87-407: Salix alba , the white willow , is a species of willow native to Europe and western and central Asia . The name derives from the white tone to the undersides of the leaves. It is a medium to large deciduous tree growing up to 10–30 m tall, with a trunk up to 1 m diameter and an irregular, often-leaning crown. The bark is grey-brown and is deeply fissured in older trees. The shoots in
174-475: A febrifuge . Instead, she describes using the bark and the powdered root for its tonic , antiperiodic and astringent qualities and recommended its use in treating dyspepsia , worms , chronic diarrhoea and dysentery . She considered tannin to be the active constituent. An active extract of the bark, called salicin , after the Latin name Salix , was isolated to its crystalline form in 1828 by Henri Leroux ,
261-481: A French pharmacist, and Raffaele Piria , an Italian chemist, who then succeeded in separating out the acid in its pure state. Salicylic acid is a chemical derivative of salicin and is widely used in medicine. Acetylsalicylic acid ( aspirin ) is, however, a chemical that does not occur in nature and was originally synthesised from salicylic acid extracted from Meadowsweet , and is not connected to willow. Willow Willows , also called sallows and osiers , of
348-426: A few days; they require warm and moist conditions to take root. The plants can also reproduce vegetatively from decapitated stumps and branches. Willows produce a modest amount of nectar from which bees can make honey , and are especially valued as a source of early pollen for bees. Various animals browse the foliage or shelter amongst the plants. Beavers use willows to build dams. The trees are used as food by
435-420: A group of symptoms called cinchonism , which can include headache, vasodilation and sweating, nausea, tinnitus , hearing impairment, vertigo or dizziness, blurred vision, and disturbance in color perception. More severe cinchonism includes vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, deafness, blindness, and disturbances in heart rhythms. Cinchonism is much less common when quinine is given by mouth, but oral quinine
522-497: A letter to the Royal Society describing his experiments with powdered bark of white willow ( Salix alba ). He had noticed the willow bark tasted bitter, like 'Peruvian Bark' ( cinchona ), which was used to treat fevers, and he speculated that the willow would have a similar effect. Over several years he tested it on as many as fifty patients and found it to be highly effective (especially when mixed with cinchona). Whether this
609-508: A significant role in the colonization of Africa by Europeans. The availability of quinine for treatment had been said to be the prime reason Africa ceased to be known as the "white man's grave". A historian said, "it was quinine's efficacy that gave colonists fresh opportunities to swarm into the Gold Coast , Nigeria and other parts of west Africa". To maintain their monopoly on cinchona bark, Peru and surrounding countries began outlawing
696-513: A willow will attempt to put out leaves and flowers. In the northern hemisphere, leaf drop in autumn occurs when day length shortens to approximately ten hours and 25 minutes, which varies by latitude (as early as the first week of October for boreal species such as S. alaxensis and as late as the third week of December for willows growing in far southern areas). With the exception of Salix martiana , willows are dioecious , with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants;
783-500: Is a hybrid of Peking willow ( Salix babylonica ) from China and white willow ( Salix alba ) from Europe. The widely planted Chinese willow Salix matsudana is now considered a synonym of S. babylonica . Numerous cultivars of Salix have been developed and named over the centuries. New selections of cultivars with superior technical and ornamental characteristics have been chosen deliberately and applied to various purposes. Many cultivars and unmodified species of Salix have gained
870-443: Is a medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis . This includes the treatment of malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum that is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available. While sometimes used for nocturnal leg cramps , quinine is not recommended for this purpose due to the risk of serious side effects . It can be taken by mouth or intravenously . Malaria resistance to quinine occurs in certain areas of
957-515: Is a myth that they attribute to it any analgesic effect. One of the first references to White Willow specifically was by Edward Stone , of Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, in 1763. He 'accidentally' tasted the bark and found it had a bitter taste, which reminded him of Peruvian Bark ( Cinchona ), which was used to treat malaria . After researching all the 'dispensaries and books on botany,' he found no suggestion of willow ever being used to treat fevers and decided to experiment with it himself. Over
