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65-418: Enggano (from Portuguese engano "mistake") is about 29 kilometres (18 miles) long from east to west and about 14 kilometres (8.7 miles) wide from north to south. Its area is 400.6 square kilometres (154.7 square miles) including four small offshore islands around its coast - Pulau Merbau , Pulau Dua and tiny Pulau Banggai off Enggano's east coast, and Pulau Satu off its south coast. The average elevation

130-420: A bulge indicative of magma near the surface at the site that became Anak Krakatau . The fate of northern Krakatoa has been the subject of some dispute among geologists. It was initially proposed that the island had been blown apart by the force of the eruption. Most of the material deposited by the volcano is magmatic in origin, and the caldera formed by the eruption is not extensively filled with deposits from

195-420: A continued eruption. The eruption caused a volcanic winter . In the year following the eruption, average Northern Hemisphere summer temperatures fell by 0.4 °C (0.72 °F). The record rainfall that hit Southern California during the water year from July 1883 to June 1884 – Los Angeles received 970 millimetres (38.18 in) and San Diego 660 millimetres (25.97 in) – has been attributed to

260-402: A distance. No signs of further activity were seen until 1913 when an eruption was reported. An investigation could find no evidence the volcano was awakening. It was determined that what had been mistaken for renewed activity had been a major landslide (possibly the one which formed the second arc to Rakata's cliff). Examinations after 1930 of bathymetric charts made in 1919 show evidence of

325-506: A few moments, but . . . one after another, they were washed down and carried far away by the rushing waters. You can see the marks on the hill side where the fight for life took place. Some . . . dragged others down with them. They would not let go their hold, nor could those above them release themselves from this death-grip." Away from the coasts of the Sunda Strait, the waves reached a height of 4 metres on Southern Sumatra. One person

390-457: A fragment of Danan, was left; Poolsche Hoed had disappeared. The huge amount of material the volcano deposited drastically altered the ocean floor. The huge amount of ignimbrite deposits largely filled the 30–40 m (98–131 ft) deep basin around the mountain. The land masses of Verlaten and Lang islands were increased, as was the western part of the remnant of Rakata. Much of this gained material quickly eroded, but volcanic ash remains

455-434: A minimum of 4,000 km (1,500 sq mi). Pyroclastic deposits thought to be from the flows have been found on Southeast Sumatra, and northwest of the volcano on the islands of Sebesi, Sebuku and Lagoendi, while on Southwest Sumatra the flows burnt victims. They travelled 40 km (25 mi) across the Sunda Strait. Once they hit Southern Sumatra, they incinerated entire villages and burned all vegetation. 2,000 of

520-660: A rain of hot ash fell around Ketimbang (now Katibung in Lampung Province) in Sumatra, known as 'The Burning Ashes of Ketimbang', killing approximately 1,000 people in Sumatra. The combination of pyroclastic flows , volcanic ash, and tsunamis associated with the Krakatoa eruptions had disastrous regional consequences. Some land in Banten , approximately 80 km south, was never repopulated; it reverted to jungle and

585-458: A secure place into which we might run the vessel. At last, however we discovered a spacious harbour at the South-east end of the island and I immediately went into it in the boat, and ordered the vessel to follow me as soon as possible, for it was then a dead calm. We rowed directly into this bay; and as soon as we had got round the point of an island which lay off the harbour, we discovered all

650-466: A significant part of the geological composition of these islands. The basin was 100 m (330 ft) deep before the eruption, and 200–300 m (660–980 ft) after. Two nearby sandbanks (called Steers and Calmeyer after the two naval officers who investigated them) were built up into islands by ashfall, but the sea later washed them away. Seawater on hot volcanic deposits on Steers and Calmeyer had caused steam to rise, which some mistook for

715-467: A small tsunami hit the shores of Java and Sumatra , 40 km (25 mi) away. On 27 August, four enormous explosions occurred, which marked the climax of the eruption. At 5:30 am, the first explosion was at Perboewatan, triggering a tsunami heading to Telok Betong , now known as Bandar Lampung. At 6:44   am, Krakatoa exploded again at Danan, with the resulting tsunami propagating eastward and westward. The third and largest explosion, at 10:02 am,

