164-442: The wedge-tailed eagle ( Aquila audax ) also known as the eaglehawk , is the largest bird of prey in the continent of Australia . It is also found in southern New Guinea to the north and is distributed as far south as the state of Tasmania . Adults of the species have long, broad wings, fully feathered legs, an unmistakable wedge-shaped tail, an elongated upper mandible, a strong beak and powerful feet. The wedge-tailed eagle
328-672: A lammergeier might have killed Aeschylus by accident. Many stories of Brazilian indigenous peoples speak about children mauled by Uiruuetê, the Harpy Eagle in Tupi language . Various large raptors like golden eagles are reported attacking human beings, but its unclear if they intend to eat them or if they have ever been successful in killing one. Some fossil evidence indicates large birds of prey occasionally preyed on prehistoric hominids. The Taung Child , an early human found in Africa,
492-419: A visual perception some three times more acute than those of humans, one of the largest pecten oculi of any bird and an eye roughly as big as a small human's, they may be one of the most sharp-eyed birds in the world. The wedge-tailed eagle is largely sedentary as expected of a raptor dwelling in the subtropics , although they also dwell in the tropics (far northern Australia and New Guinea) as well as in
656-454: A distance or during flight, strong feet with sharp talons for grasping or killing prey, and powerful, curved beaks for tearing off flesh. Although predatory birds primarily hunt live prey, many species (such as fish eagles , vultures and condors ) also scavenge and eat carrion . Although the term "bird of prey" could theoretically be taken to include all birds that actively hunt and eat other animals, ornithologists typically use
820-983: A few generalist species, however the wedge-tailed eagle is the Aquila most likely to typically attack the largest prey. Generally, this species prefers to attack birds and reptiles weighing over 100 g (3.5 oz) and mammals weighing over 500 g (1.1 lb), although prey taken at times has varied from a few grams to more than sixteen times the weight of an individual eagle. A comparison estimate posited that around 2% of wedge-tailed eagle prey weighs less than 63 g (2.2 oz), 4% of their prey weighs 63 to 125 g (2.2 to 4.4 oz), 7% of their prey weighs 125 to 250 g (4.4 to 8.8 oz), 10% weighs 250 to 500 g (8.8 to 17.6 oz), 20% weighs 500 to 1,000 g (1.1 to 2.2 lb), 25% weighs 1,000 to 2,000 g (2.2 to 4.4 lb), 18% weighs 2,000 to 4,000 g (4.4 to 8.8 lb) and 14% weighs over 4,000 g (8.8 lb). Projected from this comparison,
984-736: A few months more, tend to disperse widely. Nesting failures are usually attributable to human interference, such as logging activity and other alterations, which both degrade habitats and cause disturbances. The species is known to be highly sensitive to human disturbance at the nest, which may lead to abandonment of the young. Although historically heavily persecuted by humans through poisoning and shooting , mostly for alleged predation on sheep , wedge-tailed eagles have proved to be exceptionally resilient, and their numbers have quickly rebounded to being similar or even higher numbers than before European colonisation , thanks in part to humans inadvertently providing several food sources, such as rabbits and
1148-435: A few studies of wedge-tailed eagle. One of the few habitat types considered to be strongly avoided by wedge-tailed eagles are areas intensively settled or cultivated areas . A slightly fading tendency to avoid human areas has been detected, perhaps as persecution rates have gone far down, and the wedge-tailed eagle may be seen near towns and villages in exurban and even suburban areas largely within bushland . However,
1312-467: A great deal of data is required. Dimorphisms can also be the product of intrasexual selection between males and females. It appears that both sexes of the species play a role in the sexual dimorphism within raptors; females tend to compete with other females to find good places to nest and attract males, and males competing with other males for adequate hunting ground so they appear as the most healthy mate. It has also been proposed that sexual dimorphism
1476-580: A huge male eastern grey kangaroo, estimated to stand 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) was successfully dispatched by a pair of wedge-tailed eagles. Furthermore, an adult female western grey kangaroo was witnessed to be killed “in a few minutes” by a hunting pair of wedge-tailed eagles, and the eagles are considered a serious predator of the western grey. In some unusual cases, wedge-tailed eagle hunting parties can form whilst hunting red kangaroos, sometimes including up to 15 eagles (more loose, opportunistic aggregations than well-organized groups ), but usually only
1640-400: A joey from the pouch to capture and fly off with it. In addition, several smaller and more elusive macropods are taken including tree-kangaroos , hare-wallabies , nail-tail wallabies , rock-wallabies , dorcopsises and pademelons . Other marsupials are by no means neglected. In Shark Bay , hare-wallabies and bettongs seem to form the central part of the diet. Another dietary favourite is
1804-634: A large volume of roadkill . The species was first described in 1801 by the English ornithologist John Latham , under the binomial name Vultur audax . At one time, the wedge-tailed eagle was classified in it is own monotypical genus Uroaetus , perhaps due to its unique form. Today, the genus Vultur is used only for a completely unrelated bird of the New World vulture family, the Andean condor ( Vultur gryphus ). The specific scientific name for