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#17327946236951044-497: Is also used to treat lupus and arthritis . Quinine was frequently prescribed as an off-label treatment for leg cramps at night , but this has become less common since 2010 due to a warning from the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that such practice is associated with life-threatening side effects. Quinine can also act as a competitive inhibitor of monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme that removes neurotransmitters from
1131-772: Is an ingredient of a PepsiCo tonic water named Paso de los Toros . In Denmark, it is used as an ingredient in the carbonated sports drink Faxe Kondi made by Royal Unibrew . As a flavouring agent in drinks, quinine is limited to 83 ppm ( 100 mg/L ) in the United States, and in the European Union. Quinine (and quinidine ) are used as the chiral moiety for the ligands used in Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation as well as for numerous other chiral catalyst backbones. Because of its relatively constant and well-known fluorescence quantum yield , quinine
1218-465: Is given by mouth. Quinine has diverse unwanted interactions with numerous prescription drugs , such as potentiating the anticoagulant effects of warfarin . It is a strong inhibitor of CYP2D6 , an enzyme involved in the metabolism of many drugs. Quinine is used for its toxicity to the malarial pathogen, Plasmodium falciparum , by interfering with its ability to dissolve and metabolize hemoglobin . As with other quinoline antimalarial drugs,
1305-503: Is not well tolerated (quinine is exceedingly bitter and many people will vomit after ingesting quinine tablets). Other drugs, such as Fansidar ( sulfadoxine with pyrimethamine ) or Malarone ( proguanil with atovaquone ), are often used when oral therapy is required. Quinine ethyl carbonate is tasteless and odourless, but is available commercially only in Japan. Blood glucose, electrolyte and cardiac monitoring are not necessary when quinine
1392-436: Is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules numerous. The scientific use of the genus name Salix originates with Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The modern concept of types did not exist at the time, so types for Linnaeus' genera had to be designated later. The type species , i.e., the species on which the genus name is based, is Salix alba , based on a conserved type. The generic name Salix comes from Latin and
1479-1189: Is small and the physician should not hesitate to use quinine in people with G6PD deficiency when there is no alternative. While not necessarily an absolute contraindication, concomitant administration of quinine with drugs primarily metabolized by CYP2D6 may lead to higher than expected plasma concentrations of the drug, due to quinine's strong inhibition of the enzyme. Quinine can cause unpredictable serious and life-threatening blood and cardiovascular reactions including low platelet count and hemolytic–uremic syndrome / thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (HUS/TTP), long QT syndrome and other serious cardiac arrhythmias including torsades de pointes , blackwater fever , disseminated intravascular coagulation , leukopenia , and neutropenia . Some people who have developed TTP due to quinine have gone on to develop kidney failure . It can also cause serious hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylactic shock, urticaria , serious skin rashes, including Stevens–Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis , angioedema , facial edema, bronchospasm , granulomatous hepatitis , and itchiness. The most common adverse effects involve
1566-479: Is still recommended. Quinine is an alkaloid , a naturally occurring chemical compound. How it works as a medicine is not entirely clear. Quinine was first isolated in 1820 from the bark of a cinchona tree, which is native to Peru , and its molecular formula was determined by Adolph Strecker in 1854. The class of chemical compounds to which it belongs is thus called the cinchona alkaloids. Bark extracts had been used to treat malaria since at least 1632 and it
1653-436: Is tough, strong, and light in weight, but has minimal resistance to decay. The stems ( withies ) from coppiced and pollarded plants are used for basket-making. Charcoal made from the wood was important for gunpowder manufacture. The bark tannin was used in the past for tanning leather. The wood is used to make cricket bats. S. alba wood has a low density and a lower transverse compressive strength. This allows
1740-635: Is uncertain. The seeds of the Haluppu-tree were recommended in the Sumerian narrative of Gilgameš, Enkidu and the Nether World as treatment for infertility, but the "Haluppu-tree" could have been oak, poplar or willow. The ancient Egyptian Ebers Papyrus mentions willow (of uncertain species) in three remedies. One, as part of an elaborate recipe for a poultice to "make the met supple," which involved 36 other ingredients including "fruit of
