "Filipino people!! The hour has arrived to shed blood for the conquest of our liberty. Assemble and follow the flag of the Revolution – it stands for Liberty, Equality and Fraternity." In August 1896, as coordinated attacks broke out and sparked the revolution beginning in Manila. Aguinaldo marched from Kawit with 600 men and launched

13260-609: The revolutionary fortifications in Bacoor, Noveleta, Binakayan, and Cavite Viejo. The most fortified locations in Noveleta were the Dalahican and Dagatan shores, defended by Magdiwang soldiers commanded by General Santiago Alvarez , and the adjacent fishing village of Binakayan in Kawit was fortified by Magdalo under General Aguinaldo. Spanish naval operations were determined to crush the fortifications in these areas, mainly because

13390-494: The revolutionary government. On April 25, 1897, several complaints were sent to Aguinaldo, notably by Severino de las Alas, a known supporter and loyalist of Bonifacio, along with Jose Coronel, and many others, that Bonifacio and his men ransacked, pillaged and burned the town of Indang , stealing the carabaos and other work animals by force and killed them for food and terrorized the townspeople for being unable to give enough supplies and other provisions due to poor harvest. Aguinaldo

13520-472: The superior Carthaginian cavalry. Hannibal had deployed his troops with a weak centre and reinforced flanks with the intention of letting the centre break. Behind his main line he positioned 8000 auxiliary infantry with the purpose of surprising the Roman infantry as they pursued the faltering Carthaginian centre. Hannibal was aware of the superior power of the Roman infantry and elected to out manoeuvre and trap

13650-568: The surrender of his army to Filipinos under Aguinaldo, it was furious and relieved Augustín of his duties effective July 24. He was replaced by Fermin Jáudenes . On June 16, warships departed Spain to lift the siege, but they altered course for Cuba where a Spanish fleet was imperiled by the US Navy. In August 1898, life in Intramuros , the walled center of Manila, had become unbearable, and

13780-569: The title of 'president' was assumed by Aguinaldo, as more likely to be favourably considered in the United States than 'dictator', the tendency of his followers who had not been educated in Europe was to speak of and to regard him not as a president, but as an overlord holding all power in his hands." On May 28, 1898, Aguinaldo gathered a force of about 18,000 troops and fought against a small garrison of Spanish troops in Alapan , Imus, Cavite. The battle lasted from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. After

13910-477: The town center, the guards, armed with Remingtons and unaware of the preceding events, were caught completely by surprise and surrendered immediately. The guns there were captured and armed by the Katipuneros, and the revolt was a major success for Aguinaldo and his men. Later that afternoon, they raised the Magdalo flag at the town hall to a large crowd of people from Kawit that had assembled after it heard of

14040-424: The troops to block Filipino revolutionary forces, which numbered 40 000, but when Merritt's troops became available, he sent a message to Jáudenes, agreeing to the mock battle. A bloodless mock battle had been planned, but Spanish troops opened fire in a skirmish that left six Americans and forty-nine Spaniards dead after Filipino revolutionaries, thinking that the attack was genuine, joined advancing US troops. Besides

14170-442: The unplanned casualties, the battle went according to plan. The Spanish surrendered the city to the Americans, and it did not fall to the Filipino revolutionaries, who felt betrayed. By the end of September, Aguinaldo's forces had captured over 9,000 Spanish prisoners, who were relieved of their weapons. They were generally free to move around but remained within the control of Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo did not know that on December 10, 1898,

14300-677: The victory at Alapan, Aguinaldo unfurled the Philippine flag for the first time and hoisted it at the Teatro Caviteño in Cavite Nuevo (present-day Cavite City) in front of Filipino revolutionaries and more than 300 captured Spanish troops. A group of American sailors of the US Asiatic Squadron also witnessed the unfurling. Flag Day is celebrated every May 28 to honor the battle. On June 12, Aguinaldo promulgated

