127-585: This article provides a list of internal military conflicts throughout the history of England . This is a list of civil wars that have occurred in the history of England . History of England The territory today known as England became inhabited more than 800,000 years ago, as the discovery of stone tools and footprints at Happisburgh in Norfolk have indicated. The earliest evidence for early modern humans in Northwestern Europe ,
254-626: A Norman expedition invaded and conquered England . The Norman dynasty , established by William the Conqueror , ruled England for over half a century before the period of succession crisis known as the Anarchy (1135–1154). Following the Anarchy, England came under the rule of the House of Plantagenet , a dynasty which later inherited claims to the Kingdom of France . During this period, Magna Carta
381-652: A campaign into Scotland which was recalled by Emperor Domitian. The border gradually formed along the Stanegate road in Northern England, solidified by Hadrian's Wall built in AD ;138, despite temporary forays into Scotland. The Romans and their culture stayed in charge for 350 years. Traces of their presence are ubiquitous throughout England. In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain from
508-552: A daughter on 16 August 1355 at Eltham Palace : named Philippa after her paternal grandmother, she was Lionel's only legitimate offspring but also the eldest grandchild of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault, and thus a potential heiress of the English throne. In the winter of 1355–1356, Lionel took part in the royal army's invasion of Scotland . In the treaty in which the Scottish claimant Edward Balliol renounced his rights to
635-535: A few armed invasions of hordes of migrating Celts. There are two known invasions. Around 300 BC, a group from the Gaulish Parisii tribe apparently took over East Yorkshire, establishing the highly distinctive Arras culture . And from around 150–100 BC, groups of Belgae began to control significant parts of the South. These invasions constituted movements of a few people who established themselves as
762-706: A jawbone discovered in Devon at Kents Cavern in 1927, was re-dated in 2011 to between 41,000 and 44,000 years old. Continuous human habitation in England dates to around 13,000 years ago (see Creswellian ), at the end of the Last Glacial Period . The region has numerous remains from the Mesolithic , Neolithic and Bronze Age , such as Stonehenge and Avebury . In the Iron Age , all of Britain south of
889-469: A leader who would have sufficient power and resources to restore order to the troubled island. In addition, on 4 November 1360, Elizabeth de Burgh's grandmother, Elizabeth de Clare , died, after which her share of the de Clare estates in England and Wales, as well as lands in the County of Ulster that belonged to her as a widow's share, came into the possession of Lionel by right of his wife. On 15 March 1361
1016-642: A long military campaign in France, ending with the Siege of Calais and the Battle of Crécy . Since Lionel at this time, due to his age, could not independently manage the kingdom, a council exercised royal power on his behalf. Nevertheless, in the second period, the regent was provided with a personal seal at the expense of the king, which allowed Lionel to solve a limited range of administrative duties assigned to him personally. Documents surviving bearing this seal show that
1143-519: A long shadow over English history. Henry I had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to accept Matilda (also known as Empress Maud, Henry I's daughter) as his heir. England was far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler. There is some evidence that Henry was unsure of his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir. Probably Henry hoped Matilda would have
1270-646: A mass Anglo-Saxon immigration from the European continent, affecting 50%–100% of the male gene pool in central England. This was based on the similarity of the DNA collected from small English towns to that found in Friesland . A 2003 study with samples coming from larger towns, found a large variance in amounts of continental "Germanic" ancestry in different parts of England. In the study, such markers typically ranged from 20% and 45% in southern England, with East Anglia,
1397-485: A new marriage for his son with the niece of the ruler of Milan , Bernabò Visconti . A lavish marriage ceremony took place in May or June 1368, but Lionel died soon after, possibly poisoned by his father-in-law. He left an only daughter from his first marriage. Descent through her from Lionel in the 15th century, the House of York justified their preemptive right to the English royal throne. Lionel patrilineally descended from
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#17327570589791524-709: A new role for him in his dynastic strategy. Elizabeth de Burgh, first wife of the Duke of Clarence, died in Dublin in 1363. Her body was transported to England at the expense of the crown and buried in the de Burgh family vault at Clare Priory in Suffolk . On 30 July 1366, Edward III sent a diplomatic mission to Italy , the purpose of which was to discuss the possibility of the marriage of Violante Visconti , daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti , Lord of Milan , with either Lionel or his younger brother Edmund of Langley . Quite quickly,
1651-601: A number of highly artistic pieces as well as purely practical. More extensive woodland clearance was done for fields and pastures. The Sweet Track in the Somerset Levels is one of the oldest timber trackways known in Northern Europe and among the oldest roads in the world, dated by dendrochronology to the winter of 3807–3806 BC; it is thought to have been a primarily religious structure. Archaeological evidence from North Yorkshire indicates that salt
1778-623: A parliament in Kilkenny in February 1366. It adopted the Statutes of Kilkenny , which became Lionel's most important legacy for the Irish government. It was aimed at preventing the process of cultural and political "degeneration" among Irish-born Englishmen. In particular, the king's subjects were prohibited from using the Irish language, marrying Irish women, and observing Irish laws. In addition,
1905-606: A particularly significant role in English political life. He rarely came to the attention of contemporary chroniclers. Mark Omrod believes that perhaps Lionel, like his younger brother, Edmund of Langley, was not drawn to the world of high politics. However, it is possible that the fact that his career took place mainly outside England played a role —first in Ireland, then in Italy. His early death shortly before his 30th birthday deprived his English contemporaries of any real knowledge about
2032-657: A progressive change in emphasis from the sky to the earth, as a rising population put increasing pressure on the land. England largely became bound up with the Atlantic trade system , which created a cultural continuum over a large part of Western Europe. It is possible that the Celtic languages developed or spread to England as part of this system; by the end of the Iron Age there is much evidence that they were spoken across all England and western parts of Britain. The Iron Age