1827-820: Is used in photochemistry as a common fluorescence standard . Because of the narrow difference between its therapeutic and toxic effects, quinine is a common cause of drug-induced disorders, including thrombocytopenia and thrombotic microangiopathy . Even from minor levels occurring in common beverages, quinine can have severe adverse effects involving multiple organ systems, among which are immune system effects and fever , hypotension , hemolytic anemia , acute kidney injury , liver toxicity, and blindness. In people with atrial fibrillation , conduction defects , or heart block , quinine can cause heart arrhythmias , and should be avoided. Quinine can cause hemolysis in G6PD deficiency (an inherited deficiency), but this risk
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#17327946236951914-558: Is used instead. Quinine is a flavor component of tonic water and bitter lemon drink mixers . On the soda gun behind many bars, tonic water is designated by the letter "Q" representing quinine. Tonic water was initially marketed as a means of delivering quinine to consumers in order to offer anti-malarial protection. According to tradition, because of the bitter taste of anti- malarial quinine tonic, British colonials in India mixed it with gin to make it more palatable, thus creating
2001-914: The Cinchona Missions . Such supplies came too late. Tens of thousands of US troops in Africa and the South Pacific died of malaria due to the lack of quinine. Despite controlling the supply, the Japanese did not make effective use of quinine, and thousands of Japanese troops in the southwest Pacific died as a result. Quinine remained the antimalarial drug of choice until after World War II. Since then, other drugs that have fewer side effects, such as chloroquine , have largely replaced it. Bromo Quinine were brand name cold tablets containing quinine, manufactured by Grove Laboratories. They were first marketed in 1889 and available until at least
2088-582: The Countess of Chinchon was debunked by medical historian Alec Haggis around 1941. During the 17th century, malaria was endemic to the swamps and marshes surrounding the city of Rome . It had caused the deaths of several popes , many cardinals and countless common Roman citizens. Most of the Catholic priests trained in Rome had seen malaria patients and were familiar with the shivering brought on by
2175-642: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . Most recently, Salix has become an important source for bioenergy production and for various ecosystem services . Names of hybrids and cultivars were until recently (2021) compiled by a working party of the UN FAO, the International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRAs) for the genus Salix (willows) Archived 7 December 2018 at
2262-594: The Wayback Machine , but it is no longer active. The Quinault people made the bark into a twine which sometimes served as harpoon line. The wood was used by some Native American tribes to start fires by friction , the shoots to weave baskets , and both the branches and stems to build various items including fishing weirs . The leaves and bark of the willow have been mentioned in ancient texts from Assyria , Sumer and Egypt and in Ancient Greece
2349-472: The dwarf willow ( Salix herbacea ) rarely exceeds 6 centimetres ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) in height, though it spreads widely across the ground. Willows all have abundant watery bark sap , which is heavily charged with salicylic acid , soft, usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches, and large, fibrous, often stoloniferous roots . The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to live, and roots readily sprout from aerial parts of
2436-534: The febrile phase of the disease. The Jesuit Agostino Salumbrino (1564–1642), an apothecary by training who lived in Lima (now in present-day Peru ), observed the Quechua using the bark of the cinchona tree to treat such shivering. While its effect in treating malaria (and malaria-induced shivering) was unrelated to its effect in controlling shivering from rigors , it was a successful medicine against malaria. At
2523-577: The genus Salix , comprise around 350 species (plus numerous hybrids) of typically deciduous trees and shrubs , found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions. Most species are known as willow , but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called osier , and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow (from Old English sealh , related to the Latin word salix , willow). Some willows (particularly arctic and alpine species) are low-growing or creeping shrubs; for example,
2610-459: The gin and tonic cocktail, which is still popular today. While it is possible to drink enough tonic water to temporarily achieve quinine levels that offer anti-malarial protection, it is not a sustainable long-term means of protection. In France, quinine is an ingredient of an apéritif known as quinquina , or "Cap Corse" , and the wine-based apéritif Dubonnet . In Spain, quinine (also known as "Peruvian bark" for its origin from
2697-557: The heme detoxification pathway, which facilitates the aggregation of cytotoxic heme . Free cytotoxic heme accumulates in the parasites, causing their deaths. Quinine may target the malaria purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme. The UV absorption of quinine peaks around 350 nm (in UVA ). Fluorescent emission peaks at around 460 nm (bright blue/cyan hue). Quinine is highly fluorescent ( quantum yield ~0.58) in 0.1 M sulfuric acid solution. Cinchona trees remain
