The Gaehwa Party ( Korean : 개화파, 개화당 ; Hanja : 開化派, 開化黨 ; lit. Enlightenment Party), sometimes written as the Gaehwapa or Gaehwadang , was a liberal and progressive party in the Korean state Joseon . It was also called the Independence Party of Joseon , the Innovation Party of Joseon , and the Reformist Faction .
138-654: The faction formed after the Imo Incident . Members wished to change Korea's submissive relationship to Qing China and were opposed to what they called the Sadae Party ( Korean : 사대당 ; Hanja : 事大黨 ; RR : Sadaedang ), a group that supported Empress Myeongseong and the Qing dynasty. Leading scholars who visited Japan took inspiration from the Meiji Restoration in
276-555: A Chinese commander, General Yuan Shih-kai , take control of the new military units and that a German adviser, Paul Georg von Möllendorff , head the Maritime Customs Service. The Chinese desired further trade treaties so as to deflect a Japanese monopoly. Treaties were later signed with the United States (1882) and France (1886). In July 1883 the queen consort sent a special mission to the United States. It
414-519: A battalion of armed soldiers. There was significant indignation in Japan at the treatment of its nationals and the events were seen as an affront to the reputation of the Japanese nation. The foreign office under Inoue Kaoru commanded Hanabusa to return to Seoul and meet with senior Korean officials and to persuade them to set a date by which the rioters would be brought to justice in a manner which
552-684: A bride from their own clan, the Yeoheung Min. The girl's father was dead. She was said to possess beautiful features, a healthy body, and an ordinary level of education. This possible bride underwent a strict selection process, culminating in a meeting with the Daewongun on 6 March, and a marriage ceremony on 20 March 1866. The Daewongun, likely fearing that the Andong Kim clan and the Pyungyang Jo clan, who were political rivalries for
690-663: A close confidant of Li Hongzhang, and the Chinese diplomat Ma Jianzhong. Wu Changqing, together with a staff of officers, took over the training of the Korean army and additionally provided the Koreans with 1,000 rifles, two cannons and 10,000 rounds of ammunition. Furthermore, the Ch'in'gunyŏng, ( Capital Guards Command ) was also created consisting of four barracks designated the right, left, front, and rear; this new Korean military formation
828-431: A complete cessation of ties with Qing China. With the queen consort possibly unaware of their anti-Chinese sentiments, they were granted frequent royal audiences and meetings to discuss progressivism and nationalism. They advocated for educational and social reforms, including the equality of the sexes by granting women full rights. The queen consort was convinced at first, but she did not support their anti-Chinese stance. In
966-1004: A coup, the King responded by executing one prominent official and banishing others. The document became the basis of Korean foreign policy. In January 1881, the government launched administrative reforms and established the T'ongni kimu amun( Office for Extraordinary State Affairs ) which was modeled on Chinese administrative structures. Under this overarching organization were 12 sa or agencies, dealing with relations with China ( Sadae ), diplomatic matters involving other foreign nations ( Kyorin ), military affairs ( Kunmu ), border administration ( Pyŏnjŏng ), foreign trade ( T'ongsang ), military ordnance ( Kunmul ), machinery production ( Kigye ), shipbuilding ( Sŏnham ), coastal surveillance ( Kiyŏn ), personnel recruitment ( Chŏnsŏn ), special procurement ( Iyong ), and foreign-language schooling ( Ŏhak ). In May 1881, until their return home in September of that year,
1104-443: A lady of the court. Some explain the flare-up of violence by pointing to provocative policies and conduct by Japanese military advisors who had been training the new Special Skills Force since 1881. Before the nineteenth century, Korea pursued a strict policy of isolation. Except for official tributary missions to China and occasional diplomatic missions to Japan, which after the mid-eighteenth century became fewer and confined to
1242-552: A male heir and King Gojong ascended the throne at the age of 12. However, King Gojong was too young and the new king's father, Yi Ha-ŭng , became the Daewongun or Lord of the Great Court who ruled Korea in his son's name. Originally the term Daewongun referred to any person who was not actually the king but whose son took the throne. With his ascendancy to power the Daewongun initiated a set of reforms designed to strengthen
1380-461: A new queen for his son, an orphaned girl from among the Yŏhŭng Min clan , a clan which lacked powerful political connections. With Queen Min as his daughter-in-law and the royal consort, the Daewongun felt secure in his power. However, after she had become queen, Min recruited all her relatives and had them appointed to influential positions in the name of the king. The Queen also allied herself with
1518-522: A noble clan boasting many high-ranking bureaucrats in its illustrious past, princess consorts, and two queen consorts. These were firstly, Queen Wongyeong (wife of Taejong of Joseon and mother of Sejong the Great ) and, secondly, Queen Inhyeon (second wife of Sukjong of Joseon ). When her father Min Chi-rok was young, he studied under scholar Oh Hui-sang ( 오희상 ; 吳熙常 ), and eventually married
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#17327650275571656-469: A number of legation guards. Following the opening of all Korean ports to the Japanese and Western merchants in 1888, contact and involvement with outsiders increased foreign trade rapidly. In 1883, the Maritime Customs Service was established under the patronage of the queen consort and the supervision of Sir Robert Hart, 1st Baronet of the United Kingdom. The Maritime Customs Service administered
1794-460: A passive role requiring the cultivation of reformist elements within Korea and rendering them assistance whenever possible, or adopting a more aggressive policy, actively interfering in Korean politics to assure that reform took place. Many advocates of reform in Japan, swung between these two positions. Japan in the early 1880s was weak, as a result of internal uprisings and samurai rebellions during
1932-517: A plot was uncovered to overthrow the queen consort's faction, depose the King, and place Heungseon Daewongun's illegitimate (third) son, Yi Jae-seon (known posthumously as Prince Imperial Waneun ) on the throne. The plot was frustrated by informants to and spies of the queen consort. Heungseon Daewongun (whose involvement was not proved) was unharmed. However, the attempted coup resulted in Yi Jae-seon's death in late October 1881. In October 1881,
2070-533: A pro-Japanese government under Kim Hong-jip and the Enlightenment Party's administration. They organized three cabinets; their politics were partially supported by the Japanese, indirectly resulting in them aiding and abetting Japan's influence. However, with the rise in popularity of the pro-Russian faction , the Enlightenment Party collapsed. After the establishment of the Korean Empire ,
2208-403: A protection against Russia. He considered it wise to open trade relations with Western nations and to adopt Western technology, arguing that their interest in Korea was trade rather than occupation. The modernisation of Japan through Western contact was pointed to as a promising precedent for study. Kim returned from Japan in late 1880. By early 1881 the paper had made a considerable impression on
2346-641: A rear gate. The Japanese fled to the harbor where they boarded a boat which took them down the Han River to Incheon . At first they took refuge with the Incheon commandant but when word arrived of the events in Seoul, the attitude of their hosts changed and the Japanese realized they were no longer safe. They escaped to the harbor during rain and were pursued by Korean soldiers. Six Japanese were killed, while another five were seriously wounded. The survivors carrying