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#17327730523911968-465: A larger image to be projected onto the retina. The visual acuity of some large raptors such as eagles and Old World vultures are the highest known among vertebrates; the wedge-tailed eagle has twice the visual acuity of a typical human and six times that of the common ostrich , the vertebrate with the largest eyes. There are two regions in the retina, called the deep and shallow fovea, that are specialized for acute vision. These regions contain
2132-402: A long and markedly wedge-tipped tail. They have a large proportion of bare facial skin, which is thought to be an adaptation to the warm climate rather than carrion eating, because the non-carrion-eating Verreaux's eagle has similar facial feathering and the golden eagle eats carrion too. Against the blackish plumage, the tawny-rufous hackles on the neck, forming a lanceolated shape, as well as
2296-503: A long diamond-shaped tail. The shape is dissimilar to any other raptor in the world. Juveniles tend to be broader winged by comparison. The wingspan is around 2.2 times greater than the bird's total length. They tend to fly with rather loose but deep and powerful beats. Wedge-tailed eagles spend much time sailing along, looking quite stable and controlled even in strong winds. The species glides and soars on upswept wings with long splayed primaries. The ample tail may be upcurved, or "dished", at
2460-453: A massive bill but possess a relatively small and rather flat head, with a long, almost vulturine neck. Furthermore, they are distinctive for their prominent carpals and baggy feathered trousers. The species tends to perch conspicuously on dead trees, telegraph poles, rocks or, at times, the open ground. Between the bill size, elongated shape and prominent shoulders, the species is highly distinctive. While perched, their long wings extend down to
2624-560: A mean of 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) or up to 15 kg (33 lb) while fully grown sheep weighing some 40 to 50 kg (88 to 110 lb) are infrequently vulnerable, presumably in large part to hunting pairs of eagles. In the largest study of the Canberra area, 82.5% of diagnosable sheep specimens were adults but probably were by and large scavenged. Meanwhile, young pigs included in the diet were estimated to weigh around 14 kg (31 lb), and sometimes feral piglets are included in
2788-417: A month, before needing to hunt again, apparently due to the warmth of the environment. After feeding they may disgorge a relatively small pellet , 29 to 98 mm (1.1 to 3.9 in) long by 20 to 50 mm (0.79 to 1.97 in) wide and weighing some 8.8 g (0.31 oz). Usually the diet is determined from a combination of reviewing these pellets along with loose prey remains. The wedge-tailed eagle
2952-487: A negative to devastating effect on native animals and ecosystems, the wedge-tailed eagle is one of a few native species to largely benefit from these introductions. This is especially due to the introduction of the European rabbit , which were deliberately introduced repeatedly (abortively in 1859 and then via a concerted effect from 1937 to 1950), largely so the wealthy could hunt them. The wedge-tailed eagles quickly took to
3116-407: A pair is sufficient to kill such prey. Normally, the eagles repeatedly attack the kangaroo, sinking their talons into the back or nape and then fly up, when the second eagle starts doing the same. In some cases, as many as 123 attacks have been carried out against large kangaroos before they succumb. When attacking joeys, eagles may, in some cases, have intentionally caused a mother kangaroo to dislodge
3280-549: A separate clade, and are paraphyletic from the members of what can be called the golden eagle clade. Other related outliers from outside the Aquila genus, are the small-to-mid-sized Clanga or spotted eagle species, and the widely found and quite small Hieraeetus eagles. One member of the latter genus contains the only other widely found Aquilinae eagle in Australia, the little eagle ( Hieraaetus morphnoides ). Two subspecies of wedge-tailed eagle are recognised. However,
3444-527: A small amount, they average up to 33 per cent larger. A full-grown female weighs between 3.0 and 5.8 kg (6.6 and 12.8 lb), while the smaller males weigh 2 to 4 kg (4.4 to 8.8 lb). Total length varies between 81 and 106 cm (32 and 42 in) and the wingspan typically is between 182 and 232 cm (6 ft 0 in and 7 ft 7 in). In 1930, the average weight and wingspans of 43 birds were 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) and 204.3 cm (6 ft 8 in). The same average figures for
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#17327730523913608-412: A strikingly different looking juvenile plumage, which can in some species be nearly all white, but even where the differences are subtle between adults and immatures, usually some physical differences are noticeable such as white wing patches in traditional Aquila species, to visually distinguish young from adults. Many species have a notable head-crest, such as Nisaetus and most Spizaetus , with
3772-575: A survey of 126 eagles in 1932 were 3.63 kg (8.0 lb) and 226 cm (7 ft 5 in), respectively. According to one guide, the mean body mass of male wedge-tailed eagles is 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) while that of females is listed as 4.7 kg (10 lb), which, if accurate, is one of the most extreme examples of size sexual dimorphism known in any bird of prey. However, another sample showed far less stark size differences, with 29 males weighing an average of 3.13 kg (6.9 lb) and 29 females an average of 3.8 kg (8.4 lb). In