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2784-447: The larvae of some species of Lepidoptera , such as the mourning cloak butterfly . Ants, such as wood ants , are common on willows inhabited by aphids , coming to collect aphid honeydew , as sometimes do wasps . Willow species are hosts to more than a hundred aphid species, belonging to Chaitophorus and other genera, forming large colonies to feed on plant juices, on the underside of leaves in particular. Corythucha elegans ,
2871-402: The tryptamine side-chain cleavage, giving cinchonidinone. For the last step, hydroxylation and methylation gives quinine. Quinine and other Cinchona alkaloids can be used as catalysts for stereoselective reactions in organic synthesis . For example, the quinine-catalyzed Michael addition of a malononitrile to α,β-enones gives a high degree of sterechemical control. Quinine
2958-411: The 1940s, when other drugs took over. The form of quinine most effective in treating malaria was found by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1737. In 1820, French researchers Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou first isolated quinine from the bark of a tree in the genus Cinchona – probably Cinchona pubescens – and subsequently named the substance. The name was derived from
3045-417: The 1960s. Conducting research in central Missouri, John S. Sappington independently developed an anti-malaria pill from quinine. Sappington began importing cinchona bark from Peru in 1820. In 1832, using quinine derived from the cinchona bark, Sappington developed a pill to treat a variety of fevers, such as scarlet fever, yellow fever, and influenza in addition to malaria. These illnesses were widespread in
3132-508: The FDA has ordered firms to stop marketing unapproved drug products containing quinine. The FDA is also cautioning consumers about off-label use of quinine to treat leg cramps. Quinine is approved for treatment of malaria, but was also commonly prescribed to treat leg cramps and similar conditions. Because malaria is life-threatening, the risks associated with quinine use are considered acceptable when used to treat that condition. Though Legatrin
3219-700: The Kina Bureau proved unsuccessful. During World War II , Allied powers were cut off from their supply of quinine when Germany conquered the Netherlands, and Japan controlled the Philippines and Indonesia . The US had obtained four million cinchona seeds from the Philippines and began operating cinchona plantations in Costa Rica . Additionally, they began harvesting wild cinchona bark during
3306-496: The Missouri and Mississippi valleys. He manufactured and sold "Dr. Sappington's Anti-Fever Pills" across Missouri. Demand became so great that within three years, Sappington founded a company known as Sappington and Sons to sell his pills nationwide. The bark of Remijia contains 0.5–2% of quinine. The bark is cheaper than bark of Cinchona . As it has an intense taste, it is used for making tonic water . From 1969 to 1992,
3393-449: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) received 157 reports of health problems related to quinine use, including 23 which had resulted in death. In 1994, the FDA banned the marketing of over-the-counter quinine as a treatment for nocturnal leg cramps. Pfizer Pharmaceuticals had been selling the brand name Legatrin for this purpose. It is also sold as a softgel (by SmithKlineBeecham) as Q-vel. Doctors may still prescribe quinine, but
3480-487: The active constituent. It was long after the invention of aspirin that the idea emerged that willow bark is an effective painkiller. It may often be based on the belief that willow actually contains aspirin. Articles asserting that the ancients used willow for this purpose have been published in academic journals such as the British Journal of Haematology . There are now many papers, books and articles repeating
3567-515: The alkaloid from natural sources. The first synthetic organic dye , mauveine , was discovered by William Henry Perkin in 1856 while he was attempting to synthesize quinine. In the first step of quinine biosynthesis , the enzyme strictosidine synthase catalyzes a stereoselective Pictet–Spengler reaction between tryptamine and secologanin to yield strictosidine . Suitable modification of strictosidine leads to an aldehyde. Hydrolysis and decarboxylation would initially remove one carbon from
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3654-437: The brain. As an MAO inhibitor , it has potential to serve as a treatment for individuals with psychological disorders, similar to antidepressants that inhibit MAO. Quinine is a basic amine and is usually provided as a salt. Various existing preparations include the hydrochloride , dihydrochloride, sulfate , bisulfate and gluconate . In the United States, quinine sulfate is commercially available in 324 mg tablets under