2159-509: A result, Lionel became the first Irish peer. At the same time, while in Ireland, he could not manage his wife’s estates in England, so his salary was increased. The size of the army also doubled. Early in 1362, Lionel arrived in Drogheda and later that year led a military campaign in Meath. On 22 April 1364 James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormonde was appointed as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, while
2286-437: A result, the governors who ruled on Lionel's behalf only had effective control over a very limited area. To remedy this situation, Edward III married off Maud of Lancaster, Elizabeth's mother, to Sir Ralph de Ufford, brother of his close friend Robert Ufford, 1st Earl of Suffolk . In 1345 Ralph was appointed Justiciar (viceroy) of Ireland and he was given the task of restoring the County of Ulster, but already in 1346 he died. As
2413-504: A result, the plans of the English king did not materialize. Only 15 years later, Lionel was able to get control of Ireland. One of the reasons for the delay in gaining power in Ireland was the war that Edward III waged against France. When the English king went to Flanders in July 1345, Lionel was appointed Guardian (Regent) of England from 3 to 26 July. He held the same position from 11 July 1346 to 12 October 1347, when Edward III conducted
2540-740: A rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century the "Mercian Supremacy" was over. This period has been described as the Heptarchy , though this term has now fallen out of academic use. The term arose because the seven kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia , Kent , East Anglia , Essex , Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain. Other small kingdoms were also politically important across this period: Hwicce , Magonsaete , Lindsey and Middle Anglia. The first recorded landing of Vikings took place in 787 in Dorsetshire , on
2667-430: A small part of the east coast of Ulster. His constant attempts to rule Ireland through the English led to serious conflict between the "English by birth" and the "English by blood", but Edward III attempted to reconcile the two in order to unite both factions to wage war against the native Irish. In 1365, Lionel again traveled briefly to England, leaving Thomas de la Dale in charge of Ireland. On his return, he convened
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#17327570589792794-502: A son and step aside as Queen Mother. Upon Henry's death, the Norman and English barons ignored Matilda's claim to the throne, and thus through a series of decisions, Stephen , Henry's favourite nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Normandy as their new king. Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence , ( Norman : Leonell Duc de Clarence ; 29 November 1338 – 17 October 1368 ),
2921-440: A still more widespread dominance. His expansion aroused ill-feeling among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a combined Scottish-Viking army at the Battle of Brunanburh . However, the unification of England was not a certainty. Under Æthelstan's successors Edmund and Eadred the English kings repeatedly lost and regained control of Northumbria. Nevertheless, Edgar , who ruled the same expanse as Æthelstan, consolidated
3048-433: A substantial folk movement or native adoption of foreign practices or both. People began to lead a more settled lifestyle. Monumental collective tombs were built for the dead in the form of chambered cairns and long barrows. Towards the end of the period, other kinds of monumental stone alignments begin to appear, such as Stonehenge; their cosmic alignments show a preoccupation with the sky and planets. Flint technology produced
3175-468: A warrior elite atop existing native systems, rather than replacing them. The Belgic invasion was much larger than the Parisian settlement, but the continuity of pottery style shows that the native population remained in place. Yet, it was accompanied by significant socio-economic change. Proto-urban, or even urban settlements, known as oppida , begin to eclipse the old hillforts, and an elite whose position
3302-520: Is based on battle prowess and the ability to manipulate resources re-appears much more distinctly. In 55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar , as part of his campaigns in Gaul , invaded Britain and claimed to have scored a number of victories, but he never penetrated further than Hertfordshire and could not establish a province. However, his invasions mark a turning-point in British history. Control of trade,
3429-729: Is conventionally said to begin around 800 BC. At this time, the Britons or Celtic Britons were settled in England. The Celtic people of early England were the majority of the population, beside other smaller ethnic groups in Great Britain. They existed like this from the British Iron Age into the Middle Ages, when it was overtaken by Germanic Anglo-Saxons . After some time, the Celtic Britons diverged into
3556-529: Is inhabited by tribes which are autochthonous and preserve in their ways of living the ancient manner of life. They use chariots, for instance, in their wars, even as tradition tells us the old Greek heroes did in the Trojan War. Contact with the continent was less than in the Bronze Age but still significant. Goods continued to move to England, with a possible hiatus around 350 to 150 BC. There were
3683-589: The Hen Ogledd (Old North; the Brittonic -speaking parts of northern Britain), as well as with each other. Raids by Vikings became frequent after about AD 800, and the Norsemen settled in large parts of what is now England. During this period, several rulers attempted to unite the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, an effort that led to the emergence of the Kingdom of England by the 10th century. In 1066,
3810-857: The Firth of Forth was inhabited by the Celtic people known as the Britons , including some Belgic tribes (e.g. the Atrebates , the Catuvellauni , the Trinovantes , etc.) in the south east. In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began; the Romans maintained control of their province of Britannia until the early 5th century. The end of Roman rule in Britain facilitated the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain , which historians often regard as
3937-550: The Glorious Revolution (1688). England, which had subsumed Wales in the 16th century under Henry VIII, united with Scotland in 1707 to form a new sovereign state called Great Britain . Following the Industrial Revolution , which started in England, Great Britain ruled a colonial Empire , the largest in recorded history. Following a process of decolonisation in the 20th century, mainly caused by