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780-681: Is a member of the Austronesian (specifically Malayo-Polynesian ) language — albeit a highly lexically divergent one, not closely related to any other member of that family — or is instead a language isolate , but with some elements borrowed from Austronesian. There are a number of plant and animal species endemic to the island. These include the bird species Enggano scops owl , Enggano imperial pigeon , Enggano thrush , Enggano hill myna , and Enggano white-eye . The island has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International . engano#Portuguese From Misplaced Pages,

845-467: Is about 100 metres (330 feet), and the highest point is 281 metres (922 feet). There are six villages on Enggano Island, which are all located on the island's only main road, which traverses the island's north-east coast (Yoder 2011:6). Malakoni, Apoho, and Meok have more Enggano natives, and the other villages have larger immigrant populations. There are ferries to Bengkulu from Kahayapu and Malakoni (Yoder 2011:6). A small island just across from Kahyapu

910-648: Is named ' Pulau Dua ' (second island). On Pulau Dua there is only one place to spend the night. Politically, it forms a district ( kecamatan ) of the North Bengkulu Regency of the Indonesian province of Bengkulu . The three largest villages on the island are Barhau , Kabuwe and Kayaapu . According to the Indonesian Kantor Statistik for Bengkulu, the island had 1,420 inhabitants in 1989. This number rose, according to

975-540: Is now the Ujung Kulon National Park . Ash fell 2,500 km away. Huge fields of floating pumice were reported for months after the event. There are numerous reports of groups of human skeletons floating across the Indian Ocean on rafts of volcanic pumice and washing up on the east coast of Africa up to a year after the eruption. An observation made two weeks after the eruption describes

1040-480: Is the knife?' . . . I will cut all our wrists and then we shall be released from our suffering sooner.' The knife could not be found. I felt a heavy pressure, throwing me to the ground. Then it seemed as if all the air was being sucked away and I could not breathe. . . . I felt people rolling over me . . . No sound came from my husband or children . . . I remember thinking, I want to . . . go outside . . . . but I could not straighten my back . . . I tottered, doubled up, to

1105-533: The Pukesmas , to 1,635 by 1994, with 64% of the population claiming descent from the Engganese people . There has subsequently been much immigration, mainly from Java and Sumatra, so that the original Engganese are much outnumbered by the new arrivals. There were 2,691 inhabitants at the 2010 Census, and the 2020 Census showed a population of 4,035, while the official estimate as at mid 2023 was 4,502. The name of

1170-643: The Sunda Strait occurred from 20 May until 21 October 1883, peaking in the late morning of 27 August when over 70% of the island of Krakatoa and its surrounding archipelago were destroyed as it collapsed into a caldera . The eruption was one of the deadliest and most destructive volcanic events in recorded history . The explosion was heard 3,110 kilometres (1,930 mi) away in Perth , Western Australia, and Rodrigues near Mauritius , 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) away. The acoustic pressure wave circled

1235-518: The article wizard to submit a draft for review, or request a new article . Search for " Engano " in existing articles. Look for pages within Misplaced Pages that link to this title . Other reasons this message may be displayed: If a page was recently created here, it may not be visible yet because of a delay in updating the database; wait a few minutes or try the purge function . Titles on Misplaced Pages are case sensitive except for

1300-473: The 1870s, possibly from disease. The Dutch sent medical officers to investigate. Since the island's highest point is only 281 m (922 ft) above sea level, it would have been severely affected by the tsunami associated with the Krakatoa eruption in 1883 , as well as by the massive volcanic debris. The indigenous population failed to recover and numbered only about 400 people in the early 1960s. Therefore,

1365-462: The 1883 eruption. This indicates that the island subsided into an empty magma chamber at the end of the eruption sequence rather than having been destroyed during the eruptions. Based on the findings of contemporary investigators, the established hypotheses assume that part of the island subsided before the first explosions on the morning of 27 August. This forced the volcano's vents to be below sea level, causing: Geological evidence does not support

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1430-558: The Indonesian government uses the island for rehabilitation of juvenile offenders from Java, who perform forced labor, clearing bush and constructing rice fields. As noted above, the population has expanded considerably since that time, and reached 4,035 at the 2020 Census. The 7.9 M w   Enggano earthquake shook southwestern Sumatra with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ). One-hundred and three people were killed and 2,174–2,585 were injured. The Indonesian National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) has proposed