3741-461: The brand name Qualaquin. All quinine salts may be given orally or intravenously (IV); quinine gluconate may also be given intramuscularly (IM) or rectally (PR). The main problem with rectal administration is that the dose can be expelled before it is completely absorbed; in practice, this is corrected by giving a further half dose. No injectable preparation of quinine is licensed in the US; quinidine
3828-486: The bud scale is fused into a cap-like shape, but in some species it wraps around and the edges overlap. The leaves are simple, feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate. Usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the stipules often very conspicuous, resembling tiny, round leaves, and sometimes remaining for half the summer. On some species, however, they are small, inconspicuous, and caducous (soon falling). In color,
3915-413: The bud, but orange or purple after the flower opens; they are two-celled and the cells open latitudinally. The filaments are threadlike, usually pale brown, and often bald. The pistillate (female) flowers are also without calyx or corolla, and consist of a single ovary accompanied by a small, flat nectar gland and inserted on the base of a scale which is likewise borne on the rachis of a catkin. The ovary
4002-440: The catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves. The staminate (male) flowers have neither calyx nor corolla ; they consist simply of stamens, varying in number from two to 10, accompanied by a nectariferous gland and inserted on the base of a scale which is itself borne on the rachis of a drooping raceme called a catkin, or ament. This scale is square, entire, and very hairy. The anthers are rose-colored in
4089-604: The causes of fevers were poorly understood, and there is no suggestion at all of any possible analgesic effect from the use of willow. The first lasting evidence that salicylate, from willow and other plant species, might have real medicinal uses came in 1876, when the Scottish physician Thomas MacLagan experimented with salicin as a treatment for acute rheumatism , with considerable success, as he reported in The Lancet . Meanwhile, German scientists tried salicylic acid in
4176-653: The claim that the ancients used willow for pain relief, and numerous willow-based products can be purchased for this purpose. Modern research suggests that only the mildest analgesic effect could be derived from the use of willow extract, and even that may be due to flavonoids and polyphenols as much as salicylic acid. Some of humans' earliest manufactured items may have been made from willow. A fishing net made from willow dates back to 8300 BC. Basic crafts, such as baskets, fish traps, wattle fences and wattle and daub house walls, were woven from osiers or withies (rod-like willow shoots, often grown in pollards ). One of
4263-537: The development of aspirin in the late 1800s." Herbal uses of willow have continued into modern times. In the early 20th century, Maud Grieve described using the bark and the powdered root of white willow ( Salix alba ) for its tonic , antiperiodic and astringent qualities and recommended its use in treating dyspepsia, worms, chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. Like other herbalists, she makes no mention of it having any analgesic effect, despite widespread awareness of aspirin by this time, and she considered tannin to be
4350-439: The dompalm, beans and amaa grains." The meaning of met is uncertain, but it may be something to do with the nervous system. The second is as part of a treatment for the "Great Debility," when "rush from the green willow tree" is combined with ass's semen, fresh bread, herbs of the field, figs, grapes and wine. Finally, it is used as a stiffening agent in a concoction of "fat flesh, figs, dates, incense, garlic and sweet beer" to put
4437-421: The edge of pools, lakes or rivers. Its wide-spreading roots take up moisture from a large surrounding area. White willows are fast-growing but relatively short-lived, being susceptible to several diseases , including watermark disease caused by the bacterium Brenneria salicis (named because of the characteristic 'watermark' staining in the wood ; syn. Erwinia salicis ) and willow anthracnose , caused by
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#17327946236954524-488: The export of cinchona seeds and saplings in the early 19th century. In 1865, Manuel Incra Mamani collected seeds from a plant particularly high in quinine and provided them to Charles Ledger . Ledger sent them to his brother, who sold them to the Dutch government. Mamani was arrested on a seed collecting trip in 1871, and beaten so severely, likely because of providing the seeds to foreigners, that he died soon afterwards. By
4611-482: The first opportunity, Salumbrino sent a small quantity to Rome for testing as a malaria treatment. In the years that followed, cinchona bark, known as Jesuit's bark or Peruvian bark, became one of the most valuable commodities shipped from Peru to Europe. When King Charles II was cured of malaria at the end of the 17th Century with quinine, it became popular in London . It remained the antimalarial drug of choice until