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4064-553: The House of York based its claim to the English throne on descent through the female line from Lionel. In doing so, the Yorkists were able to present a senior claim to the English throne over the House of Lancaster , the descendants of another younger brother, John of Gaunt. (Edward III's first-born son, Edward the Black Prince, had no legitimate descendants past his two sons Edward of Angoulême and King Richard II .) Lionel
4191-592: The Isle of Wight was killed in 686. The Anglo-Saxon mission on the continent took off in the 8th century, leading to the Christianisation of practically all of the Frankish Empire by 800. Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms. Bede records Æthelberht of Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to
4318-589: The Knights of the Round Table — Sir Lionel , often participating in jousting tournaments with his coat of arms (for example, at a tournament in Dunstable in 1334). In addition, the name had an obvious association with the heraldic lions (more precisely, leopards) depicted on the English coat of arms. According to another version, Edward III decided to revive the "Welsh name Llywelyn". Lionel's godfather
4445-624: The Second War of Scottish Independence . After the Treaty of Brétigny , much of the Prince's later career was linked to Ireland . Through his first marriage to Elizabeth de Burgh , he inherited large holdings in Northern, Western and South-Western Ireland, as well as the title of Earl of Ulster. In 1361, Edward III appointed his son the royal lieutenant (viceroy) of Ireland, and in 1362 he created
4572-478: The beginning of Jewish settlement in London . The English Middle Ages were characterised by civil war , international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue among the aristocratic and monarchic elite. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. Its international economy was based on wool trade , in which wool from the sheepwalks of northern England
4699-692: The Danes in East Anglia in 910 and 911 were followed by a crushing victory at Tempsford in 917. These military gains allowed Edward to fully incorporate Mercia into his kingdom and add East Anglia to his conquests. Edward then set about reinforcing his northern borders against the Danish kingdom of Northumbria . Edward's rapid conquest of the English kingdoms meant Wessex received homage from those that remained, including Gwynedd in Wales and Scotland. His dominance
4826-457: The Danes in England. In response, Sweyn began a decade of devastating attacks on England. Northern England, with its sizable Danish population, sided with Sweyn. By 1013, London, Oxford, and Winchester had fallen to the Danes. Æthelred fled to Normandy and Sweyn seized the throne. Sweyn suddenly died in 1014, and Æthelred returned to England, confronted by Sweyn's successor, Cnut . However, in 1016, Æthelred also suddenly died. Cnut swiftly defeated
4953-624: The Danish Great Heathen Army ) upset the political and social geography of Britain and Ireland. In 867 Northumbria fell to the Danes; East Anglia fell in 869. Though Wessex managed to contain the Vikings by defeating them at Ashdown in 871, a second invading army landed, leaving the Saxons on a defensive footing. At much the same time, Æthelred , king of Wessex died and was succeeded by his younger brother Alfred . Alfred
5080-476: The Duke of Clarence became the preferred candidate for marriage. The initiator of Violante's marriage project was her uncle, Bernabò Visconti , who was ready to pay dearly for a prestigious alliance with the Plantagenets. Moreover, according to historian Mark Omrod , the marriage complemented the anti-papal stance pursued by the English crown in the 1360s. In his opinion, only this can explain what advantages
5207-492: The Duke of Clarence returned to England to consult his father and the royal council. On 24 September, Lionel was again appointed Lord Lieutenant and returned to Ireland in December, when he campaigned from Cork through Trim to Drogheda. He continued to try to gain real control over the estates of his wife, who died in 1363. Although his father did his best to provide his son with supplies, Lionel only managed to gain control of
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5334-407: The Duke was allocated sufficient financial resources to hire an additional army in Ireland itself. The original plan to recruit 800 foot archers in Wales appears to have failed. Apparently, Lionel began to fulfill the duties of Lord Lieutenant of the English possessions in Ireland quite diligently. Almost immediately after landing, he launched a raid on Wicklow , where a Gaelic army had gathered and
5461-452: The Earl himself as vicar there. Although representatives of the local nobility demanded the regular intervention of the English king in the affairs of the Irish honors, "Englishmen born in Ireland" (as the local Anglo-Norman barons were often called) had completely different political views than "Englishmen born in England" (this was the name given to royal governors and other officials sent by
5588-403: The English government to Ireland). And such views became a serious problem for the Duke of Clarence. Edward III believed that "our Irish dominions are reduced to such complete desolation, ruin and misery, that they may be completely lost unless relief is immediately given to our subjects." At Easter a large meeting of the English landowners in Ireland was held, and they were ordered to provide
5715-399: The English king announced his intention to send his son to rule the possessions on the island, and on 1 July he appointed Lionel Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . In the middle of the 14th century, English possessions in Ireland had to be constantly defended. Although Edward III formally claimed power over the entire island, in essence the local clans were almost independent. English dominance in
5842-516: The English king planned to receive from an alliance with Milan, since Edward III's dynastic strategy was largely aimed at the British Isles and France. The marriage contract was signed at the Palace of Westminster in May 1367. In February 1368, the Duke of Clarence, having married his 13-years-old daughter Philippa to the 16-years-old Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March , sailed for Italy. He
5969-487: The English royal House of Plantagenet . His father was Edward III , King of England since 1327 and his mother was Philippa of Hainault , who came from the French Avesnes family . His paternal grandparents were King Edward II of England and Isabella of France , and his maternal grandparents were William I, Count of Hainaut , Holland and Zeeland and Joan of Valois . Edward III and Philippa had 12 children in
6096-501: The Gaelic leader who caused the greatest trouble for the English; he died in English captivity. On the other hand, the rule of the Duke of Clarence demonstrated that the Irish honors was no longer self-sustaining, since English power in the colony could only be maintained with military and financial assistance from the royal government. When the interests and resolve of the crown weakened, the allocated resources quickly disappeared. Moreover,