1495-654: The Krakatoa eruption. There was no El Niño during that period as is usual when heavy rain occurs in Southern California, but many scientists doubt that there was a causal relationship. The eruption injected a tremendous amount of sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) gas high into the stratosphere , which was subsequently transported by high-level winds all over the planet. This led to a global increase in sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) concentration in high-level cirrus clouds . The resulting increase in cloud reflectivity (or albedo ) reflected more incoming light from

1560-469: The apparent conflagration". This eruption also produced a Bishop's Ring around the sun by day, and a volcanic purple light at twilight. In 2004, an astronomer proposed the idea that the red sky shown in Edvard Munch 's 1893 painting The Scream is an accurate depiction of the sky over Norway after the eruption. Weather watchers of the time tracked and mapped the effects on the sky. They labelled

1625-402: The assumption that only subsidence before the explosion was the cause. For instance, the pumice and ignimbrite deposits are not of a kind consistent with a magma-seawater interaction. These findings have led to other hypotheses: A numerical model for a Krakatoa hydrovolcanic explosion and the resulting tsunami was described by Mader & Gittings, in 2006. A high wall of water is formed that

1690-408: The beach covered with naked savages who were all armed with lances and clubs; and twelve canoes all full of them who, till we had passed them, had lain concealed, immediately rushed out upon me, making a horrid noise: this, you may suppose, alarmed us greatly; and as I had only one European and four black soldiers, besides the four lascars that rowed the boat. I thought it best to turn, if possible under

1755-519: The boat, and paddled away with it. Italian explorer Elio Modigliani visited Enggano Island between April 25 and July 13, 1891. He detailed the apparently dominant role of women in Enggano culture in L'Isola delle donne ( The Island of Women ), first published in 1894. The Rijksmuseum has an important collection of Enggano artifacts and their publication by Pieter J.ter Keurs reproduces Modigliani's drawings. The population went into severe decline in

1820-791: The clouds emerged blue and sometimes green. People also saw lavender suns and, for the first time, recorded noctilucent clouds . Although the violent phase of the 1883 eruption was over by the late afternoon of 27 August, after light returned by 29 August, reports continued for months that Krakatoa was still in eruption. Verbeek's committee's earliest duties were to determine if this was true and verify reports of other volcanoes erupting on Java and Sumatra. In general, these were found to be false. Small eruptions, mostly of mud, continued into October 1883. Verbeek discounted any claims of Krakatoa still erupting after mid-October due to steaming of hot material, landslides due to heavy monsoon rains that season, and "hallucinations due to electrical activity" seen from

1885-472: The corpses in Southern Sumatra appear to have been scorched to death, presumably by the pyroclastic flows. The Loudon and the W.H. Besse , at ~65 km north-northeast and ~80 km east-northeast of Krakatau respectively, were hit by strong winds and tephra. They were farther away than the scorched victims of the hot flows in Sumatra, so the ships and crew survived. The flows had moved across

1950-413: The destruction of all vegetation, leaving only tree stumps. He advised against any further landings. By 25 August, the Krakatoa eruptions intensified. At about 1:00 pm on 26 August, the eruption entered its climactic phase. By 2:00 pm, a black ash cloud could be seen 27 km (17 mi) high. At this point, the eruption was almost continuous, and explosions could be heard every ten minutes. By 5:00 pm,

2015-534: The door . . . I forced myself through the opening . . . I tripped and fell. I realized the ash was hot and I tried to protect my face with my hands. The hot bite of the pumice pricked like needles . . . Without thinking, I walked hopefully forward. Had I been in my right mind, I would have understood what a dangerous thing it was to . . . plunge into the hellish darkness . . . I ran up against . . . branches and did not even think of avoiding them. I entangled myself more and more . . . My hair got caught up . . . I noticed for

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2080-534: The eardrums of sailors on RMS Norham Castle of the Castle Line which was hove to off Sumatra, and caused a spike of more than 8.5 kilopascals (2.5 inHg) in the pressure gauge attached to a gasometer in the Batavia (correspondent to modern day Jakarta) gasworks 160 km (100 miles) away, sending it off the scale. At Batavia, the air waves burst windows and cracked walls. The pressure wave