14430-452: The village of Cannae in Italy. The Romans had some 80,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry, whilst Hannibal controlled around 40,000 infantry and auxiliaries and 10,000 cavalry. The battle site was mutually decided as the flat river plain running along the river Aufidus and near the ancient village of Cannae. The Carthaginians favoured the level ground to ensure the effective deployment of cavalry and

14560-619: The war, there would be several important battles that would employ pitched battle tactics at a larger scale. During the Normandy landings under Operation Overlord , the Allies engaged in a pitched battle on a massive scale to defeat German resistance. When the Allies landed at Normandy, the pitched battle strategy used by the commander of the British land forces , general Bernard Montgomery ,

14690-467: The way to Imus, which rendered the Spanish immobile and served the revolutionaries by its natural defensive positions. On February 19, Silang fell to the Spanish juggernaut despite attempts by Filipino forces to defend and then to recover it. Nine days later, Spanish forces marched into Dasmariñas to reclaim the town. A week later, Spanish troops used artillery pieces well to attack again as they moved towards Aguinaldo's capital, Imus. Meanwhile, on March 22 at

14820-560: The welfare of the Philippine Islands." In this manifesto, he acknowledged and accepted U.S. sovereignty throughout the Philippines. Bonifacio refused to recognize the revolutionary government that was elected in the Tejeros Convention and reasserted his authority via the Acta de Tejeros and the Naic Military Agreement . He accused the Magdalo faction of treason and issued orders that are contradictory and contravention to

14950-402: Was a Capitan Municipal (Mayor) of Noveleta , encouraged Aguinaldo to join the " Katipunan ", a secret organization led by Andrés Bonifacio that was dedicated to the expulsion of the Spanish and the independence of the Philippines through armed force. Aguinaldo joined the organization and used the nom de guerre Magdalo in honor of Mary Magdalene . The local chapter of Katipunan in Cavite

15080-542: Was a pitched battle fought between the combined forces of Oda and Tokugawa clans against Takeda clan on 28 June 1575 during the Sengoku period in Japan. The battle occurred as Oda Nobunaga led 38,000 men to relieve Tokugawa forces besieged by Takeda Katsuyori at Nagashino Castle . This battle represents an example of a siege that develops into a pitched battle upon the arrival of new forces. Key to Oda success during

15210-693: Was appointed as head of the National Distribution Corporation (NADISCO), placing him in charge of rationing prime commodities for the Japanese war effort. After US forces returned to the Philippines in October 1944, Aguinaldo went into hiding in order to avoid being captured and potentially killed. During the Battle of Manila , however, members of the Marking Guerrillas resistance force were able to track his whereabouts, and arrested him on February 8, 1945. Aguinaldo

15340-465: Was conferred an honorary Doctor of Laws, Honoris Causa, by the University of the Philippines in 1953. In 1958, when asked by the Filipino journalist Guillermo Gómez Rivera if he regretted anything in his life, Emilio Aguinaldo stated: "Yes. I am regretful in large part for having risen up against Spain and, that is why, when the funerals were held in Manila of King Alfonso of Spain, I appeared at

15470-582: Was created by Joint Resolution No. 4 dated October 21, 1946, of the 1st Congress of the Philippines . A joint resolution of the Congress of the Philippines has the force of law. The Quezon Service Cross is a decoration conferred by the President of the Philippines with the concurrence of the Congress of the Philippines on Filipino citizens for "exemplary service to the nation in such a manner and such

15600-626: Was demonstrated clearly during the early stages of The Second World War during the German Blitzkrieg in France. Tactics in the Second World War developed to focus on mobile groups of infantry who would work in tandem with armour, aircraft and artillery to out manoeuvre and surround enemy positions. This would generally result in many smaller skirmishes along a wide battle front rather than localised pitched battles. However, during