2484-422: A result, the revolt had assumed major proportions. The rioters now turned their attention to the Japanese. One group of rioters headed to Lieutenant Horimoto's quarters and took turns in stabbing the military instructor, administering many small wounds until they slowly killed him. Another group, some 3,000 strong, armed themselves with weapons taken from a looted depot and headed for the Japanese legation. Inside
2622-585: A royal request that the Americans send an adviser to Korea to the office of foreign affairs, and instructors for the army. An order for arms was placed with a US firm based in Yokohama. A complement of three military instructors arrived in April 1888. The Progressives were founded during the late 1870s by a group of yangban who supported westernisation of Joseon. They wanted immediate westernisation, including
2760-425: A semi-colony and its policy toward Korea substantially changed to a new imperialistic one where the suzerain state demanded certain privileges in her vassal state. In October 1882, the two countries signed a treaty stipulating that Korea was a dependency of China and granted Chinese merchants the right to conduct overland and maritime business freely within Korean borders. It also gave them substantial advantages over
2898-512: A technical mission was sent to Japan to survey its modernized facilities. They traveled all over Japan inspecting administrative, military, educational, and industrial facilities. In October, another small group went to Tianjin to study modern weapons manufacturing, and Chinese technicians were invited to manufacture weapons in Seoul. In July 1883, the first Korean special mission was sent to the United States . It met with American government leaders, including President Chester A. Arthur , and observed
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#17327650275573036-433: A warning to the others. However, after learning what had transpired, the rioters broke into Min's house to take vengeance, as he was not at his residence the rioters vented their frustrations by destroying his furniture and other possessions. The rioters then moved on to an armory from which they stole weapons and ammunition, they were now better armed than ever before in their careers as soldiers. The rioters then headed for
3174-436: Is the name of her clan. "Empress" was a title conferred after her assassination. Changes in her marital status or the status of her husband are reflected in her own title. In Western terms, she was nameless throughout her life. For the most part, the narrative below refers to her as the queen consort because that was her title during life at the beginning of her political activity, and was her functioning position. For convenience
3312-490: The Dajōkan that increased naval strength was essential for a maritime country like Japan. If Japan went to war, it would not have enough vessels to protect the home islands and if it used its fleet to protect the home islands it would not be able to mount an attack overseas. As the Chinese were building up their naval forces, and Japan would be unable to defend itself against China in a possible future conflict. Iwakura argued that it
3450-732: The Empire of Japan and reformed domestic affairs. The central figures of this party were Kim Ok-gyun , Hong Yeong-sik , Seo Jae-pil and Seo Gwang-bum . As the Conservative Party also participated in similar activities, the Enlightenment Party is also called the Radical Reformist Faction to distinguish between them. The Enlightenment Party orchestrated the Gapsin Coup after the Sino–French War with
3588-463: The Gabo Reform , which had introduced other measures increasing Japanese influence. In October 1897, Gojong returned to Gyeongungung (modern-day Deoksugung ). Whilst there, he proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire and raised the status of his deceased wife to Empress. As was the custom in late Joseon society, the woman who came to be Empress Myeongseong never had a personal name. "Min"
3726-548: The Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876 had led to the opening of Korea. The Korean government immediately after the opening of the country to the outside world, pursued a policy of enlightenment aimed at achieving national prosperity and military strength through the doctrine of tongdo sŏgi , or Eastern ways and Western machines. To modernize their country, the Koreans tried selectively to accept and master Western technology while preserving their country's cultural values and heritage. After
3864-404: The de facto Regent Heungseon Daewongun to marry his son, the future King Gojong. Seven years later his daughter-in-law and her Min clan forced him out of office. Daewongun was a conservative Confucian later implicated in unsuccessful rebellion against his daughter-in-law's faction. He believed in isolation of Joseon from all foreign contact as a means of preserving independence. She, by contrast,
4002-492: The 15-year-old king and was invested in a ceremony ( 책비 , chaekbi ) as the Queen Consort of Joseon. Two places assert claims as the location of the marriage and accession. These are Injeongjeon Hall ( 인정전 ) at Changdeokgung and Norakdang Hall ( 노락당 ) at Unhyeongung . The headdress typically worn by brides at royal weddings was so heavy for the bride that a tall court lady was specially assigned to support it from
4140-424: The Americans extraterritoriality rights and most-favored-nation status in Korea. In return, the United States agreed not to import opium or arms into the country, Korean tariffs were kept high, extraterritoriality was made provisional upon the reform of Korean laws and judicial procedures to conform to America's, and there was no mention of permitting missionary activity. However, two significant issues were raised by
4278-615: The Bay of Yeongheung, ostensibly surveying sea routes. On 20 September 1875 in a move seen by the Koreans as provocative, the Unyō ,ventured into restricted waters off Ganghwa Island . Korean shore batteries then opened fire. Thus arose a violent confrontation between the Japanese and the Koreans known as the Ganghwa Island incident . Following this incident, six naval vessels and an imperial Japanese envoy were sent to Ganghwa Island to enforce
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4416-602: The Changŏyŏng ( Capital Guards Garrison ). However, there was resentment towards the Pyŏlgigun on the part of the soldiers of the regular army who were envious of the formation as it was much better equipped and treated than they were. Additionally, more than 1000 soldiers had been discharged in the process of overhauling the army, most of them were either old or disabled and the rest had not been given their pay in rice for thirteen months. In June, King Gojong having been informed of
4554-501: The Daewongun's political enemies, so that by late 1873 she had mobilized enough influence to oust the Daewongun from power. In October 1873, when the Confucian scholar Choe Ik-hyeon submitted a memorial to King Gojong urging him to rule in his own right, Queen Min seized the opportunity to force her father-in-law's retirement as regent. The departure of the Daewongun led to Korea's abandonment of its isolationist policy. Subsequently,
4692-714: The Gaehwa Party made policy which tried to stop the interruption of Japan. Imo Incident The Imo Incident , also sometimes known as the Imo Mutiny , Soldier's riot or Jingo-gunran in Japanese, was a violent uprising and riot in Seoul beginning in 1882, by soldiers of the Joseon Army who were later joined by disaffected members of the wider Korean population. The revolt broke out in part due to King Gojong 's support for reform and modernization, as well as