2145-504: The eruption columns. This caused several cubic kilometres of material to enter the sea, displacing an equal volume of seawater. Smaller waves were recorded on tidal gauges as far away as the English Channel . These occurred too soon to be remnants of the initial tsunamis, which owing to a wavelength of less than 7 km, failed to cause significant damage at large distance, and may have been caused by concussive air waves from

2210-516: The eruption is believed to have been a new vent or vents that formed on that day, between Perboewatan and Danan . The violence of the ongoing eruptions caused tides in the vicinity to be unusually high, and ships at anchor had to be moored with chains. Earthquakes were felt at Anyer , Banten , and ships began to report large pumice masses to the west in the Indian Ocean . A third vent, and later many more, appeared. The eruptions continued throughout July, and their violence continued to increase until

2275-428: The eruption. These air waves circled the globe several times and were still detectable on barographs five days later. About 10% of the eruption fatalities were from hot pyroclastic flows and falling tephra. The pyroclastic flows and surges produced by the third explosion moved faster than 100 km/h (62 mph) and travelled over the sea up to 80 km (50 mi) from the source, affecting an area constrained to

2340-421: The explosions of 27 August. In early August, a Dutch topographical engineer, Captain H. J. G. Ferzenaar, investigated the Krakatoa islands. He noted three major ash columns (the newer from Danan), which obscured the western part of the island, and steam plumes from at least eleven other vents, mostly between Danan and Rakata . When he landed, he noted an ash layer about 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) thick and

2405-412: The explosions were audible all over Java. Waves a few feet in height began battering the coasts of Java and Sumatra at 5:30 pm, and continued throughout the night, which may have been produced by steam explosions. Ships within 20 km (12 mi) of the volcano reported heavy ash fall, with pieces of hot pumice up to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter landing on their decks. Between 7:00 pm and 8:00 pm,

2470-417: The first character; please check alternative capitalizations and consider adding a redirect here to the correct title. If the page has been deleted, check the deletion log , and see Why was the page I created deleted? Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engano " 1883 eruption of Krakatoa The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa ( Indonesian : Letusan Krakatau 1883 ) in

2535-581: The first time that [my] skin was hanging off everywhere, thick and moist from the ash stuck to it. Thinking it must be dirty, I wanted to pull bits of skin off, but that was still more painful . . . I did not know I had been burnt." — Mrs. Beyerinck (of Ketimbang) An estimated 20 cubic kilometres of tephra was deposited. Ash was propelled to an estimated height of 80 km (50 mi). It is estimated that as much as 18–21 km (4.3–5.0 cu mi) of ignimbrite were deposited over 1,100,000 km (420,000 sq mi). Around noon on 27 August 1883,

2600-889: The 💕 Look for Engano on one of Misplaced Pages's sister projects : [REDACTED] Wiktionary (dictionary) [REDACTED] Wikibooks (textbooks) [REDACTED] Wikiquote (quotations) [REDACTED] Wikisource (library) [REDACTED] Wikiversity (learning resources) [REDACTED] Commons (media) [REDACTED] Wikivoyage (travel guide) [REDACTED] Wikinews (news source) [REDACTED] Wikidata (linked database) [REDACTED] Wikispecies (species directory) Misplaced Pages does not have an article with this exact name. Please search for Engano in Misplaced Pages to check for alternative titles or spellings. You need to log in or create an account and be autoconfirmed to create new articles. Alternatively, you can use

2665-409: The globe more than three times. At least 36,417 deaths are attributed to the eruption and the tsunamis it created. Significant additional effects were felt worldwide in the days and weeks after the volcano's eruption. Additional seismic activity was reported until February 1884, but any reports after October 1883 were dismissed by Rogier Verbeek 's subsequent investigation into the eruption. In

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2730-407: The guns of the vessel before I ventured to speak with them. Eventually, he met these "noble savages" and learned something of their natural, matriarchal, atheist, and property-sharing culture. They are a tall, well-made people; the men in general are about five feet eight or ten inches high; the women are shorter and more clumsily built. They are of a red colour, and have straight, black hair, which

2795-462: The imminent danger; the ship had just enough time to meet with the wave from the front. The ship met the wave head on and the Loudon was lifted up with a dizzying rapidity and made a formidable leap... The ship rode at a high angle over the crest of the wave and down the other side. The wave continued on its journey toward land, and the benumbed crew watched as the sea in a single sweeping motion consumed