15730-591: Was established and named Sangguniang Magdalo , and Aguinaldo's cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo was appointed leader. The Katipunan-led Philippine Revolution against the Spanish began in the last week of August 1896 in San Juan del Monte (now part of Metro Manila ). However, Aguinaldo and other Cavite rebels initially refused to join in the offensive for lack of arms. Bonifacio and other rebels were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare , but Aguinaldo and

15860-457: Was hurriedly buried in the churchyard , and Aguinaldo relieved Luna's officers and men from the field, including General Venacio Concepción , whose headquarters in Angeles, Pampanga , Aguinaldo besieged the same day that Luna was assassinated. Immediately after Luna's death, confusion reigned on both sides. The Americans even thought that Luna had taken over to replace Aguinaldo. Luna's death

15990-517: Was never actually carried out. Aguinaldo continued to criticize Quezon throughout the latter's presidency, expressing anti-semitic views when opposing Quezon's plan to shelter Jews fleeing from the Holocaust . In 1939, Aguinaldo vigorously expressed his antisemitism by echoing bigoted notions that Jewish people were "dangerous" and "selfishly materialistic". The two men formally reconciled in 1941, when Quezon moved Flag Day to June 12 to commemorate

16120-560: Was present at the inauguration ceremony of the Second Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943, raising the flag with Artemio Ricarte, who had returned to the Philippines from Japan at the request of Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo . The Japanese had considered making Aguinaldo president of the republic, a proposal which was supported by Aguinaldo himself, but he was ultimately passed up in favor of former Supreme Court justice Jose P. Laurel . Nonetheless, Aguinaldo

16250-476: Was publicly declared only by June 8, and a circular providing details of the event released by June 13. Investigations were supposedly made concerning Luna's death, but not one person was convicted . Later, General Pantaleon García said in 1921 that he was verbally ordered by Aguinaldo to conduct the assassination of Luna at Cabanatuan. His sickness then prevented his participation in the assassination. Aguinaldo would be firm in his stand that he had nothing to do with

16380-663: Was then forced to order the arrest of Bonifacio. After the trials, Andrés and his brother, Procopio, were ordered by the Consejo dela Guerra (Council of War) to be executed by firing squad under the command of Major Lazaro Macapagal on May 10, 1897, near Mount Nagpatong, Mount Buntis, Mount Pumutok, and Maragondon, Cavite . Aguinaldo had pardoned the Bonifacio brothers and that they should be exiled in Pico de Loro, but Pío del Pilar and Mariano Noriel , both former supporters and loyalist of Bonifacio, along with other high-ranking generals of

16510-507: Was then placed under house arrest as the US Army's Counterintelligence Corps investigated his collaboration with the Japanese. Despite his claims that he had secretly remained loyal to the US throughout the war, and that he, as well as other Axis collaborators, had only been forced to collaborate with Japan under great duress and should therefore all be granted amnesty, the People's Court of

16640-455: Was to confront German armoured units with constant harassment from British armies on the eastern flank of the beachhead. The role of the British forces would be to act as a great shield for the Allied landing, constantly sucking the German armour on to that shield on the left (east), and constantly grinding it down with punishing blows from artillery, tanks and Allied aircraft. As the shield held

16770-479: Was to utilise their superior cavalry force and make the Oda infantry flee with concentrated charges. This was unsuccessful as Oda spearmen worked in tandem with the arquebusiers who fired organised volleys in ranks of three to repel Takeda cavalry charges and achieve victory in the battle. Firearms and artillery dominated pitched battles during the late modern period as technological improvements such as rifling improved

16900-533: Was told that Aguinaldo had left for San Isidro in Nueva Ecija . (He had actually gone to Bamban in Tarlac.) Enraged, Luna asked why he had not been told that the meeting had been canceled. The general and the captain exchanged heated words as Luna was about to depart. In the plaza , a rifle shot rang out. Still outraged and furious, Luna rushed down the stairs and met Janolino, accompanied by some elements of

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