3936-425: A tree or by darting out in flight at close range for a brief tail-chase. Sometimes, an eagle may pull brushtail possums and other mammals from tree cavities , as well as young birds from a nest . They've been known to follow wildfires to search for fleeing animals or alternately tractors and other farm equipment for the same purpose. Wedge-tailed eagles occasionally pirate food from other predators. An eagle of
4100-499: A unique moult process in that they moult almost continuously and very slowly, and it might take three or more years for an eagle of the species to complete a moult. Moults are arrested only at times of famine, and happen gradually, so that they do not impede the bird's flight or hunting capacities. In flight, wedge-tailed eagles appear as a very large, dark raptor, with a protruding head, long and relatively narrow-looking wings, more or less parallel edged when soaring and, most distinctly,
4264-462: A wedge-tailed eagle at times, mostly pups, or carrion but sometimes a pair of eagles can kill adults too. Beyond sheep, pigs, and infrequently young goats ( Capra hircus ), other ungulate prey , entirely introduced by man into the Australasian region, is eaten exclusively as carrion so far as is known, including cattle ( Bos taurus - despite claims that eagles have killed young calves, which
4428-418: A wedge-tailed eagle often causes panic among smaller birds and, as a result, aggressive species such as magpies (one of the most vulnerable types of passerine to eagle attacks), butcherbirds , wagtails , monarch flycatchers , lapwings , and miners as well as smaller birds of prey , including both accipitrids and falcons , any of which may aggressively mob eagles (see video). Multiple species may join
4592-515: A wedge-tailed eagle still hunts from a perch. Unsuccessful hunts typically exceed in number successful ones. Hunting habitat can be highly variably and can manage to capture prey in both open country and quite thick woodland or forest, though typically require an open understory in the latter. Almost all its prey is taken on the ground but to a lesser extent it may be taken from the tree canopy . They've been known to take birds such as currawongs and cockatoos by coming around them by surprise around
4756-566: A wide range of mammals , birds , reptiles and amphibians as they become locally available or abundant (carrion is also rarely ignored). Species favoring more open habitats tend to hunt most often on the wing, using distance or hugging contours of the ground to surprise prey. Forest dwelling species are more likely to be perch-hunters, watching for prey activity from a high tree perch, but every kind of booted eagle can vary their hunting techniques when necessary. In cases where they become specialists, booted eagles tend to be mammal hunters, such as
4920-612: A young wedge-tailed eagle, are much paler below with a rather different flight pattern: a short pale tail, bare legs, shorter, broader wings held in stiff dihedral . In New Guinea, the Gurney's eagle is more similar than those species in form and build but the Gurney's is somewhat smaller and more compact than the wedge-tailed eagle with rich yellow feet, a rather shorter rounded or faintly wedge-tipped tail, shorter and relatively broader wings (in adaptation to more forest-living). Furthermore,
5084-399: A “ partial or irruptive migrant ”. However, while they are arguably irruptive, it does not fit the mould of a true migrant well since under normal circumstances adults are rather sedentary unless environmental changes force them to move. The wedge-tailed eagle is the only bird that has a reputation for not infrequently attacking hang gliders and paragliders , although other eagles including
Wedge-tailed eagle - Misplaced Pages Continue
5248-677: Is "booted eagle", although this is also the common name of a member of the subfamily. At one point, this subfamily was considered inclusive with the Buteoninae (commonly known as buzzards or buteonine hawks) based probably on some shared morphological characteristics. However, research on the DNA of the booted eagles has shown that they are a monophyletic group that probably have had millions of years of separation from other extant forms of accipitrid. The Aquilinae consists of medium-sized to very large species . Modern species range in mass from
5412-600: Is a deprecated superorder within Raptores, formerly composed of the orders Falconiformes and Strigiformes. The clade was invalidated after 2012. Falconiformes is now placed in Eufalconimorphae , while Strigiformes is placed in Afroaves . The order Accipitriformes is believed to have originated 44 million years ago when it split from the common ancestor of the secretarybird ( Sagittarius serpentarius ) and
5576-539: Is a dietary generalist, opportunistically capturing a wide range of prey species. Its prey spectrum is quite broad, with well over 200 prey species documented to be taken and even this includes very few prey only from secondary accounts from Tasmania and New Guinea. The wedge-tailed eagles tends to prefer smallish to fairly large mammals as prey. However, they not infrequently take ample numbers of both birds and reptiles , along with scarcely other prey taxon. Out of 21 accrued dietary studies, 61.3% of prey items by number in
5740-461: Is a major diet item, also; wedge-tails can spot the activity of ravens around a carcass from a great distance, and glide down to appropriate it. Carrion consumption is recorded in all season and contexts, although generally non-breeding birds are more likely to scavenge and young wedge-tailed eagles, even more so shortly post-dispersal, are thought to be far more likely to scavenge on carrion than adults generally. Wedge-tailed eagles are often seen by