2860-460: The initial violence. Around 16 June, there were loud explosions and a thick black cloud covered the islands for five days. The eruptions started gaining strength again on 19 June. On 24 June, a prevailing east wind cleared the cloud, and two ash columns could be seen issuing from Krakatoa. It was also noticed that the summit cone of Perboewatan was gone, which an extensive report of a few years later attributes it to having been blown away. The seat of

2925-476: The island for use as a spaceport, citing its "low population and remoteness" as decisive criteria, as well as its closeness to the equator. The regional government immediately protested the plan as environmentally problematic. In February 2011, a plan to conduct an environmental impact study was announced, chiefly surveying avian populations. It is not clear whether the Enggano language , also known as Engganese,

2990-451: The island on 26 May reported that the islands were covered with a fine white dust, with explosions coming from Perboewatan every 5 to 10 minutes. Although by this time the eruptions were calming down, some of the explosions were still very energetic, hurling pumice opposite the direction of the wind. A large crater about 3,000 feet (900 metres) in diameter formed, with a cavity from which issued plumes of steam. The eruptions soon quietened after

3055-515: The island suggests some early contact with Portuguese traders ( engano means 'mistake'), but the earliest published account is that of Cornelis de Houtman , dating from 5 June 1596, who was unable to land a boat. In 1771, Charles Miller succeeded in landing and meeting the indigenous population. With great difficulty and danger we beat up the whole South-west side of it, without finding any place where we could attempt to land; and we lost two anchors and had very near suffered shipwreck before we found

3120-444: The low-lying Thousand Islands were submerged under 2 meters (6.6 feet) of seawater, forcing people to climb trees. The tsunamis produced by the third explosion were the largest, although the first two explosions did produce smaller tsunamis. The town of Merak was destroyed by a tsunami that was 46 metres high. The waves reached heights of up to 24 metres (79 feet) along the south coast of Sumatra and up to 42 metres (138 feet) along

3185-401: The men cut short, but the women let grow long, and roll up in a circle on the top of their heads very neatly. The men go entirely naked, and the women wear nothing more than a very narrow slip of plantain leaf. They seemed to look at every thing about the vessel very attentively; but more from the motive of pilfering than from curiosity, for they watched an opportunity and unshipped the rudder of

3250-443: The phenomenon the "equatorial smoke stream". This was the first identification of what is known today as the jet stream . For several years following the eruption, it was reported that the moon appeared to be blue and sometimes green. This was because some ash clouds were filled with particles about 1  μm wide – the right size to strongly scatter red light while allowing other colours to pass. White moonbeams shining through

3315-452: The remainder of the island to the north of Rakata, causing the final explosion. The sounds of the eruption of the Krakatoa volcano were estimated to be 310 dB SPL, and there are reports that it was heard some 1,300 miles away in the Bay of Bengal. Some islands in the western Indian Ocean, approximately 3,000 miles away, still heard it at a dB level near the same level as a gun blast. Due to

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3380-411: The speed of sound, it is likely the people on these far away islands did not hear Krakatoa for nearly four hours after its eruption. The pressure wave generated by the colossal third explosion radiated out from Krakatoa at 1,086 km/h (675 mph). The eruption is estimated to have reached 180 dB, loud enough to be heard 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) away. It was so powerful that it ruptured

3445-536: The state of the affected areas, where the village of Tjaringin once was. "Thousands of corpses of human beings and also carcasses of animals still await burial, and make their presence apparent by the indescribable stench. They lie in knots and entangled masses impossible to unravel, and often jammed along with coconut stems among all that had served these thousands as dwellings, furniture, farming implements, and adornments for houses and compounds." -- From Zeilinga de Boer and Sanders, 2002 The official reported death toll

3510-590: The sun than usual and cooled the entire planet until the sulphur fell to the ground as acid precipitation . The 1883 Krakatoa eruption darkened the sky worldwide for years afterwards and produced spectacular sunsets worldwide for many months. British artist William Ascroft made thousands of colour sketches of the red sunsets halfway around the world from Krakatoa in the years after the eruption. The ash caused "such vivid red sunsets that fire engines were called out in New York , Poughkeepsie , and New Haven to quench