4698-434: The form of sodium salicylate, a sodium salt, with less success and more severe side effects. The treatment of rheumatic fever with salicin gradually gained some acceptance in medical circles. The discovery of acetanilide , in the 1880s, gave rise to an 'acetylation' craze, where chemists experimented with adding an acetyl group to various aromatic organic compounds. Back in 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated
4785-628: The forms of Welsh coracle boat traditionally uses willow in the framework. Thin or split willow rods can be woven into wicker , which has a long history. The relatively pliable willow is less likely to split while being woven than many other woods, and can be bent around sharp corners in basketry. Willow wood is used in the manufacture of boxes , brooms , cricket bats , cradle boards , chairmans and other furniture, dolls , willow flutes , poles , sweat lodges , toys, turnery, tool handles, wood veneer , wands and whistles . In addition, tannin , fibre , paper, rope and string can be produced from
4872-436: The fungus Marssonina salicicola . These diseases can be a serious problem on trees grown for timber or ornament. It readily forms natural hybrids with crack willow Salix fragilis , the hybrid being named Salix × rubens Schrank. Several cultivars and hybrids have been selected for forestry and horticultural use: The following have received the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit The wood
4959-656: The genus are known from the early Eocene of North America, with the earliest occurrences in Europe during the Early Oligocene . The genus Salix is made up of around 350 species of deciduous trees and shrubs . They hybridise freely, and over 160 such hybrids have been named. Examples of well-known willows include: Willows are shade tolerant and typically short-lived. They require disturbances to outcompete conifers or large deciduous species. The seeds are tiny, plentiful, carried by wind and water, and viable only for
5046-414: The ground (an exception is the peachleaf willow ( Salix amygdaloides )). One famous example of such growth from cuttings involves the poet Alexander Pope , who begged a twig from a parcel tied with twigs sent from Spain to Lady Suffolk . This twig was planted and thrived, and legend has it that all of England's weeping willows are descended from this first one. Willows are extensively cultivated around
5133-594: The heart into proper working order and make it take up nourishment. The Roman author Aulus Cornelius Celsus only mentions willow once: the leaves, pounded and boiled in vinegar, were to be used as treatment for uterine prolapse , but it is unclear what he considered the therapeutic action to be; it is unlikely to have been pain relief, as he recommended cauterization in the following paragraph. Nicholas Culpeper , in The Complete Herbal , gives many uses for willow, including to staunch wounds, to "stay
5220-424: The heat of lust" in man or woman, and to provoke urine ("if stopped"), but he makes no mention of any supposed analgesic properties. His recommendation to use the burnt ashes of willow bark, mixed with vinegar, to "take away warts, corns, and superfluous flesh," seems to correspond with modern uses of salicylic acid . William Turner 's account, written about 1597, focuses on the ability of the leaves and bark to "stay
5307-399: The iridoid portion and produce corynantheal. Then the tryptamine side-chain were cleaved adjacent to the nitrogen, and this nitrogen was then bonded to the acetaldehyde function to yield cinchonaminal. Ring opening in the indole heterocyclic ring could generate new amine and keto functions. The new quinoline heterocycle would then be formed by combining this amine with the aldehyde produced in
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#17327946236955394-483: The late 1990s, Daniel Moerman reported many uses of willow by Native Americans. One modern field guide claims that Native Americans across the Americas relied on the willow as a staple of their medical treatments, using the bark to treat ailments such as sore throat and tuberculosis, and further alleging that "Several references mention chewing willow bark as an analgesic for headache and other pain, apparently presaging
5481-571: The late 19th century the Dutch grew the plants in Indonesian plantations. Soon they became the main suppliers of the tree. In 1913 they set up the Kina Bureau , a cartel of cinchona producers charged with controlling price and production. By the 1930s Dutch plantations in Java were producing 22 million pounds of cinchona bark, or 97% of the world's quinine production. U.S. attempts to prosecute
5568-400: The leaves show a great variety of greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish color. Willows are among the earliest woody plants to leaf out in spring and the last to drop their leaves in autumn. In the northern hemisphere, leafout may occur as early as February depending on the climate and is stimulated by air temperature. If daytime highs reach 10 °C (50 °F) for a few consecutive days,
5655-404: The male catkins are 4–5 cm long, the female catkins 3–4 cm long at pollination, lengthening as the fruit matures. When mature in midsummer, the female catkins comprise numerous small (4 mm) capsules , each containing numerous minute seeds embedded in silky white hairs, which aids wind dispersal. Like all willows, Salix alba is usually to be found in wet or poorly-drained soil at