4830-512: The Japanese and Westerners and also granted the Chinese unilateral extraterritoriality privileges in civil and criminal cases. China also obtained concessions in Korea, notably the Chinese concession of Incheon . Under the treaty the number of Chinese merchants and traders greatly increased, striking a severe blow to Korean merchants. Although it allowed Koreans reciprocally to trade in Beijing
4968-504: The Japanese government did not consider that the Korean government had intentionally harmed peaceful relations and there should a sincere attempt to restore the traditional good relations between the two countries. The incident could even provide a means of securing a lasting peace and in view of Korean national feelings, the Japanese had judged that it was premature to send a punitive expedition. The minister Hanabusa would only return to Seoul and be protected by army and navy troops, because of
5106-475: The Japanese military attaché Lieutenant Horimoto Reizō to serve as an adviser in creating a modern army. Eighty to one hundred young men of the aristocracy were to be given Japanese military training and a formation called the Pyŏlgigun ( Special Skills Force ) was established. In January 1882, the government also reorganized the existing five-army garrison structure into the Muwiyŏng ( Palace Guards Garrison ) and
5244-527: The Japanese required Joseon to pay a "moderate" indemnity for damages inflicted: 40 Japanese were killed during the coup and the Japanese legation was burned to the ground. In addition, the Koreans agreed to rebuild the Japanese Legation plus some barracks for their troops. Lastly, those guilty of murdering a Japanese officer were to be punished. On 18 April, the Convention of Tientsin (1885)
5382-602: The Japanese was the activities of the Chinese, who appeared to be thwarting the fragile group of reformers in Korea. The Qing government had loosened its hold over Korea in 1876, when the Japanese succeeded in establishing a legal basis for Korean independence. However, Li Hongzhang and many other Chinese high officials were alarmed by the Japanese annexation of the Ryukyu kingdom, from their perspective what had happened to this former tributary state could happen to another as well. After 1879, China's relations with Korea came under
5520-425: The Japanese, this would constitute a clear breach of peace. In that case, a final letter would be sent to the Korean government by an envoy, indicting it for its crimes and then Japanese forces would occupy the port of Chempulpo and await further orders. Hanabusa was advised that if China or any other nation offered to mediate, it should be refused. The instructions, however, concluded on a conciliatory note, in that
5658-695: The Joseon court by forming no affiliation with any factions. Yi Ha-eung himself was not eligible for the throne due to a law that dictated that a successor had to be part of the generation after the most recent monarch. Yi Ha-eung's second son, Yi Myeong-bok, was a possible candidate for the throne. The Pungyang Jo clan saw that Yi Myeong-bok, was only 12 years old and would not be able to rule in his own name until he came of age. They hoped to influence Yi Ha-eung, who would be acting as de facto regent for his son. (Technically Grand Queen Dowager Hyoyu would be regent but in fact she did not intend to play an active role in
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5796-466: The King sent another mission, in 1880. The mission was headed by Kim Hong-jip , who was a more enthusiastic observer of the reforms taking place in Japan. While in Japan, the Chinese diplomat Huang Zunxian presented him with a study called Chaoxian Celue ( A Strategy for Korea ). It warned of the threat to Korea posed by the Russians and recommended that Korea maintain friendly relations with Japan, which
5934-494: The Koreans and had dispatched Commodore Robert Shufeldt to East Asia waters. Shufeldt had first visited Japanese officials in 1880, to see if they would mediate between American officials and the Koreans, but the Japanese did not respond to his offer. In 1880, following Chinese advice, King Gojong decided to establish diplomatic ties with the United States, which was a break with tradition. Shufeldt then traveled to Tianjin , where he met with Li Hongzhang, who negotiated on behalf of
6072-445: The Koreans at the talks. After negotiations through Chinese mediation (1881–1882), the Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce, and Navigation was formally signed between the United States and Korea in Incheon on May 22, 1882. The 14-article document provided for the protection of shipwrecked sailors, coal supplies for American vessels entering Korea, trading rights in selected Korean ports, the exchange of diplomatic representatives, granted
6210-469: The Koreans to pay 550,000 yen damages in respect of Japanese lives and property lost during the insurrection. This agreement also permitted Japanese troops to guard the Japanese embassy in Seoul. The queen consort proposed to China a new trade agreement granting the Chinese special privileges and rights to ports inaccessible to the Japanese. Public order was enforced by Wu Chang-ching and his detachment of 3,000 Chinese troops. She also successfully requested that
6348-647: The Min corruption whereby the soldiers got rotten rice in payment of wages. These soldiers then fled to the protection of Daewongun, who publicly rebuked but privately encouraged them. Daewongun took control of the old units. He ordered an attack on the administrative district of Seoul that housed the Gyeongbokgung , the diplomatic quarter, military centers, and science institutions. These soldiers attacked police stations to free comrades who had been arrested and ransacked private estates and mansions belonging to relatives of
6486-587: The Royal Council of Administration, arguing that the 22 year old Gojong should now rule in his own right. In 1873, with the approval of Gojong and the Royal Council, the Heungseon Daewongun was forced to retire to Unhyeongung , his estate at Yangju. The queen consort then banished the royal concubine along with her child to a village outside the capital. The child was stripped of royal titles and died on 12 January 1880. After these expulsions,
6624-532: The Treaty of Ganghwa was signed, the court dispatched Kim Ki-su, a respected scholar and official to head a mission to Japan. Although Korean kings had sent emissaries to Japan in the past, this was the first such mission since 1810. Kim met a number of officials who showed him some of Japan's reforms and he reluctantly meet with the Japanese emperor. However, Kim left Japan without its modernization and reforms leaving much of an impression on him, and rather than using
6762-586: The administration, the Progressives were crushed by Chinese troops under Yuan Shikai 's command. These were sent following a secret request by the queen consort to the Chinese Resident. A handful of Progressive leaders were killed, others escaping to Japan. The Japanese troops were only 130 in all and were easily overwhelmed. Japanese deaths and property damage followed. The Treaty of Hanseong (8 January 1885) negotiated by Count Inouye on behalf of
6900-445: The agreement was not a treaty but was in effect issued as a regulation for a vassal, it also reasserted Korea's dependency on China. The crisis in Korea persuaded top civilian leaders in Japan that it was undesirable to postpone expenditure on a larger military. During the 1870s, the Japanese government was faced with internal uprisings and samurai rebellions, which had led to rampant inflation and financial difficulties. Consequently,