5904-729: Is a simplified phylogeny of Telluraves which is the clade where the birds of prey belong to along with passerines and several near-passerine lineages. The orders in bold text are birds of prey orders; this is to show the paraphyly of the group as well as their relationships to other birds. Accipitriformes (hawks, vultures, and relatives) [REDACTED] Strigiformes (owls) [REDACTED] Coraciimorphae (woodpeckers, rollers, hornbills, etc.) [REDACTED] Cariamiformes (seriemas) [REDACTED] Falconiformes (falcons) [REDACTED] Psittacopasserae (parrots and songbirds) [REDACTED] A recent phylogenomic study from Wu et al. (2024) has found an alternative phylogeny for
6068-492: Is an order of telluravian birds consisting of the living seriemas and extinct terror birds . Jarvis et al. 2014 suggested including them in the category of birds of prey, and McClure et al. 2019 considered seriemas to be birds of prey. The Peregrine Fund also considers seriemas to be birds of prey. Like most birds of prey, seriemas and terror birds prey on vertebrates . However, seriemas were not traditionally considered birds of prey. There were traditionally classified in
6232-549: Is believed to have been killed by an eagle-like bird similar to the crowned eagle . The Haast's eagle may have preyed on early humans in New Zealand , and this conclusion would be consistent with Maori folklore . Leptoptilos robustus might have preyed on both Homo floresiensis and anatomically modern humans, and the Malagasy crowned eagle , teratorns , Woodward's eagle and Caracara major are similar in size to
6396-445: Is commonly believed that the dimorphisms found in raptors occur due to sexual selection or environmental factors. In general, hypotheses in favor of ecological factors being the cause for sexual dimorphism in raptors are rejected. This is because the ecological model is less parsimonious , meaning that its explanation is more complex than that of the sexual selection model. Additionally, ecological models are much harder to test because
6560-516: Is derived from the Latin word rapio , meaning "to seize or take by force". The common names for various birds of prey are based on structure, but many of the traditional names do not reflect the evolutionary relationships between the groups. Many of these English language group names originally referred to particular species encountered in Britain . As English-speaking people travelled further,
6724-615: Is exceeded in body mass by only a few eagles, especially the Steller's sea eagle and harpy eagle ( Harpia harpyja ) and somewhat by the Philippine eagle ( Pithecophaga jefferyi ), the white-tailed eagle ( Haliaeetus albicilla ) and the bald eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ). However, it rivals the Steller's and harpy eagles and is known to be exceeded only by the Philippine eagle in total length. The wedge-tailed eagle's wingspan
Wedge-tailed eagle - Misplaced Pages Continue
6888-540: Is extremely sharp. According to one study, wedge-tailed eagles had a hallux claw of 38.9 mm (1.53 in), ranging from 38.1 to 41 mm (1.50 to 1.61 in), in males 44.7 mm (1.76 in), ranging from 40.6 to 48.1 mm (1.60 to 1.89 in) in a sample of 10, in females. Another source listed the hallux claw of mainland Australian eagles as averaging 41 mm (1.6 in) in males and 46 mm (1.8 in) in females. Meanwhile, in Tasmanian eagles,
7052-413: Is likely, as in other accipitrids, in large part for surveying the territory and advertising their presence to other eagles. During the intense heat of the middle part of the day, it often soars high in the air, circling up on the thermal currents that rise from the ground below. Often when on the wing, it is scarcely visible to the human's naked eye. Their keen eyesight extends into ultraviolet bands. With
7216-411: Is merely the product of disruptive selection , and is merely a stepping stone in the process of speciation, especially if the traits that define gender are independent across a species. Sexual dimorphism can be viewed as something that can accelerate the rate of speciation. In non-predatory birds, males are typically larger than females. However, in birds of prey, the opposite is the case. For instance,
7380-457: Is one of 12 species of large, predominantly dark-coloured booted eagles in the genus Aquila found worldwide. Genetic research has clearly indicated that the wedge-tailed eagle is fairly closely related to other, generally large members of the Aquila genus. A large brown-to-black bird of prey, it has a maximum reported wingspan of 2.84 m (9 ft 4 in) and a length of up to 1.06 m (3 ft 6 in). The wedge-tailed eagle
7544-450: Is one of its native continent's most generalised birds of prey. They reside in most habitats present in Australia, ranging from desert and semi-desert to plains to mountainous areas to forest , even sometimes tropical rainforests . Preferred habitats, however, tend towards those that have a fairly varied topography including rocky areas , some open terrain and native woodlots such as Eucalyptus stands. The wedge-tailed eagle
7708-407: Is one of the world's most powerful avian predators. Although a true generalist , which hunts a wide range of prey, including birds , reptiles and, rarely, other taxa, the species is, by and large, a mammal predator. The introduction of the European rabbit ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) has been a boon to the wedge-tailed eagle and they hunt these and other invasive species in large volume, although
7872-566: Is possible, they have only ever been witnessed feeding on afterbirths and not harming calves), Javan rusa ( Rusa timorensis ) in New Guinea, sambar deer ( Rusa unicolor ) in northern Victoria and water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ) in the Northern Territory . In one instance, a young girl was apparently subject to a brief attack by a wedge-tailed eagle, in what was likely an attempted act of predation, near her rural home but