5742-405: The medicinal properties of cinchona bark by the 1570s or earlier: Nicolás Monardes (1571) and Juan Fragoso (1572) both described a tree, which was subsequently identified as the cinchona tree, whose bark was used to produce a drink to treat diarrhea . Quinine has been used in unextracted form by Europeans since at least the early 17th century. A popular story of how it was brought to Europe by
5829-487: The medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time. More than 40 years later in 1897, Felix Hoffmann created the same acid (in his case derived from the Spiraea plant), which was found in 1899 to have an analgesic effect. This acid was named " Aspirin " by Hoffmann's employer Bayer AG . The discovery of aspirin is therefore only indirectly connected to willow. In
5916-402: The native cinchona tree) is sometimes blended into sweet Malaga wine , which is then called "Malaga Quina" . In Italy, the traditional flavoured wine Barolo Chinato is infused with quinine and local herbs, and is served as a digestif . In Britain, the company A.G. Barr uses quinine as an ingredient in the carbonated and caffeinated beverage Irn-Bru . In Uruguay and Argentina, quinine
6003-484: The next seven years he successfully used the dried powder of willow bark to cure 'agues and intermittent fevers' of around fifty people, although it worked better when combined with quinine . Stone appears to have been largely ignored by the medical profession and herbalists alike. There are reports of two pharmacists using the remedy in trials, but there is no evidence that it worked. By the early 20th century, Maud Grieve , an herbalist, did not consider White Willow to be
6090-419: The only economically practical source of quinine. However, under wartime pressure during World War II, research towards its synthetic production was undertaken. A formal chemical synthesis was accomplished in 1944 by American chemists R.B. Woodward and W.E. Doering . Since then, several more efficient quinine total syntheses have been achieved, but none of them can compete in economic terms with isolation of
6177-444: The original Quechua (Inca) word for the cinchona tree bark, quina or quina-quina , which means "bark of bark" or "holy bark". Prior to 1820, the bark was dried, ground to a fine powder, and mixed into a liquid (commonly wine) in order to be drunk. Large-scale use of quinine as a malaria prophylaxis started around 1850. In 1853 Paul Briquet published a brief history and discussion of the literature on "quinquina". Quinine played
6264-470: The physician Hippocrates wrote about its medicinal properties in the fifth century BC. Interpreting Mesopotamian cuneiform texts is a challenge, especially when looking for something as specific as a species of plant being used to treat a recognisable condition. Some 5,000 medical prescriptions have been identified from Babylonian writings of the 7th to 3rd centuries BC, involving 1,300 drugs from 340 different plants. Whether any of these relate to willow
6351-409: The plant. The leaves are typically elongated, but they might also be round to oval, frequently with serrated edges. Most species are deciduous ; semi- evergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e.g. Salix micans and S. australior in the eastern Mediterranean . All the buds are lateral; no absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale. Usually,
6438-410: The precise mechanism of action of quinine has not been fully resolved, although in vitro studies indicate it inhibits nucleic acid and protein synthesis, and inhibits glycolysis in P. falciparum . The most widely accepted hypothesis of its action is based on the well-studied and closely related quinoline drug, chloroquine . This model involves the inhibition of hemozoin biocrystallization in
6525-444: The spitting of blood, and all other fluxes of blood", if boiled in wine and drunk, but adds a treatment for fever, saying: "the green boughs with the leaves may very well be brought into chambers and set about the beds of those that be sick of fevers, for they do mightily cool the heat of the air, which thing is a wonderful refreshing to the sick patients." In 1763, Reverend Edward Stone , of Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, sent
6612-410: The typical species are grey-brown to green-brown. The leaves are paler than most other willows because they are covered with very fine, silky white hairs, in particular on the underside; they are 5–10 cm long and 0.5–1.5 cm wide. The flowers are produced in catkins in early spring and are pollinated by insects . It is dioecious , with male and female catkins on separate trees;