7038-535: The alleged rice infuriated the soldiers. On July 23, 1882, the riot broke out in Uigeumbu . The enraged soldiers then headed for the residence of Min Gyeom-ho, whom they had suspected of having swindled them out of their rice. Min on hearing word of the revolt, ordered the police to arrest some of the ringleaders and announced that they would be executed the next morning. Min Gyeom-ho assumed that this would serve as
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#17327650275577176-649: The authority of Li Hongzhang, who had emerged as one of the most influential figures in China after playing an important role during the Taiping Rebellion , and an advocate of the self-strengthening movement . In 1879, Li was appointed as governor-general of Zhili Province and the imperial commissioner for the northern ports. He was in charge of China's Korea policy and urged Korean officials to adopt China's own self-strengthening program to strengthen their country in response of foreign threats, to which King Gojong
7314-608: The back of a faithful guard who claimed she was his sister. She found refuge in the home of Min Eung-sik in Chungju , Chungcheong Province . In the midst of the chaos, the regent father of the king, the Heungseon Daewongun , who had supported soldiers' complaints, took power and tried to re-establish order. The Japanese government sent Ambassador Hanabusa back to Seoul with four naval warships, three cargo ships and
7452-436: The back. Directly following the wedding was the three-day ceremony for reverencing of ancestors. When Lady Min became Queen Consort, her mother was given the royal title of "Internal Princess Consort Hanchang" ( 한창부부인 ; 韓昌府夫人 ). Her father was given the royal title of "Internal Prince Yeoseong" ( 여성부원군 ; 驪城府院君 ), and was posthumously appointed as Yeonguijeong after his death. Her father's first wife also given
7590-406: The command of Ding Ruchang to Korea with Ma Jianzhong on board by request of Joseon's Queen . About 4,500 troops, under General Wu Changqing arrived in Korea. The Chinese troops effectively regained control and quelled the rebellion and were then stationed at various points throughout Seoul. In the aftermath of rebellion, the Daewongun was accused of fomenting the rebellion and its violence, and
7728-479: The concern that there was no predicting what further violence might be unleashed by the rioters. Nevertheless, despite optimism of a peaceful resolution to the crisis, the Japanese government authorized the call-up of reserves in the beginning of August. Inoue Kaoru also notified western ministers in Tokyo of the government's decision to send troops and warships to Korea to protect Japanese citizens. He emphasized that
7866-466: The country remained backward and uncivilized it would remain weak and consequently would be inviting prey for foreign domination. The political consensus in Japan was that Korean independence lay, as it had been for Meiji Japan, through the importation of "civilization" from the West. Korea required a program of self-strengthening like the post-Restoration reforms enacted in Japan. The Japanese interest in
8004-421: The country to the West. Choi Ik-hyun , who had helped with the impeachment of Heungseon Daewongun, sided with the isolationists. He maintained that the Japanese were just like the "Western barbarians" and would spread subversive notions, just as previous Western contact had brought Roman Catholicism . That had been a major issue during Daewongun's regency and Catholicism was crushed by widespread persecution. To
8142-593: The country's urban and industrial development. During the 1880s, discussions about Japanese national security focused on the issue of Korean reform. The discourse over the two were interlinked, as the German military adviser Major Jacob Meckel stated, Korea was a "dagger pointed at the heart of Japan" . What made Korea of strategic concern was not merely its proximity to Japan but its inability to defend itself against outsiders. If Korea were truly independent, it posed no strategic problem to Japan's national security but if
8280-426: The description queen regent is not separately used. In 1864, at the age of 32, Cheoljong of Joseon died suddenly under ambiguous causes . Cheoljong was childless and had not appointed an heir. The Andong Kim clan had risen to power through intermarriage with the royal House of Yi . Queen Cheorin , Cheoljong's consort and a member of the Andong Kim clan, claimed the right to choose the next king. Traditionally,
8418-423: The employment of Japanese military advisors. Some sources credit rumors as the spark which ignited violence, where many Korean soldiers were worried by the prospect of incorporating Japanese officers in a new army structure. The trigger for the riot is largely attributed to a reaction about unpaid soldiers wages, who found sand and bad rice in soldiers' rations. At the time, soldiers could be paid in rice as it
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#17327650275578556-433: The escape. The truth may lie in the detailed account recorded by Homer Hulbert. One rumour was that Grand Internal Princess Consort Sunmok had entered the palace, and hidden her daughter-in-law, the queen consort, in a wooden litter that the older woman was riding on. Allegedly a court officer saw this and informed the soldiers invading the palace. Princess Sunmok did try to persuade her husband Heungseon Daewongun to stop
8694-537: The events surrounding the uprising. Li ordered the Daewongun put back in his palanquin and he was carried off to a town about sixty miles southwest of Beijing, where for three years he was confined to one room and kept under strict surveillance. After the Imo Incident, early reform efforts in Korea suffered a major setback. The aftermath of the event also brought the Chinese into the country where they began to directly interfere in Korean internal affairs. After
8832-432: The formalities had been observed. In the autumn of 1864, Yi Myeong-bok was renamed as Yi Hui ( 이희 ; 李㷩 ) and was crowned as Gojong King of Joseon , with his father as Regent titled as Grand Internal Prince Heungseon. He is referred to in this article henceforth as Heungseon Daewongun or Daewongun. The strongly Confucian Daewongun proved to be a decisive leader in the early years of Gojong's reign. He abolished
8970-504: The future, may have been influenced favourably towards Lady Min due to her lack of a father or brother. He did not suspect Lady Min herself as politically ambitious, and he was satisfied with the interview. It was only later he observed that she "...was a woman of great determination and poise“ but that he nevertheless allowed her to marry his son. In doing so, he raised to the throne a woman who by 1895 had proven herself to be "his chief foil and implacable enemy." Lady Min, aged 16, married
9108-493: The government had decided in late 1880 to stabilize the currency by increased taxation and financial retrenchment. However, the Imo mutiny had underscored the urgency of military expansion, as Japan's limited military and naval power was made apparent. In contrast to the Chinese who had quickly dispatched an expeditionary force to Seoul, where they quickly established order and controlled the situation with their military superiority over
9246-628: The government's intentions were entirely peaceful, however, an offer by the American government to mediate was immediately declined. The emperor , worried about the situation in Korea, dispatched Chamberlain Yamaguchi Masasada to the country as a personal envoy. He remained there until the Treaty of Chemulpo was signed. The Chinese received word about the rebellion through Li Shuchang, the Chinese minister in Tokyo in Japan. On August 1, Zhang Shuosheng dispatched ships of Beiyang Fleet under
9384-456: The growing threat of the Japanese and the possibility of U.S. investment in Korea. The Korean visit lasted three months, returning via San Francisco. At the end of September, Min Yeong-ik travelled to Seoul and reported to the queen consort. She at once established English language schools with U.S. instructors. Min Yeong-ik's report had been optimistic: I was born in the dark. I went out into