8036-461: Is the largest of any Aquila , and is exceeded amongst all eagles probably only by the white-tailed and Steller's sea eagles in average spread though its average (not maximum) wingspan is rivaled by that of the martial eagle. Among standard measurements, within the nominate subspecies, the wing chord of males may range from 553 to 667 mm (21.8 to 26.3 in) while that of the female is from 600 to 703 mm (23.6 to 27.7 in). In Tasmania,
8200-497: Is the only species of the subfamily north of Mexico ) and much of Eurasia including a majority of Europe , often along most mountainous terrains therein but also other land-based habitats with typically remote semi-open or hilly hunting grounds accessible. So-called "hawk-eagles" are forest dwelling booted eagle types largely represented by Spizaetus (in the neotropics ) and Nisaetus (in Asia ). Despite many similar features in
8364-489: Is typically avoided with glades and edge often sought out in forested areas. While they do occur in rich riparian woodlands , it is with relative scarcity despite this being where many other raptors of the nation concentrate. In the deserts of the Lake Eyre basin , they are often seen in gibber plains along treed watercourses and drainage basins , here often concentrated around Eucalyptus in stony creek beds . In
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#17327730523918528-433: Is usually grabbed via a pounce or snatch during a gliding flight or a tail-chase from low quartering or transect flights. Prey is not infrequently spotted from a soaring flight and they may undertake a long, slanting stoop towards it. They may be able to spot prey from farther than a kilometre given their keen vision. Its typical hunting style is not all-together dissimilar from that of golden or Verreaux's eagles. Occasionally,
8692-509: The African hawk-eagle ( Aquila spilogaster ) and the Cassin's hawk-eagle ( Aquila africanus ), the latter three having once been considered members of a different genus . Beyond the aforementioned species, based on genetic testing, the four other Aquila species, although outwardly similar to golden and wedge-tailed eagles, being large, dark and brownish, with long wings, are thought to form
8856-925: The Bensbach River and the Oriomo River . The wedge-tailed eagle lives in an extremely wide range of habitats. Although range is restricted relative to the golden eagle, it likely occupies a wider range of habitat types than likely any other Aquila eagle, and may outrival any booted eagle species in their use of diverse habitats, being somewhat more akin to habitat generalist raptors such as Buteo buzzards. Assorted habitats known to host wedge-tailed eagles includes open woodland , savanna , heathland , grasslands , desert edge and semi-desert , subalpine forests , montane grasslands and mountain peaks , not-too-dense tropical rainforests , monsoon forests , dwarf conifer forests , some wetlands as well as regularly forays to coastal areas, though normally along
9020-469: The IUCN . Four little-known forest dwelling species are classified in more severe status as Endangered : the Philippine hawk-eagle ( Nisaetus philippensis ), Pinsker's hawk-eagle ( Nisaetus pinskeri ), Javan hawk-eagle ( Nisaetus bartelsi ) and the black-and-chestnut eagle ( Spizaetus isidori ). A very different eagle, the steppe eagle , is also considered Endangered despite having been considered one of
9184-960: The Nuyts Archipelago , Groote Eylandt and the Tiwi Islands . In Tasmania, they may be found essentially throughout as well as some isles of the Kent Group , Bass Strait , Flinders Island and Cape Barren Island . In New Guinea, the wedge-tailed eagle is highly range restricted and can be found predominantly in the Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands and the general area around the Western Province , as well as in Indonesia Merauke Regency , with some isolated reports in Western New Guinea ,
9348-537: The black eagle ( Ictinaetus malaiensis ) feeds largely on the contents of birds' nests and squirrel dreys (the only hawk or owl specialized to do so). Most booted eagle species have relatively large feet and talons and can semi-regularly go after prey as large or larger than themselves, even smaller species can occasionally dispatch prey of up to two to three times their own weight. Rare attacks on large prey, such as ungulates , adult monkeys or medium-sized carnivores or other much larger animals, usually involve
9512-521: The common brushtail possum ( Trichosurus vulpecula ), weighing some 2.55 kg (5.6 lb), which was important supplemental prey in the Perth area and was the primary prey species on Kangaroo Island , at 33% of the diet there. Around Perth, other small, nocturnal marsupials were taken in some numbers including woylies ( Bettongia penicillata ) and southern brown bandicoots ( Isoodon obesulus ). The common ringtail possum ( Pseudocheirus peregrinus )
9676-575: The crowned eagle , which has a hallux-claw (or rear talon) of around 56 mm (2.2 in) about the same sized hallux-claw as the Philippine eagle ( Pithecophaga jefferyi ) (not part of the Aquilinae), which weighs on average nearly twice as much. The booted eagles also have extremely keen eyesight to enable them to spot potential prey from a distance. Booted eagles are varying in their habitats and habits, being found on every continent inhabited by accipitrids, which includes all continents with
9840-497: The kestrel is a type of falcon in which males are the primary providers, and the females are responsible for nurturing the young. In this species, the smaller the kestrels are, the less food is needed and thus, they can survive in environments that are harsher. This is particularly true in the male kestrels. It has become more energetically favorable for male kestrels to remain smaller than their female counterparts because smaller males have an agility advantage when it comes to defending