6223-709: The Knights of the Order of the Garter , died. In April 1361, Edward III held a ceremony, giving the vacant seat in the Order to Lionel. The peace between England and France concluded at Brétigny in 1360, which lasted until 1369, finally allowed Lionel to take the role in Ireland that his father had planned for him. In July 1360, representatives of the Anglo-Irish political community approached Edward III, begging him to send them
6350-433: The Late Bronze Age, but a huge number were constructed during 600–400 BC, particularly in the South, while after about 400 BC new forts were rarely built and many ceased to be regularly inhabited, while a few forts become more and more intensively occupied, suggesting a degree of regional centralisation. Around this time the earliest mentions of Britain appear in the annals of history. The first historical mention of
6477-412: The Mercians at the Battle of Ellendun in 825. Four years later, he received submission and tribute from the Northumbrian king, Eanred . Since so few contemporary sources exist, the events of the fifth and sixth centuries are difficult to ascertain. As such, the nature of the Anglo-Saxon settlements is debated by historians, archaeologists and linguists. The traditional view, that the Anglo-Saxons drove
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#17327570589796604-424: The Mercians" and continued expansion. It seems Edward had his son Æthelstan brought up in the Mercian court. On Edward's death, Æthelstan succeeded to the Mercian kingdom, and, after some uncertainty, Wessex. Æthelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt and was the first king to achieve direct rulership of what we would now consider England. The titles attributed to him in charters and on coins suggest
6731-494: The Romano-British inhabitants out of what is now England, was subject to reappraisal in the later twentieth century. One suggestion is that the invaders were smaller in number, drawn from an elite class of male warriors that gradually acculturated the natives. An emerging view is that the scale of the Anglo-Saxon settlement varied across England, and that as such it cannot be described by any one process in particular. Mass migration and population shift seem to be most applicable in
6858-404: The Roses broke out in 1455 and pitted the descendants of the second son (through a female line) Lionel of Antwerp known as the House of York against the House of Lancaster who descended from the third son John of Gaunt and his son Henry IV, the latter of whom had overthrown his cousin Richard II (the only surviving son of Edward III"s eldest son Edward the Black Prince ) in 1399. In 1485,
6985-438: The Scottish throne in favor of the English king, the prince's name headed the list of witnesses. In May 1359, Lionel fought in a jousting tournament held in Smithfield, London . From October 1359 to May 1360, he participated in his father's military campaigns, including the unsuccessful siege of Reims and later the peace negotiations at Brétigny . On 2 December 1360, John Beauchamp, 1st Baron Beauchamp of Warwick , one of
7112-421: The Trent in 679 against Mercia, and Nechtanesmere in 685 against the Picts . The so-called "Mercian Supremacy" dominated the 8th century, though it was not constant. Aethelbald and Offa , the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; indeed, Offa was considered the overlord of south Britain by Charlemagne . His power is illustrated by the fact that he summoned the resources to build Offa's Dyke . However,
7239-406: The Trent, and campaigns were underway to subjugate Northern England and Wales. But in AD 60, under the leadership of the warrior-queen Boudicca , the tribes rebelled against the Romans. At first, the rebels had great success. They burned Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium (modern-day Colchester, London and St. Albans respectively) to the ground. There is some archaeological evidence that
7366-422: The Tweed, with the Britons in the less fertile hill country becoming acculturated over a longer period. Fox interprets the process by which English came to dominate this region as "a synthesis of mass-migration and elite-takeover models." Genetic testing has been used to find evidence of large scale immigration of Germanic peoples into England. Weale et al. (2002) found that English Y DNA data showed signs of
7493-400: The Unready that the Danish threat resurfaced. Two powerful Danish kings ( Harold Bluetooth and later his son Sweyn ) both launched devastating invasions of England. Anglo-Saxon forces were resoundingly defeated at Maldon in 991. More Danish attacks followed, and their victories were frequent. Æthelred's control over his nobles began to falter, and he grew increasingly desperate. His solution
7620-407: The ambitions of the Normans whom Edward introduced to English politics to bolster his own position caused each to vie for control of Edward's reign. Harold Godwinson became king, probably appointed by Edward on his deathbed and endorsed by the Witan . But William of Normandy , Harald Hardråde (aided by Harold Godwin's estranged brother Tostig ) and Sweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to
7747-565: The ancestry of the modern English population contains large contributions from both Anglo-Saxon migrants and Romano-British natives. Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England began around 600 AD, influenced by Celtic Christianity from the northwest and the Roman Catholic Church from the southeast. Augustine , the first Archbishop of Canterbury , took office in 597. In 601, he baptised the first Christian Anglo-Saxon king, Æthelberht of Kent . The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king, Penda of Mercia , died in 655. The last pagan Jutish king, Arwald of
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#17327570589797874-511: The behest of Emperor Claudius . They landed in Kent with four legions and defeated two armies led by the kings of the Catuvellauni tribe, Caratacus and Togodumnus , in battles at the Medway and the Thames. Togodumnus was killed, and Caratacus fled to Wales. The Roman force, led by Aulus Plautius , waited for Claudius to come and lead the final march on the Catuvellauni capital at Camulodunum (modern Colchester ), before he returned to Rome for his triumph. The Catuvellauni held sway over most of
8001-417: The collapse of his ambitions. Lionel was initially buried in Pavia, but in his will written at Alba, dated 3 October 1368 and confirmed at Lambeth on 8 June 1369, he expressed a desire to be buried in Clare Priory. As a result, his body was later transported to England and buried next to his first wife. Unlike his brothers Edward the Black Prince, John of Gaunt and Thomas of Woodstock, Lionel did not play