9522-549: The home of Min Gyeom-ho [ ko ] , who held joint appointments of Minister of Military Affairs and high-level official of the Agency to Bestow Blessings, lynched lord Heungin, Yi Choe-eung and attempted to murder Queen Min , even reaching the Royal Palace. The poverty-stricken people of Seoul from Wangsim-li and Itaewon joined in the riot and Queen Min escaped to the home of Min Eung-sik by disguising herself as
9660-420: The hunt for the queen consort. This seemed so suspicious that later he kept her away from his affairs. When Daewongun could not find the queen consort, he likely assumed she was dead (according to Hulbert). He announced, "the queen is dead". Numerous supporters of the queen consort were executed once Daewongun took control of Gyeongbokgung Palace. He immediately dismantled the recent reform measures and relieved
9798-428: The immediate opening of Busan (1876) and later other major ports, Wonsan (1880) and Incheon (1883) to Japanese merchants. For the first few years, Japan enjoyed a near total monopoly of trade. Japanese cotton goods were imported to Korea, which was unindustrialised and still dominantly dependent on limited modes of agricultural production. Rice and cereals became the main export to Japan, whose merchants came to inhabit
9936-469: The incident, China reasserted its suzerainty over Korea and stationed troops in Seoul, commanded by Wu Changqing. The Chinese undertook several initiatives to gain significant influence over the Korean government. As well as stationing troops in Korea, two special advisers on foreign affairs representing Chinese interests were dispatched in Korea; the German Paul Georg von Möllendorff , who was
10074-569: The island of Tsushima , Koreans were prohibited from leaving the country. All foreigners were barred entry into the country except for Chinese officials on diplomatic missions, and the Japanese who were only allowed to trade at waegwan enclaves in Pusan. Foreign trade was mainly limited to China, conducted at designated locations along the Korean-Manchurian border and with Japan in Pusan. In January 1864, King Cheoljong died without
10212-444: The king and the queen consort. Copies were commissioned to be sent out to all ministers. She had hoped to win yangban (aristocratic) approval to invite Western nations into Korea, and to open up trade so as to keep Japan in check. She wanted to first allow Japan to help in the modernisation process but after completion of certain projects, have them be driven out by Western powers. However, the yangban aristocracy opposed any opening of
10350-590: The last of the Andong Kims, whose corruption, he believed, was responsible for the country's decline in the 19th century. The future queen consort was born into the aristocratic Yeoheung Min clan on 17 November 1851 within the House of Gamgodang [ ko ] in Seomrak Village, Geundong-myeon, Yeoheung (now Yeoju ), Gyeonggi Province , where the clan originated. The Yeoheung Mins were
10488-573: The later empress was known as the daughter of Min Chi-rok, Lady Min, or Min Ja-yeong ( 민자영 ; 閔玆暎 ). At age seven, she lost her father to an illness on 17 September 1858 while he was in Sado city . Lady Min was raised by her mother and Min relatives for eight years until she moved to the palace and became queen. Lady Min assisted her mother for three years while in living in Gamgodang. In 1861 it
10626-413: The legation was the minister to Korea, Hanabusa Yoshitada , seventeen members of his staff and ten legation police officers. The mob surrounded the legation shouting its intention of killing all the Japanese inside. Hanabusa gave orders to burn the legation and important documents were set on fire. The flames quickly spread, and under cover of the flames and smoke, members of the legation escaped through
10764-489: The light, and, your Majesty, it is my displeasure to inform you that I have returned to the dark. I envision a Seoul of towering buildings filled with Western establishments that will place herself back above the Japanese barbarians. Great things lie ahead for this Kingdom, great things. We must take action, your Majesty, without hesitation, to further modernize this still ancient kingdom. Matters culminated in October 1883 with
10902-652: The major ports. By 1894 Busan gave every appearance, according to doctor-missionary Isabella Bird , of being a town in Japan. She reports the fact that the customs were levied by the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs officers on behalf of the Korean Crown. At least one of these officers was English. In 1880, a mission headed by Kim Gi-su (Kim Hong-Jip) was commissioned by Gojong and the Min clan to study Japanese westernisation and its intentions for Korea. The immediate diplomatic objective
11040-447: The military was met with opposition. In June 1882, members of the old military became resentful of the special treatment of the new units. They destroyed the house of Min Gyeom-ho and killed him. He was Gojong's maternal uncle, being his mother's younger brother, and was the administrative head of the training units and in charge of the treasury. Yi Choi-eung and Kim Bo-hyun, a magistrate, were also killed. These had been associated with
11178-428: The monarchy at the expense of the yangban class , he also pursued an isolationist policy and was determined to purge the kingdom of any foreign ideas that had infiltrated into the nation. In Korean history, the king's in-laws enjoyed great power and the Daewongun acknowledged that any future sons-in-law might threaten his authority. Therefore, he attempted to prevent any possible threat to his rule by selecting as
11316-541: The most senior Queen Dowager had the official authority to select the new king. Cheoljong's cousin, Grand Royal Dowager Hyoyu (once known as Queen Sinjeong) , was the most senior Dowager. She was of the Pungyang Jo clan and the widow of Heonjong of Joseon 's father. She had risen to prominence by intermarriage with the Yi family. Grand Queen Dowager Hyoyu saw an opportunity to advance the cause of her Pungyang Jo clan ,
11454-533: The new units of duty. Foreign policy reverted to isolationism. Both Chinese and Japanese representatives were forced to leave the capital. Li Hongzhang , with the consent of Korean envoys in Beijing, sent 4,500 Chinese troops to restore order and secure Chinese interests in Korea. His troops arrested Daewongun, who was then taken to Paoting in China where he remained under house arrest. The royal couple returned and overturned all of Daewongun's actions. The Japan-Korea Treaty of 1882 , signed on 10 August 1882 required
11592-414: The number of envoys exchanged, ships engaged in trade and articles of trade be strictly limited, and further that all foreign books in Korea should be destroyed. Two thousand (out of office) scholars gathered at Cho-rio, planning to march on Seoul and overwhelm the serving Ministers. The gathering was met at Cho-rio by royal envoys who promised to stop the mission to Japan, to which the protesters objected. It
11730-480: The old government institutions that had become corrupt under the rule of various clans, revised the law codes along with the household laws of the royal court and the rules of court ritual, and heavily reformed the military techniques of the royal armies. Within a few years, he was able to secure complete control of the court, and eventually receive the submission of the Pungyang Jos while successfully disposing of
11868-406: The older brother of the Daewongun , who was previously critical of Korea's isolation policy. They also searched for Queen Min intending to kill her because of her membership to the hated Min family, and as a result of the perceived the corruption in the government which was completely under her control. The queen narrowly escaped, however, dressed as an ordinary lady of the court and was carried on