10004-641: The merlin ( Falco columbarius ). The taxonomy of Carl Linnaeus grouped birds (class Aves) into orders, genera, and species, with no formal ranks between genus and order. He placed all birds of prey into a single order, Accipitres , subdividing this into four genera: Vultur (vultures), Falco (eagles, hawks, falcons, etc.), Strix (owls), and Lanius (shrikes). This approach was followed by subsequent authors such as Gmelin , Latham and Turton . Louis Pierre Vieillot used additional ranks: order, tribe, family, genus, species. Birds of prey (order Accipitres) were divided into diurnal and nocturnal tribes;
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#173277305239110168-422: The niche that vultures do in other continents to some extent, albeit with considerably less specialization. Aggregations of wedge-tailed eagles may occur not infrequently at large carcasses, with up to 5–12 eagles or sometimes 20 gathering. A wedge-tailed eagle can gorge up to 1 to 1.5 kg (2.2 to 3.3 lb) at a sitting and, when fulfilled, can lasts for an unusual amount of time, for up to weeks or even
10332-458: The sandy desert areas of Western Australia , wedge-tailed eagles were once reasonably common but have largely vacated the region after the macropod prey they live off of there were all but hunted to extinction. Wedge-tailed eagles commonly occur from sea level up to about 2,000 m (6,600 ft) with seemingly no preference based on altitudinal level. A fairly pronounced liking for mountainous localities such as plateaus has been detected in
10496-469: The temperate zone (Tasmania). However, juveniles of the species can be quite dispersive. In some cases, they have moved to a recorded distance of some 836 to 868 km (519 to 539 mi). These extreme movements have been completed within 7 to 8 months after dispersal. More typically they move no farther than 200 km (120 mi) or so. The adult eagles can also be nomadic, though only in circumstances such as drought conditions. In turn this explains
10660-494: The 16th century when human colonizers killed off their primary prey, the moas . Beyond their typically large size, Aquilinae species have few outward shared characteristics as they are a fairly diverse subfamily. Nonetheless, every species shares the feature of their legs being covered in feathers. Only two buteonine hawks share this feature beyond the Aquilinae, in a presumed case of convergent evolution . Many species within
10824-552: The European hare is neither as widely established nor as prolifically taken as rabbits by wedge-tailed eagles but are by no means neglected and a substantial meal. With a mean body mass of 4 kg (8.8 lb), hares have been as much as nearly 10% of the local diet and up to 14% of prey biomass in studies. Rabbit haemorrhagic disease was deliberately introduced to control the population of rabbits subsequent to 1995, followed more effectively by introduction of myxoma virus to limit
10988-456: The Gurney's eagle has a much paler immature plumage. Although usually considered an island endemic, the Gurney's eagle is possibly capable of marine dispersals, as is the wedge-tailed eagle, that may lead to them to turn up in the forests of northern Australia and historical reports show that a rare vagrant of the species may indeed appear there. The Papuan eagle ( Harpyopsis novaeguineae ), the only other island raptor in New Guinea that approaches
11152-475: The Haast's eagle, implying that they similarly could pose a threat to a human being. Birds of prey have incredible vision and rely heavily on it for a number of tasks. They utilize their high visual acuity to obtain food, navigate their surroundings, distinguish and flee from predators, mating, nest construction, and much more. They accomplish these tasks with a large eye in relation to their skull, which allows for
11316-472: The Torres Straits. However, it can be projected from its presence in various offshore islands its capacity for crossing straits ranging up to as far as 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) apart. One post dispersal young eagle was observed to distribute from Kangaroo Island to the mainland, possibly a regular occurrence. Due to their tendency for wandering, some authors class the wedge-tailed eagles as
11480-489: The accipitrid species. The phylogeny of Accipitriformes is complex and difficult to unravel. Widespread paraphylies were observed in many phylogenetic studies. More recent and detailed studies show similar results. However, according to the findings of a 2014 study, the sister relationship between larger clades of Accipitriformes was well supported (e.g. relationship of Harpagus kites to buzzards and sea eagles and these latter two with Accipiter hawks are sister taxa of
11644-664: The attack was abandoned by the eagle. It has been noted that some different species of large eagles are thought to occasionally attack children as prey though, among extant species, only the crowned eagle and martial eagle , both in Africa, are thought to have successfully carried out rare acts of predation on human children. Bird of prey Birds of prey or predatory birds , also known as raptors , are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals , reptiles and other smaller birds). In addition to speed and strength, these predators have keen eyesight for detecting prey from
11808-414: The back and wing band. The wing band is considerably more prominent than those of adults, extending to the median and sometimes the lesser coverts. Rarely, a juvenile may be all dull black, lacking rufous edges or a wing band. Young eagles are much the same by the second through to the fourth years though they may be almost invariably visibly in moult and with a narrowing wing band. They become darker around