8128-747: The conquest the English ruling class had been almost entirely dispossessed and replaced by Norman landholders, who monopolised all senior positions in the government and the Church. William and his nobles spoke and conducted court in Norman French , in both Normandy and England. The use of the Anglo-Norman language by the aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern English. Upon being crowned, on Christmas Day 1066, William immediately began consolidating his power. By 1067, he faced revolts on all sides and spent four years crushing them. He then imposed his superiority over Scotland and Wales, forcing them to recognise him as overlord. Economic growth and state finances were aided by
8255-404: The core areas of settlement such as East Anglia and Lincolnshire, while in more peripheral areas to the northwest, much of the native population likely remained in place as the incomers took over as elites. In a study of place names in northeastern England and southern Scotland, Bethany Fox concluded that Anglian migrants settled in large numbers in river valleys, such as those of the Tyne and
8382-413: The country. Its continuity suggests it was not accompanied by substantial movement of population; crucially, only a single Hallstatt burial is known from Britain, and even here the evidence is inconclusive. On the whole, burials largely disappear across England, and the dead were disposed of in a way which is archaeologically invisible: excarnation is a widely cited possibility. Hillforts were known since
8509-496: The course of their marriage. Lionel was the fifth born child and the third but second surviving son (one of his older brothers, William of Hatfield, died in infancy in 1337). Of the other brothers, the eldest, Edward the Black Prince , was the heir to Edward III. Lionel also had four younger brothers (three of them survived infancy: John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster , Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York and Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester ), as well as five sisters, of whom only
8636-488: The distinction between "English by birth" and "English by blood" was eliminated as far as possible. Although there was little new among the rules introduced, their codification in 1366 led to the fact that the provisions of the statutes were in force in Ireland until the beginning of the 17th century. On 7 November 1366, Edward III replaced his son (tired of this thankless job) as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland with Gerald FitzGerald, 3rd Earl of Desmond , after which Lionel left
8763-484: The east Midlands, and Yorkshire having over 50%. North German and Danish genetic frequencies were indistinguishable, thus precluding any ability to distinguish between the genetic influence of the Anglo-Saxon source populations and the later, and better documented, influx of Danish Vikings. The mean value of continental Germanic genetic input in this study was calculated at 54 per cent. In response to arguments, such as those of Stephen Oppenheimer and Bryan Sykes , that
8890-441: The eldest, Isabella, Countess of Bedford , survive to adulthood. Lionel was born on 29 November 1338 at St. Michael's Abbey in Antwerp , while his parents were living in the Low Countries . Gilles de Monte, a doctor from Hainault , took care of the newborn prince for 13 weeks, for which he received a reward of 15 £. Due to the place of birth, Lionel received the nickname "of Antwerp". There are several versions explaining
9017-449: The execution of King Charles I (1649) and the establishment of a series of republican governments—first, a Parliamentary republic known as the Commonwealth of England (1649–1653), then a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell known as the Protectorate (1653–1659). The Stuarts returned to the restored throne in 1660, though continued questions over religion and power resulted in the deposition of another Stuart king, James II , in
9144-510: The fifth century. The precise nature of these invasions is not fully known; there are doubts about the legitimacy of historical accounts due to a lack of archaeological finds. Gildas ' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae , composed in the 6th century, states that when the Roman army departed the Isle of Britannia in the 4th century AD, the indigenous Britons were invaded by Picts , their neighbours to
9271-453: The flow of resources and prestige goods, became ever more important to the elites of Southern Britain; Rome steadily became the biggest player in all their dealings, as the provider of great wealth and patronage. In retrospect, a full-scale invasion and annexation was inevitable. After Caesar's expeditions, the Romans began a serious and sustained attempt to conquer Britain in AD 43, at
9398-461: The greatest guests at the first table. In the next 5 months there were continuous celebrations, feasts and tournaments. Violante's dowry was the enormous amount of 2 million golden florins , together with the fiefdoms of Alba , Mondovì , Cuneo , Cherasco , and Demonte . English chroniclers, reporting the incredible success of Edward III's marriage policy, believed that Galeazzo II Visconti transferred half of his lands to his son-in-law. However,
9525-607: The head of one of the largest Anglo-Norman families in Ireland , died. From his marriage to Maud of Lancaster , he left an only daughter, Elizabeth , who inherited the de Burghs' large estates in Ireland. On 9 September 1342, Lionel and Elizabeth de Burgh were married in the Tower of London . The composition of the possessions inherited by Lionel as a dowry included large territories of Connacht , Munster and Ulster , located in Northern, Western and Southwestern Ireland. The marriage
9652-491: The invaders and killed Harald III of Norway and Tostig at the Battle of Stamford Bridge . On 28 September 1066, William of Normandy invaded England in a campaign called the Norman Conquest . After marching from Yorkshire , Harold's exhausted army was defeated and Harold was killed at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October. Further opposition to William in support of Edgar the Ætheling soon collapsed, and William
9779-523: The island, vowing —according to the author of the Eulogium historiarum — never to return there. His contribution to the English management of the Irish honors is assessed ambiguously. On the one hand, the Duke of Clarence, during the period of administration of the English colony, made the first attempt to force landowners to contribute to the protection of royal possessions. Lionel also managed to achieve some military successes, capturing Art Mor Mac Murdach,
9906-554: The kingdom became the centre of government for the North Sea empire which included Denmark and Norway. Cnut was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor . Edward's failure to produce an heir caused a furious conflict over the succession on his death in 1066. His struggles for power against Godwin, Earl of Wessex , the claims of Cnut's Scandinavian successors, and
10033-460: The kingdom of Northumbria, which was formed from the amalgamation of Bernicia and Deira. Edwin of Northumbria probably held dominance over much of Britain, though Bede's Northumbrian bias should be kept in mind. Due to succession crises, Northumbrian hegemony was not constant, and Mercia remained a very powerful kingdom, especially under Penda. Two defeats ended Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of