12006-452: The only true rival of the Andong Kim clan in Korean politics. As King Cheoljong was dying, she was approached by Yi Ha-eung, a distant descendant of King Injo (r.1623–1649), whose father was made an adoptive son of Prince Eunsin , a nephew of King Yeongjo (r.1724–1776). The branch that Yi Ha-eung's family belonged to was a distant line of descendants of the Yi clan. They survived the often deadly political intrigue that frequently embroiled
12144-557: The opening of the new Korean postal service. The Progressives killed numerous high-ranking Sadaes and secured key government positions vacated by Sadaes who had fled the capital or had been killed. This new administration began to issue edicts in both the King and queen consort's names. The King and the queen consort had been kidnapped and were held prisoner by armed Japanese guards. The new cabinet did not secure popular support despite their agenda of modernisation and planned political, economic, social, and cultural reforms. The queen consort
12282-522: The opportunity to blame the Min clan for their weakness in contrast to his own previous isolationist, anti-foreign policies. After numerous meetings, the Ganghwa Treaty was signed on 26 February 1876, thus opening Korea to Japan and the world. The treaty was modeled after treaties imposed on Japan by the United States. Various ports were forced to open to Japanese trade, and Japanese now had rights to buy land in designated areas. The treaty permitted
12420-630: The political arena. Miura Gorō , Japanese Minister to Korea, backed the faction headed by Daewongun and directly ordered the assassination. On 8 October 1895, the Hullyeondae Regiment loyal to the Daewongun attacked the Gyeongbokgung Palace and overpowered its Royal Guards. The intruders then allowed a group of ronin , specifically recruited for this purpose, to assassinate the queen consort. Her assassination sparked international outrage. The Japanese-backed cabinet in
12558-537: The possibility of trouble breaking out caused by the Progressives. This rumour reached the British who put out feelers to their various other contacts. All this found its way back to the chief Progressive conspirators, who, fearing their dangerous game was almost up, decided to act immediately. They staged a bloody palace coup on 4 December 1884 (the Gapsin Coup) on the occasion of a diplomatic dinner celebrating
12696-458: The previous decade. The country was also struggling financially with inflation as a result of these internal factors. Subsequently, the Meiji government adopted a passive policy, encouraging the Korea court to follow the Japanese model but offering little concrete assistance except for the dispatch of the small military mission headed by Lieutenant Horimoto Reizo to train the Pyŏlgigun . What worried
12834-402: The prison and after overpowering the guards, they released not only the men who had been arrested that day by Min Gyeom-ho but also but many political prisoners as well. Min, who was in the royal palace , now summoned the army to quell the rebellion but it had become too late to suppress the mutiny. The original body of rioters had been swelled by the poor of the city and other malcontents and as
12972-425: The promise of advice and support of Takezoe Shinichiro [ ja ] , the Japanese minister to Korea. Ultimately, the coup d'état was crushed by the Qing army, so Enlightenment Party members, such as Kim Ok-gyun , Bak Yeonghyo , Seo Jae-pil , among others, sought asylum in Japan or the United States. In 1894, the Japanese occupied Seoul restored King Gojong's father, Heungseon Daewongun, and established
13110-451: The proposed constitution. On the basis of these reports, the queen consort began reorganisation of the government. Twelve new bureaus were established to deal with foreign relations with the West, China, and Japan. Other bureaus were established to supervise commerce. A bureau of the military was created, tasked to modernize weapons and techniques. Civilian departments were established to import Western technology. Meanwhile in September 1881,
13248-490: The queen consort arranged for 60 top Korean military students to be sent to Tientsin in Qing China where they were to study arms manufacturing and deployment. The Japanese volunteered to supply military students with rifles and train a unit of the Korean army to use them. She agreed but reminded the Japanese that students would still be sent to China for further education on Western military technologies. The modernisation of
13386-482: The queen consort had control over the court, where her own clan family members received high office. As queen consort she ruled along with her husband but was recognized as being more politically active than him. After Korean refusal to receive Japanese envoys announcing the Meiji Restoration , some Japanese aristocrats favored an immediate invasion of Korea. Upon the return of the Iwakura Mission , this idea
13524-462: The queen consort secretly formed a powerful faction against the Heungseon Daewongun. With the backing of high officials, scholars, and members of her clan, she desired to remove Daewongun from power. Min Seung-ho [ ko ] , the queen consort's adoptive older brother, along with court scholar Choe Ik-hyeon , devised a formal impeachment of Daewongun. The impeachment was to be presented to
13662-479: The queen consort was not accorded respect or honour as before. Discord between the queen consort and Daewongun became public when her infant son died in late 1871 four days after birth. Daewongun publicly accused her of being unable to bear a healthy male child. She suspected her father-in-law of foul play through the ginseng emetic treatment he had brought her. It seems likely the queen consort's intense distrust of her father-in-law dates from this time. Meanwhile
13800-537: The queen consort. These units stole rifles and killed Japanese training officers. They narrowly missed murdering the Japanese ambassador to Seoul, who escaped to Incheon, and thence to Japan where he was interviewed at court for an account of events. The military rebellion then headed towards the palace but both queen consort and the King escaped in disguise. They fled to her relative's villa in Cheongju , where they remained in hiding. Rumour supplied differing accounts of
13938-500: The queen rejected this role. Instead, she spent her time reading books written using Chinese characters, whose use in Korea was usually reserved for aristocratic men. Spring and Autumn Annals and its accompanying Zuo Zhuan are examples. She furthered her own education in history, science, politics, philosophy, and religion. By the age of twenty, the queen consort had begun to leave the total seclusion of her apartments at Changgyeonggung and to play an active part in politics. This
14076-401: The reform of Korea was not purely altruistic. Not only would these reforms enable Korea to resist foreign intrusion, which was in Japan's direct interest, but in being a conduit of change, they would also have opportunity to play a larger role on the peninsula. To Meiji leaders, the issue was not whether Korea should be reformed but how reform might be accomplished. There was a choice of adopting
14214-410: The regency). As soon as news of King Cheoljong's death reached Yi Ha-eung through his intricate network of spies in the palace, the hereditary royal seal required for the selection of a new monarch was taken to or by Grand Queen Dowager Hyoyu. She already was strictly entitled to make the appointment. She thereupon chose her great-grandson, Yi Myeong-bok. The Andong Kim clan was powerless to act because