11972-697: The bills of birds of prey shown by hunters. In Britain, kites and buzzards were seen as destroyers of game and killed, for instance in 1684–5 alone as many as 100 kites were killed. Rewards for their killing were also in force in the Netherlands from 1756. From 1705 to 1800, it has been estimated that 624087 birds of prey were killed in a part of Germany that included Hannover, Luneburg, Lauenburg and Bremen with 14125 claws deposited just in 1796–97. Many species also develop lead poisoning after accidental consumption of lead shot when feeding on animals that had been shot by hunters. Lead pellets from direct shooting that
12136-531: The biogeographic realms of the Southern Hemisphere. The appearance of migratory behaviour occurred in the tropics parallel with the range expansion of migratory species to temperate habitats. Similar results of southern origin in other taxonomic groups can be found in the literature. Distribution and biogeographic history highly determine the origin of migration in birds of prey. Based on some comparative analyses, diet breadth also has an effect on
12300-497: The biomass. Although it can be highly difficult, attempts have been made at parsing out whether the eagles had indeed killed the lambs rather than just lifting or dismantling them after finding them dead, as this eagle quite readily comes to carrion. The findings were that of 29 diagnosable lamb deaths in northwest Queensland, only 34.5% were due to eagle attacks. The wedge-tailed eagle is at times capable of taking very substantial livestock animals, lambs taken have been estimated to weigh
12464-532: The birds have escaped from also cause reduced fitness and premature deaths. Some evidence supports the contention that the African crowned eagle occasionally views human children as prey, with a witness account of one attack (in which the victim, a seven-year-old boy, survived and the eagle was killed), and the discovery of part of a human child skull in a nest. This would make it the only living bird known to prey on humans, although other birds such as ostriches and cassowaries have killed humans in self-defense and
12628-523: The clade containing Aquilinae and Harpiinae). The diurnal birds of prey are formally classified into six families of two different orders (Accipitriformes and Falconiformes). These families were traditionally grouped together in a single order Falconiformes but are now split into two orders, the Falconiformes and Accipitriformes . The Cathartidae are sometimes placed in a separate order Cathartiformes . Formerly, they were sometimes placed in
12792-544: The coasts they occur around plains somewhat away from the water. Favored habitat tends to be remote or rough country, at least partially wooded and not uncommonly varied with some rocky spots as well as in shrubland . Wedge-tailed eagles seem to prefer some dead trees to be present. They may occur around Eucalyptus woodland quite regularly, as well as Acacia woodland and mixed woodlands of Casuarina cristata - Flindersia maculosa - Callitris cypresses and also stands of Casuarina cunninghamiana . A strong preference
12956-528: The considerable dependence of Spanish imperial eagle ( Aquila adalberti ) on rabbits , of breeding steppe eagle ( Aquila nipalensis ) on sousliks or Verreaux's eagle ( Aquila verreauxii ) on hyraxes . Exceptions include the Ayres's hawk-eagle ( Hieraaetus ayresii ) and, to a lesser extent, the rufous-bellied eagle ( Lophotriorchis kienerii ), both of which are smallish, swift-flying bird-hunting specialists who dive ( falcon -like) on woodland birds while
13120-754: The continent, such as the Lake Eyre Basin . Offshore, the wedge-tailed eagle may be distributed in several of the larger Australian islands and some of the smaller ones. Those include a majority of the Torres Strait Islands , Albany Island , Pipon Island , the isles of Bathurst Bay , many small isles in Queensland, from Night Island down to the South Cumberland Islands , Fraser Island , Moreton Island , North Stradbroke Island , Montague Island , Kangaroo Island ,
13284-465: The damage rabbits have inflicted on native vegetation and resultingly have competed native mammals like wallabies out of parts of their range. Ultimately, the rabbit population may have more than halved and locally have been some 90% reduced. As a matter of consensus, the wedge-tailed eagles do not appear to be adversely affected in major ways by the biological control of rabbits since they can revert to primarily taking native prey species quite readily. In
13448-421: The diet by number in various studies. One Canberra study found that 98.5% of the rabbits taken were adults. In the largest study near Canberra, over 5.5 years, 19.3% of the diet of wedge-tailed eagles was rabbits (12.7% of prey biomass) among 1421 prey items, so the eagles took a total of some 275 rabbits in the 11 to 17 studied territories of the area. A study estimated that mean weight of wild rabbits in Australia
13612-399: The diet. When attacking lambs, the wedge-tailed eagles are apparently capable of driving their talons into the skull of the victim, although more typically they land along the back and grip the lamb along the spine until it weakens and collapses while flapping the wings for balance. This species will also land between a ewe or female pig and their respective lambs or piglets in order to separate