10160-411: The kingdom, which remained united thereafter. There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at the end of the 10th century. Æthelred ruled a long reign but ultimately lost his kingdom to Sweyn of Denmark , though he recovered it following the latter's death. However, Æthelred's son Edmund II Ironside died shortly afterwards, allowing Cnut , Sweyn's son, to become king of England. Under his rule
10287-468: The local aristocracy, particularly the Earls of Desmond , Ormonde , Louth and Kildare . They, like other representatives of the local colonial aristocracy, sharply criticized Edward III's disdainful attitude towards power in these domains. It was alleged that in 1346 Maurice FitzGerald, 1st Earl of Desmond , even sent envoys to Pope Clement VI asking him to take Ireland under his jurisdiction, appointing
10414-482: The marriage turned out to be short and fruitless: already at the beginning of October 1368, Lionel fell ill with an unknown illness and died on 17 October in the city of Alba in Piedmont . Suspicions soon arose that he was poisoned by his father-in-law, although this was never proven. The 19th century historian Thomas Frederick Tout points out that Galeazzo II had no motive to kill his son-in-law, whose death led to
10541-472: The middle of the fourth century, present day England was progressively settled by Germanic groups. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons , these included Angles , Saxons , Jutes and Frisians . The Battle of Deorham was critical in establishing Anglo-Saxon rule in 577. Saxon mercenaries existed in Britain since before the late Roman period, but the main influx of population probably happened after
10668-540: The multiple distinct ethnic groups such as Welsh, Cornish and Breton, but they were still tied by language, religion and culture. They spoke the Brittonic language, a Celtic language which is the ancestor of the modern Brittonic languages. The Atlantic trade system had by this time effectively collapsed, although England maintained contacts across the channel with France, as the Hallstatt culture became widespread across
10795-642: The north (now Scotland) and the Scots (now Ireland). Britons invited the Saxons to the island to repel them but after they vanquished the Scots and Picts, the Saxons turned against the Britons. Seven kingdoms are traditionally identified as being established by these migrants. Three were clustered in the South east: Sussex , Kent and Essex . The Midlands were dominated by the kingdoms of Mercia and East Anglia . To
10922-582: The north was Northumbria which unified two earlier kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira . Other smaller kingdoms seem to have existed as well, such as Lindsey in what is now Lincolnshire, and the Hwicce in the southwest. Eventually, the kingdoms were dominated by Northumbria and Mercia in the 7th century, Mercia in the 8th century and then Wessex in the 9th century. Northumbria eventually extended its control north into Scotland and west into Wales . It also subdued Mercia whose first powerful King, Penda ,
11049-525: The origin of England and of the English people . The Anglo-Saxons , a collection of various Germanic peoples , established several kingdoms that became the primary powers in present-day England and parts of southern Scotland . They introduced the Old English language, which largely displaced the previous Brittonic language . The Anglo-Saxons warred with British successor states in western Britain and
11176-475: The personality of the prince and his merits. Lionel's only child, Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster , married Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March in 1368. Their granddaughter and eventual heiress, Anne Mortimer , married Richard of Conisburgh (younger brother of Edward, 2nd Duke of York ) and was the mother of Richard, 3rd Duke of York . Even though Richard of York was a descendant in the male line of Edward III from Edmund of Langley, Lionel's younger brother,
11303-462: The political rhetoric of the Irish parliaments of that period does not suggest that the local aristocracy sensed any noticeable changes in the regime of the English kings; the Statutes of Kilkenny above all demonstrated the conflict between the official policy of the English government and the realities of Anglo-Irish political culture. After Lionel left Ireland, Edward III appears to have outlined
11430-555: The prince with soldiers and accompany him to defend their estates. Lionel was given the task of restoring the devastated position of the English colony on the island by demonstrating the military power of the English crown. He landed in Dublin in September 1361, accompanied by his wife and many large landowners. They were accompanied by a military detachment consisting of about 50 knights, 300 men-at-arms and 540 horse archers. In addition,
11557-526: The prince's personal household was successively located during this period at the Tower, Windsor , Reading (most of 1367) and Bristol . In 1355, Lionel's military career began: in that year he was knighted , after which he accompanied his father to Calais and took part in an unsuccessful raid on French lands. During his participation in the French expedition, Lionel's wife Elizabeth de Burgh gave birth to
11684-469: The region is from the Massaliote Periplus , a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the 6th century BC, and Pytheas of Massilia wrote of his voyage of discovery to the island around 325 BC. Both of these texts are now lost; although quoted by later writers, not enough survives to inform the archaeological interpretation to any significant degree. Britain, we are told,
11811-492: The remaining Saxons, killing Æthelred's son Edmund in the process. Cnut seized the throne, crowning himself King of England. Alfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by his son Edward the Elder . Edward, and his brother-in-law Æthelred of (what was left of) Mercia, began a programme of expansion, building forts and towns on an Alfredian model. On Æthelred's death, his wife (Edward's sister) Æthelflæd ruled as "Lady of
11938-453: The rise of increasingly powerful elites whose power came from their prowess as hunters and warriors and their controlling the flow of precious resources to manipulate tin and copper into high-status bronze objects such as swords and axes. Settlement became increasingly permanent and intensive. Towards the end of the Bronze Age, many examples of very fine metalwork began to be deposited in rivers, presumably for ritual reasons and perhaps reflecting
12065-447: The same happened at Winchester. The Second Legion Augusta , stationed at Exeter , refused to move for fear of revolt among the locals. Londinium governor Suetonius Paulinus evacuated the city before the rebels sacked and burned it; the fire was so hot that a ten-inch layer of melted red clay remains 15 feet below London's streets. In the end, the rebels were said to have killed 70,000 Romans and Roman sympathisers. Paulinus gathered what