3575-460: The town. There, where an instant before had lain the town of Telok Betong, nothing remained but the open sea." A farm worker who was near Merak on Monday morning reports: " . . .all of a sudden there came a great noise. We . . .saw a great black thing, a long way off, coming towards us. It was very high and very strong, and we soon saw that it was water. Trees and houses were washed away . . .The people began to . . . run for their lives. Not far off

3640-504: The volcano at 2,575 kilometres per hour (715 metres per second). The energy released from the explosion has been estimated to be equal to about 200 megatonnes of TNT (840 petajoules ), roughly four times as powerful as the Tsar Bomba , the most powerful thermonuclear weapon ever detonated. This makes it one of the most powerful explosions in recorded history. At 10:41   am, a landslide tore off half of Rakata volcano, along with

3705-475: The volcano has been calculated to have been 180 dB . Each explosion was accompanied by tsunamis estimated to have been over 30 metres (98 feet) high in places. A large area of the Sunda Strait and places on the Sumatran coast were affected by pyroclastic flows from the volcano. Verbeek and others believe that the final major Krakatoa eruption was a lateral blast , or pyroclastic surge . Material shot out of

3770-459: The water on a cushion of superheated steam. There are also indications of submarine pyroclastic flows reaching 15 km (9.3 mi) from the volcano. An eyewitness enveloped by the outermost edges of the pyroclastic flow described her experience: "Suddenly, it became pitch dark. The last thing I saw was the ash being pushed up through the cracks in the floorboards, like a fountain. I turned to my husband and heard him say in dispair ' Where

3835-423: The west coast of Java . The tsunamis washed the land clean of vegetation and destroyed human settlements. The Loudon , which at the time was anchored near the village of Telok Betong, survived the waves. Passengers produced this eyewitness account: "Suddenly we saw a gigantic wave of prodigious height advancing toward the seashore with considerable speed. Immediately, the crew . . .managed to set sail in face of

3900-653: The years before the 1883 eruption, seismic activity around the Krakatoa volcano was intense, with earthquakes felt as far away as North Australia, one of which, in 1880, damaged a lighthouse. Strombolian activity began on 20 May 1883, and steam venting began to occur regularly from Perboewatan , the northernmost of the island's three cones. Eruptions of ash reached an estimated altitude of 6 km (20,000 ft), and explosions could be heard in Batavia ( Jakarta ) 160 km (100 mi) away, rattling windows and doors. Dust fell 300 miles away. An excursion party sent to

3965-468: Was 36,417. There were no survivors from the 3,000 people on the island of Sebesi . In the aftermath of the eruption, it was found that Krakatoa had almost entirely disappeared, except for the southern third. Much of the Rakata cone had been sheared away, leaving behind a 250-metre (820 ft) cliff. Of the northern two-thirds of the island, only a rocky islet named Bootsmansrots (' Bosun 's Rock'),

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4030-481: Was killed in Sri Lanka. Ships as far away as South Africa rocked as tsunamis hit them, and the victims' bodies were found floating in the ocean for months after the event. The tsunamis which accompanied the eruption were believed to have been caused by gigantic pyroclastic flows entering the sea; each of the four great explosions was accompanied by large pyroclastic flows resulting from the gravitational collapse of

4095-426: Was recorded on barographs worldwide. Several barographs recorded the wave seven times over five days: four times with the wave travelling away from the volcano to its antipodal point and three times travelling back to the volcano. Hence, the wave rounded the globe three and a half times. Massive tsunamis struck the coastlines of the Sunda Strait, entirely submerging some islands. Some 80 km (50 mi) away,

4160-470: Was so powerful that it was heard 3,110 km (1,930 mi) away in Perth , Western Australia, and the Indian Ocean island of Rodrigues near Mauritius , 4,800 km (3,000 mi) away, where the blast was thought to have been cannon fire from a nearby ship. The third explosion has been reported as the loudest sound in history. The loudness of the blast heard 160 km (100 mi) from

4225-520: Was some steep sloping ground. We all ran towards it and tried to climb up out of the way of the water. The wave was too quick for most of them, and many were drowned almost at my side. . . . There was a general rush to climb up in one particular place. This caused a great block, and many of them got wedged together and could not move. Then they struggled and fought, screaming and crying out all the time. Those below tried to make those above them move on again by biting their heels. A great struggle took place for

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