14352-553: The result, she became a proponent of the Sadae faction which was pro-China and in favour of gradual westernisation. In 1884, the conflict between the Progressives and the Sadaes intensified. The Progressives, frustrated by the Sadaes and the growing influence of the Chinese, successfully conspired to secure the aid of Japanese Legation staff and troops. American Legation officials, in particular Naval Attaché George C. Foulk , heard about
14490-470: The rioters, the Japanese had been forced to pursue a reactive or passive policy. To many in the country, including Yamagata Aritomo , the lesson was clear — that a conscript army of forty thousand men was no longer adequate to Japan's needs and neither was a navy lacking transport ships to dispatch troops abroad: were hostilities to break out with Korea or China, the country would be in a serious predicament. In September 1882, Iwakura Tomomi had also informed
14628-462: The royal title of "Internal Princess Consort Haeryeong" ( 해령부부인 ; 海寧府夫人 ). On the day of their marriage ceremony, Gojong did not go to his wife's quarters to consummate the marriage, but to the quarters of concubine Royal Consort Yi Gwi-in of the Gyeongju Yi clan. This preference would later be approved by the Heungseon Daewongun. The first impression of the queen consort at the palace
14766-527: The scholar's daughter. She became Min Chi-rok's first wife, Lady Oh of the Haeju Oh clan . In 1833 Lady Oh died childless at the age of 36. After three years' mourning, Min Chi-rok in 1836 married Lady Yi of the Hansan Yi clan (later known as Internal Princess Consort Hanchang ). She was the daughter of Yi Gyu-nyeon. The future Empress was the fourth and only surviving child of Lady Yi. Before her marriage,
14904-682: The share of military spending had amounted to 19 percent of total government expenditures, in 1886 it had risen to 25 percent and by 1890 it stood at 31 percent. In 1883, plans called for a substantial expansion of the Imperial Japanese Army with twenty-eight infantry regiments, including four imperial guard regiments; seven cavalry battalions; seven field artillery battalions, each consisting of two field-gun battalions and one mountain-gun battalion; seven engineer battalions; and seven transport battalions. The proposed composition of forces with increased cavalry, engineer and transport units
15042-511: The situation, ordered that a month's allowance of rice be given to the soldiers. He directed Min Gyeom-ho, the overseer of government finances and the Queen Min's nephew, to handle the matter. Min, in turn, handed the matter over to his steward who sold the good rice he had been given and used the money to buy millet that he mixed with sand and bran. As a result, the rice became so rotten and foul smelling as being inedible. The distribution of
15180-415: The socially conservative yangban, the queen consort's plan meant the end of social order. Accordingly, the response to the distribution of Korean Strategy was a joint memorandum to the throne from scholars in every province of the kingdom. They stated that the ideas in the book were impractical theories, and that the adoption of Western technology was not the only way to enrich the country. They demanded that
15318-442: The treaty, the first concerned Korea's status as an independent nation. During the talks with the Americans, Li Hongzhang insisted that the treaty contain an article declaring that Korea was a dependency of China and argued that the country had long been a tributary state of China. But Shufeldt firmly opposed such an article, arguing that an American treaty with Korea should be based on the Treaty of Ganghwa, which stipulated that Korea
15456-404: The trip as an opportunity to introduce Korea to the rapidly changing world as demonstrated by Japanese reform efforts, the mission was treated as one of the occasional missions sent to Japan in the interests of "kyorin" ( neighborly relations ). Kim Ki-su did present the King with the journal of his observations, titled Iltong kiyu ( Record of a Journey to Japan ) It was another four years before
15594-468: The two parties but at a signal, Chinese troops burst into the room seized the Daewongun and put him into a palanquin . He was carried off to the warship Weiyuan and while still inside the palanquin, was taken to China. He was not released from the palanquin until the Weiyuan reached Tianjin . In Tianjian, he was interrogated by Li Hongzhang, who unsuccessfully tried to make him admit responsibility for
15732-518: The winter of 1895–1896 ordered Korean men to cut off their top-knot of hair. This caused uproar, because this style of hair was considered a badge of Korean identity. This topknot edict and the assassination provoked nationwide protests. Gojong and the Crown Prince (later Emperor Sunjong of Korea ) accepted refuge in the Russian legation in 1896. The anti-Japanese backlash led to the repeal of
15870-422: The wishes of the Japanese government, which was then in a position to insist on Korea opening to trade generally. There was precedent for this line of action in the behaviour of European powers and their extraction of the so-called Unequal Treaties . Whilst a majority of the royal Korean court favored absolute isolationism, Japan had demonstrated its willingness and capacity to use force. The deposed Daewongun took
16008-407: The wounded, then boarded a small boat and headed for the open sea where three days later they were rescued by a British surveyor ship, HMS Flying Fish . The day after the attack on the Japanese legation, on July 24, the rioters forced their way into the royal palace where they found and killed Min Gyeom-ho, as well as a dozen other high-ranking officers including Heungin-gun Yi Choe-Heung ,
16146-500: Was a believer in gradual modernisation using Western and Chinese help. From 1873 to her assassination in 1895 she oversaw economic, military and governmental modernisation. In the 1880s and 1890s the relationship between Joseon and neighbouring Japan deteriorated. The queen consort was considered an obstacle by the government of Meiji Japan to its overseas expansion. She took a firmer stand against Japanese influence after Daewongun's failed rebellions that were intended to remove her from
16284-691: Was an independent state. A compromise was finally reached, with Shufeldt and Li agreeing that the King of Korea would notify the U.S. president in a letter that Korea had special status as a tributary state of China. The treaty between Korean government and the United States became the model for all treaties between it and other Western countries. Korea, later signed similar trade and commerce treaties with Great Britain and Germany in 1883, with Italy and Russia in 1884, and with France in 1886. Subsequently, commercial treaties were concluded with other European countries. In 1881 as part of their plan to modernize Korea, King Gojong and his consort Queen Min had invited
16422-429: Was arrested by Chinese troops. On September 25, three high-ranking Chinese naval officers paid a courtesy call on the Daewongun and as they were leaving they asked him to attend an important meeting at their residence in the city. The Daewongun was obliged by rules of etiquette to return the call and went to the Chinese encampment the next day, as requested. Initially, there were the usual exchanges of politenesses between
16560-491: Was at the time too economically weak to be an immediate threat, to work closely with China, and seek an alliance with the United States as a counterweight to Russia. After returning to Korea, Kim presented the document to King Gojong, who was so impressed with the document that he had copies made and distributed to his officials. Many conservatives were outraged by the proposal to seek alliance with Western barbarians or even to maintain friendly relations with Japan. Some even plotted