12192-504: The similarity between English and continental Germanic DNA could have originated from earlier prehistoric migrations, researchers have begun to use data collected from ancient burials to ascertain the level of Anglo-Saxon contribution to the modern English gene pool. Two studies published in 2016, based on data collected from skeletons found in Iron Age, Roman and Anglo-Saxon era graves in Cambridgeshire and Yorkshire, concluded that
12319-534: The south-west coast. The first major attack in Britain was in 793 at Lindisfarne monastery as given by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . However, by then the Vikings were almost certainly well-established in Orkney and Shetland , and many other non-recorded raids probably occurred before this. Records do show the first Viking attack on Iona taking place in 794. The arrival of the Vikings (in particular
12446-522: The southeastern corner of England; eleven local rulers surrendered, a number of client kingdoms were established, and the rest became a Roman province with Camulodunum as its capital. Over the next four years, the territory was consolidated and the future emperor Vespasian led a campaign into the Southwest where he subjugated two more tribes. By AD 54 the border had been pushed back to the Severn and
12573-520: The throne. By far the strongest hereditary claim was that of Edgar the Ætheling , but due to his youth and apparent lack of powerful supporters, he did not play a major part in the struggles of 1066, although he was made king for a short time by the Witan after the death of Harold Godwinson. In September 1066, Harald III of Norway and Earl Tostig landed in Northern England with a force of around 15,000 men and 300 longships . Harold Godwinson defeated
12700-501: The title of Duke of Clarence for him, making Lionel the first among the Irish peers . The prince remained viceroy until 1366 (with two short breaks in 1364 and 1365, when he went to England). During this time, Lionel led several military campaigns on the island and adopted the Statutes of Kilkenny in February 1366, which became his most important legacy for the Irish government. Lionel's first wife died in 1363. In 1367, Edward III arranged
12827-466: The unusual name that Edward III gave to his son. According to one of them, it is a reference to the Lion of Brabant —the heraldic symbol of John III, Duke of Brabant , one of the allies of the English king at that time. However, according to modern researchers, the choice of name is more likely due to the fact that Edward III, who adored the legends of King Arthur , at that time identified himself with one of
12954-442: The various glacial periods of the distant past. This earliest evidence, from Happisburgh in Norfolk, includes the oldest hominid artefacts found in Britain, and points to dates of more than 800,000 RCYBP . These earliest inhabitants were hunter-gatherers . Low sea-levels meant that Britain was attached to the continent for much of this earliest period of history, and varying temperatures over tens of thousands of years meant that it
13081-521: The vast lands beyond the Bann and Shannon rivers was exercised irregularly and with great difficulty. Even the heartland of the English possessions, which included the lands around Dublin , was at times threatened by a number of Gaelic clans such as the O'Brien, O'Toole and Mac Murhi. As a result, in English-controlled lands, royal power was only effective if it met with the tacit support of
13208-712: The war ended when Lancastrian Henry Tudor emerged victorious from the Battle of Bosworth Field and married the senior female Yorkist descendant, Elizabeth of York , uniting the two houses . Under the Tudors and the later Stuart dynasty , England became a colonial power. During the rule of the Stuarts, the English Civil War took place between the Parliamentarians and the Royalists, which resulted in
13335-595: The weakening of Great Britain's power in the two World Wars; almost all of the empire's overseas territories became independent countries. The time from Britain's first inhabitation until the Last Glacial Maximum is known as the Old Stone Age, or Palaeolithic era . Archaeological evidence indicates that what was to become England was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles because of its more hospitable climate between and during
13462-415: Was William Montagu, 1st Earl of Salisbury . Previously, the king had granted the earl the privilege of wearing the royal arms bearing an eagle; in 1339 Salisbury's godson received the same privilege. Already at the age of 3, Lionel was included in the dynastic policy of his father, who sought to ensure the inheritance of his sons. Back in 1333, William de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster and 6th Baron Connaught ,
13589-460: Was consummated in 1352, but no later than 26 January 1347 , Lionel was recognized Earl of Ulster jure uxoris (by right of his wife). Apparently, Edward III wanted to make his son the largest Irish magnate. However, during this period, the power of the leaders of the Gaelic tribes increased on the island. In addition, claims to Ulster were made by other representatives of the de Burgh family. As
13716-413: Was a man of great strength and beauty and had a tall stature —reportedly as nearly seven feet (210 cm)—, but also suggested that marriage to a member of the House of Visconti could eventually make him King of Italy and even Holy Roman Emperor. Lionel's arms were at some point those of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of five points, with each point bearing a cross gules, thus presenting
13843-509: Was accompanied by a retinue of 457 people, who took with them at least 1,280 horses. The wedding ceremony itself took place on 28 May or 5 June in front of Cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore (where later the Milan Cathedral was built). There is evidence that the elderly poet Petrarch took part in the wedding dinner during the luxurious celebrations that followed the wedding ceremony, which was distinguished by great pomp, sitting among
13970-632: Was also known as "Henry Beauclerc" because he received a formal education, unlike his older brother and heir apparent William who got practical training to be king. Henry worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman societies. The loss of his son, William Adelin , in the wreck of the White Ship in November 1120, undermined his reforms. This problem regarding succession cast
14097-551: Was an English prince, Earl of Ulster jure uxoris from 1347, Duke of Clarence from 1362, Guardian of England in 1345–46, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1361–66, Knight of the Garter from 1361, second surviving son of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault . He was named after his birthplace, at Antwerp in the Duchy of Brabant . In 1355–60, Lionel took part in the Hundred Years' War with France and