6699-971: The willow lace bug, is a bug species in the family Tingidae found on willows in North America. Rhabdophaga rosaria is a type of gall found on willows. Rust , caused by fungi of genus Melampsora , is known to damage leaves of willows, covering them with orange spots. Some Native Americans allowed wildfires to burn and set fires intentionally, allowing new stands to form. A small number of willow species were widely planted in Australia, notably as erosion -control measures along watercourses. They are now regarded as invasive weeds which occupy extensive areas across southern Australia and are considered 'Weeds of National Significance'. Many catchment management authorities are removing and replacing them with native trees. Almost all willows take root very readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on
6786-445: The wood to bend, which is why it can be used to make baskets. Willow bark contains indole-3-butyric acid , which is a plant hormone stimulating root growth; willow trimmings are sometimes used to clone rootstock in place of commercially synthesized root stimulator. It is also used for ritual purposes by Jews on the holiday of Sukkot . Willow (of unspecified species) has long been used by herbalists for various ailments, although it
6873-458: The wood. Willow is used in the manufacture of double basses for backs, sides and linings, and in making splines and blocks for bass repair. An aqueous extract of willow bark is used as a fungicide in the European Union. The willow bark extract is approved as a 'basic substance' product in the European Union and United Kingdom for the control of scab, leaf peach curl and powdery mildew on grapes, apples and peach crops. Quinine Quinine
6960-492: The world. Quinine is also used as an ingredient in tonic water and other beverages to impart a bitter taste. Common side effects include headache, ringing in the ears , vision issues, and sweating . More severe side effects include deafness , low blood platelets , and an irregular heartbeat . Use can make one more prone to sunburn . While it is unclear if use during pregnancy carries potential for fetal harm, treating malaria during pregnancy with quinine when appropriate
7047-452: The world. They are used in hedges and landscaping. The high end shopping district of Ginza in Tokyo, Japan , has a long history of cultivating willow, and is well known for its willow lined streets. Willows are very cross-compatible, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation. A well-known ornamental example is the weeping willow ( Salix × sepulcralis ), which
7134-616: Was a real effect or not is unknown, but although Stone's remedy was experimented with by others at the time, it was never adopted by medical practitioners. During the American Civil War , Confederate forces also experimented with willow as a cure for malaria, without success. In his novel The Mysterious Island (1875), the French novelist Jules Verne outlined the state of scientific knowledge concerning medicinal uses of willow when one of his characters, Herbert (Harbert) Brown,
7221-625: Was already used by the Romans for various types of willow. A theory is that the word is ultimately derived from a Celtic language , sal meaning 'near' and lis meaning 'water', alluding to their habitat. Willows are classified into subgenera though what they should be is in flux. Morphological studies generally divide the species into 3 or 5 subgenera: Salix (though some split off subgenera Longifoliae and Protitae ), Chamaetia , and Vetrix . Phylogenetic studies have suggested that Chamaetia and Vetrix be in one clade. The oldest fossils of
7308-471: Was banned by the FDA for the treatment of leg cramps, the drug manufacturer URL Mutual has branded a quinine-containing drug named Qualaquin. It is marketed as a treatment for malaria and is sold in the United States only by prescription. In 2004, the CDC reported only 1,347 confirmed cases of malaria in the United States. For much of the 20th century, women's use of an overdose of quinine to deliberately terminate
7395-726: Was introduced to Spain as early as 1636 by Jesuit missionaries returning from the New World . It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines . Treatment of malaria with quinine marks the first known use of a chemical compound to treat an infectious disease. As of 2006, quinine is no longer recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a first-line treatment for malaria , because there are other substances that are equally effective with fewer side effects. They recommend that it be used only when artemisinins are not available. Quinine
7482-409: Was suffering from a fever induced by a bullet wound: "The bark of the willow has, indeed, been justly considered as a succedaneum for Peruvian bark, as has also that of the horse-chestnut tree, the leaf of the holly, the snake-root, etc.", he wrote. In the story, Herbert is treated with powdered willow bark to no effect, and is saved when a supply of quinine is discovered. It is clear in the novel that
7569-499: Was used as a muscle relaxant by the Quechua people, who are indigenous to Peru , Bolivia and Ecuador , to halt shivering. The Quechua would mix the ground bark of cinchona trees with sweetened water to offset the bark's bitter taste, thus producing something similar to tonic water . Spanish Jesuit missionaries were the first to bring cinchona to Europe. The Spanish had observed the Quechua's use of cinchona and were aware of
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