16698-520: Was decided that Min Seung-ho, would become her father's heir. When Gojong reached the age of 15, his father began to seek a bride for his son. Ideally the choice would be a person without politically ambitious relatives and someone who was of noble lineage. After rejecting numerous candidates, the Daewongun's wife, Grand Internal Princess Consort Sunmok (known at the time as Grand Internal Princess Consort Yeoheung; Yeoheung Budaebuin ; 여흥부대부인 ; 驪興府大夫人 ) and his mother, Princess Consort Min, proposed
16836-558: Was headed by Min Yeong-ik , her adoptive nephew. The mission arrived at San Francisco on 2 September 1883 carrying the newly created Korean national flag . It visited U.S. historical sites, heard lectures on U.S. history, and attended a gala event in their honor given by the mayor of San Francisco and other U.S. officials. The mission dined in New York at the Fifth Avenue Hotel with President Chester A. Arthur , and discussed
16974-480: Was horrified by the violence of the Progressives. They effected seven murders of high-ranking Koreans. Clan leaders summoned to the palace by letters purporting to come from the King were beheaded on stepping out of their sedan chairs. Following suppression of the coup, the queen consort no longer trusted the Japanese. She refused to support the actions of the Progressives, declaring any documents signed in her name to be null and void. After only two days of control over
17112-494: Was intended to reorganize the army as a force capable of fighting on the continent. The Imperial Japanese Navy also developed its own plans with the expansion of the fleet to forty-two vessels, thirty-two of which would have to be newly constructed. Within the next two years, twelve new vessels were purchased or put under construction. Empress Myeongseong Empress Myeongseong ( Korean : 명성황후 ; Hanja : 明成皇后 ; 17 November 1851 – 8 October 1895)
17250-475: Was made in Tianjin, China, between the Japanese and the Chinese. In it, they both agreed to pull troops out of Joseon. Each party agreed it would send troops only if their property was endangered; each would inform the other before doing so. Both nations also agreed to pull out their military instructors so as to allow the newly arrived Americans to perform that task. The Japanese withdrew troops from Korea, leaving
17388-477: Was not at the invitation of Heungseon Daewongun and his high officials. Daewongun directed his son to conceive through the concubine Yi Gwi-in from the Yeongbo Hall ( 영보당귀인 이씨 ). On 16 April 1868, the concubine gave birth to Prince Wanhwa ( 완화군 ), to whom Daewongun gave the title of crown prince. It was said that Daewongun was overwhelmed with joy at the arrival of Gojong's first born son, and that afterwards
17526-410: Was of the utmost urgency to spend more on the navy even if this meant raising taxes. Even Finance Minister Matsukata Masayoshi , who had implemented the fiscal retrenchment policy, agreed that financial resources had to be found for a military and naval buildup if the international situation required. Spurred on by anxieties over China, Japanese military expenditures grew steadily in the 1880s. In 1880
17664-410: Was presented to, the visiting Koreans, the purpose of which was to change their whole approach towards modernisation through external contact. This paper, whose text survives in five differing forms, was written by Huang. It was entitled Korean Strategy and examined the strategic position of Korea in the context of its need for strength in the international situation of the day. The essence of its thesis
17802-457: Was quickly dropped because the new Japanese government was neither politically nor fiscally stable enough to start a war. When Heungseon Daewongun was ousted from politics, Japan renewed efforts to establish ties with Korea, but the Imperial envoy arriving at Dongnae in 1873 was turned away. In 1875 the Japanese gunboat Unyō was dispatched towards Busan and a second warship was sent to
17940-515: Was receptive. The Chinese were wary of the Japanese intentions and sought to thwart Japanese influence on the peninsula after the conclusion of the Gangwha Treaty. The United States provided a possible solution: Li concluded that if he encouraged Korea to enter into treaty talks with the Americans, China could use the United States to offset Japan's growing influence. The Americans had shown an interest in entering into treaty negotiations with
18078-410: Was satisfactory to the Japanese government. If the rioters were to make surprise attacks on the Japanese, they would then be compelled to use military force to against them, regardless of what measures the Korean government might have taken. Hanabusa was instructed that if the Koreans showed any signs of hiding the perpetrators and not punishing them or if they refused to take part in any discussions with
18216-457: Was that Russia was land-hungry and represented the primary threat to Korea. The Chinese, it argued, should be regarded as natural close allies from whom full independence was undesirable. Huang advised that Korea should adopt a pro-Chinese policy, while retaining close ties with Japan for the time being. He also advised an alliance with the United States in particular because it did not occupy the countries with which it traded, and because it would be
18354-530: Was that she was dutiful and docile. Over time, Daewongun changed his view of her. Officials noticed that the new queen consort differed from previous queens before her in her choices and determination. She did not participate in lavish parties, rarely commissioned extravagant fashions from the royal ateliers, and almost never hosted afternoon tea parties with the various princesses of the royal family or powerful aristocratic ladies unless politics required her to do so. Expected to act as an icon for Korea's high society,
18492-528: Was the official wife of Gojong , the 26th king of Joseon and the first emperor of the Korean Empire . During her lifetime, she was known by the name Queen Min ( 민비 ; 閔妃 ). After the founding of the Korean Empire, she was posthumously given the title of Myeongseong, the Great Empress ( 명성태황후 ; 明成太皇后 ). The later Empress was of aristocratic background and in 1866 was chosen by
18630-417: Was to persuade the Japanese that there was no need to open a Legation in Seoul and that the port of Incheon should not be opened. It arrived on 11 August 1880. While in Japan, Kim visited the Chinese embassy in Japan no less than six times. He met with the Chinese first envoy to Japan, He Ru-zhang, and his staff adviser, Huang Zunxian . In September 1880, a prepared paper was written for the benefit of, and
18768-475: Was too late, however, and the Korean mission by then had landed in Nagasaki in Japan. Thus in 1881, a large fact-finding mission was sent to Japan under Kim Hongjip . It stayed for seventy days observing Japanese government offices, factories, military and police organizations, and business practices. The visitors obtained information about innovations in the Japanese government copied from the West, especially
18906-458: Was trained along Chinese lines by Yuan Shikai . The Chinese further supervised the creation of a Korean Maritime Customs Service in 1883, with von Möellendorff as its head. Korea was again reduced to a tributary state of China with King Gojong unable to appoint diplomats without Chinese approval and troops stationed in Seoul in order to protect Chinese interests in the country. The Chinese government began to turn its former tributary state into
19044-517: Was used in place of currency. The rioters killed many government officials, destroyed homes of high government ministers and occupied the Changdeokgung . They also turned on the members of the Japanese legation in the city, who barely escaped aboard the British ship HMS Flying Fish . During the day of rioting, a number of Japanese were murdered, including military advisor Horimoto Reizo [ ja ] . The rioters also attacked
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