14224-469: Was being manufactured there in the Neolithic. The Bronze Age began around 2500 BC with the appearance of bronze objects. This coincides with the appearance of the characteristic Bell Beaker culture , following migration of new people from the continent. According to Olalde et al. (2018), after 2500 BC Britain's Neolithic population was largely replaced by this new Bell Beaker population, that
14351-530: Was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066. For five years, he faced a series of rebellions in various parts of England and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he subdued them and established an enduring regime. The Norman Conquest led to a profound change in the history of the English state. William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book , a survey of the entire population and their lands and property for tax purposes, which reveals that within 20 years of
14478-540: Was exported to the textile cities of Flanders , where it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with the Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. An English textile industry was established in the 15th century, providing the basis for rapid English capital accumulation . Henry I , the fourth son of William I the Conqueror , succeeded his elder brother William II as King of England in 1100. Henry
14605-574: Was genetically related to the Corded Ware culture of central and eastern Europe and the Yamnaya culture of the eastern European Pontic-Caspian Steppe . While the migration of these Beaker peoples must have been accompanied by a language shift, the Celtic languages were probably introduced by later Celtic migrations. The Bronze Age saw a shift of emphasis from the communal to the individual, and
14732-411: Was immediately confronted with the task of defending Wessex against the Danes. He spent the first five years of his reign paying the invaders off. In 878, Alfred's forces were overwhelmed at Chippenham in a surprise attack. It was only now, with the independence of Wessex hanging by a thread, that Alfred emerged as a great king. In May 878 he led a force that defeated the Danes at Edington . The victory
14859-462: Was killed by Oswy in 655. Northumbria's power began to wane after 685 with the defeat and death of its king Aegfrith at the hands of the Picts . Mercian power reached its peak under the rule of Offa , who from 785 had influence over most of Anglo-Saxon England. Since Offa's death in 796, the supremacy of Wessex was established under Egbert who extended control west into Cornwall before defeating
14986-449: Was left of the Roman army. In the decisive battle , 10,000 Romans faced nearly 100,000 warriors somewhere along the line of Watling Street , at the end of which Boudicca was utterly defeated. It was said that 80,000 rebels were killed, but only 400 Romans. Over the next 20 years, the borders expanded slightly, but the governor Agricola incorporated into the province the last pockets of independence in Wales and Northern England. He also led
15113-524: Was mainly done with simple projectile weapons such as javelin and possibly sling . Bow and arrow was known in Western Europe since at least 9000 BC. The climate continued to warm and the population probably rose. The New Stone Age, or Neolithic era , began with the introduction of farming, ultimately from the Middle East, around 4000 BC. It is not known whether this was caused by
15240-700: Was not always inhabited. England has been continuously inhabited since the last Ice Age ended around 9000 BC, the beginning of the Middle Stone Age, or Mesolithic era . Rising sea-levels cut off Britain from the continent for the last time around 6500 BC. The population by then, as in the rest of the world, was exclusively anatomically modern humans , and the evidence suggests that their societies were increasingly complex and they were manipulating their environment and prey in new ways, possibly selective burning of then omnipresent woodland to create clearings for herds to gather and then hunt them. Hunting
15367-404: Was reinforced by his son Æthelstan , who extended the borders of Wessex northward, in 927 conquering the Kingdom of York and leading a land and naval invasion of Scotland . These conquests led to his adopting the title 'King of the English' for the first time. The dominance and independence of England was maintained by the kings that followed. It was not until 978 and the accession of Æthelred
15494-570: Was signed and Parliament became established. Anti-Semitism rose to great heights, and in 1290, England became the first country to permanently expel the Jews . A succession crisis in France led to the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), a series of conflicts involving the peoples of both nations. Following the Hundred Years' Wars, England became embroiled in its own succession wars between the descendants of Edward III's five sons. The Wars of
15621-417: Was so complete that the Danish leader, Guthrum , was forced to accept Christian baptism and withdraw from Mercia . Alfred then set about strengthening the defences of Wessex, building a new navy—60 vessels strong. Alfred's success bought Wessex and Mercia years of peace and sparked economic recovery in previously ravaged areas. Alfred's success was sustained by his son Edward , whose decisive victories over
15748-427: Was soon glad to rely on the help of the Irish lords. To strengthen his son's position, Edward III in 1362 repeated the orders of the Anglo-Irish nobility that he had given the year before. In addition, at a meeting of Parliament on 13 November 1362, the king created for his son a new title, Duke of Clarence . The name of the title came from the city , castle and honor of Clare, which he owned as his wife's dowry. As
15875-457: Was the ancestor of Kings Edward IV , Edward V , Richard III and all later English, and subsequently British, monarchs except for Henry VII , whose wife Elizabeth of York was Lionel's descendant. Thanks to Lionel's dynastic connection with the House of York, the English chronicler John Hardyng not only came up with an idealized description of the duke's appearance, reporting that the prince
16002-399: Was threatening the English settlements around Dublin. In the city itself, which Lionel used as his personal headquarters, he had a castle renovated. At the same time, part of the government was transferred to Carlow , which made it possible to increase the efficiency of the military administration of the Irish honors. During the invasion of the O'Byrnes, Lionel lost a hundred mercenaries and
16129-465: Was to pay off the Danes: for almost 20 years he paid increasingly large sums to the Danish nobles to keep them from English coasts. These payments, known as Danegelds , crippled the English economy. Æthelred then made an alliance with Normandy in 1001 through marriage to the Duke's daughter Emma , in the hope of strengthening England. Then he made a great error: in 1002 he ordered the massacre of all
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