13776-438: The dogs bark or leap then floating up until the dog settles and then repeating the “game”. Flocking behaviour has been noted, similar to that of vultures ( Cathartidae and Accipitridae ) in other countries, when carrion is available. The wedge-tailed eagle is one of the world's most powerful avian predators. Due to its formidable and dominating nature, it is sometimes nicknamed “King of Birds”, along with golden eagles. Prey
13940-412: The edges. The eagle often spreads its deep wing emarginations to reduce drag in high winds. Contrary to their superlative and controlled appearance once on the wing, flight for wedge-tailed eagles can be a struggle even in normal circumstances, unless from it is from a pinnacle or it is somewhat windy and, within the forest, they may clamber about, with a "lack of grace", to reach the canopy. Gorged birds on
14104-439: The evolution of migratory behaviour in this group, but its relevance needs further investigation. The evolution of migration in animals seems to be a complex and difficult topic with many unanswered questions. A recent study discovered new connections between migration and the ecology, life history of raptors. A brief overview from abstract of the published paper shows that "clutch size and hunting strategies have been proved to be
14268-418: The exception of Antarctica . They may inhabit nearly all of the world's terrestrial habitats, with the majority of species being largely forest dwelling, but several preferring all kinds of open habitat from steppe to prairie to tundra as well as most rocky or mountainous areas. By far the widest ranging species of booted eagle is the golden eagle , which is distributed in most of North America (where it
14432-471: The existing literature combining anatomical, genetic, and behavioural studies showed that, in general, raptors have functional olfactory systems that they are likely to use in a range of different contexts. Birds of prey have been historically persecuted both directly and indirectly. In the Danish Faroe Islands , there were rewards Naebbetold (by royal decree from 1741) given in return for
14596-484: The exposed culmen may range from 37.5 to 61.6 mm (1.48 to 2.43 in) in males and 46.3 to 65.1 mm (1.82 to 2.56 in) in females while total bill length (from the gape ) is from 55 to 67 mm (2.2 to 2.6 in) and 58.2 to 73 mm (2.29 to 2.87 in), in the sexes respectively. It is likely to be the largest billed Aquila , a bit ahead of the imperial eagles and the Verreaux's eagle, behind only
14760-493: The familiar names were applied to new birds with similar characteristics. Names that have generalised this way include: kite ( Milvus milvus ), sparrowhawk or sparhawk ( Accipiter nisus ), goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ), kestrel ( Falco tinninculus ), hobby ( Falco subbuteo ), harrier (simplified from "hen-harrier", Circus cyaneus ), buzzard ( Buteo buteo ). Some names have not generalised, and refer to single species (or groups of closely related (sub)species), such as
14924-399: The feature being most extreme in the long-crested eagle ( Lophaetus occipitalis ). Like most accipitrids, they have large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs and powerful talons . Compared to other large raptors, the feet and talons of booted eagle species are often particularly large and powerful relative to their size. The most extreme example seems to be
15088-460: The fifth year, with a red-brown nape and a still narrowing wing band. Full mature plumage is not attained until the seventh or eighth year, although sexual maturity can be considered as early as five. Adults have dark brown eyes, while juveniles usually have similar but slightly darker eyes. Wedge-tailed eagles are typically creamy white on the cere and feet, although those can be dull yellow, more so in juveniles than adults. The wedge-tailed eagle has
15252-403: The foods during nesting efforts were mammals, 21.6% were birds, 13.2% were reptiles, 2.1% by invertebrates , principally insects , 1.5% by fish , and almost no amphibians by number. Meanwhile, out of the 21, 13 studies calculated estimated biomass , and found that just shy of 90% of prey biomass was made of by mammals, 6.2% by birds and 3.4% by reptiles. Out of the Aquila genus, it is one of
15416-550: The golden eagle have also been recorded to behave thusly. Based on the response the eagles show to the gliders, they presumably are defending their territory and treating the perceived intruder like another eagle. Cases are recorded of the birds damaging the fabric of these gliders with their talons as well as some other parts of the gliding apparatus, but not the humans themselves, has been reported. They have also been reported to attack and destroy unmanned aerial vehicles used for mining survey operations in Australia. The presence of
15580-414: The ground can be vulnerable, being practically grounded, which was an advantage historically to Aboriginal hunters . Human gliders have encountered wedge-tailed eagles at more than 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The adult is all blackish on the wing but for the tawny-rufous nape and greyish wing band (running less than a quarter of the way down the wing's width). Little relieves the dark coloration below but
15744-568: The ground for long periods of time or watch from a lower point, such as on termite mounds or anthills . Now and then, it takes off from its perch to fly low over its territory. Especially whilst not breeding, wedge-tailed eagles spends a considerable amount of the day on the wing. Wedge-tailed eagles are highly aerial, soaring for hours on end without wingbeat and seemingly without effort, regularly reaching 1,800 m (5,900 ft) and sometimes considerably higher. The purpose of soaring has received little specific study in wedge-tailed eagles, but it
15908-492: The ground. As is typical in many raptorial birds, pair bonds are strong between males and females and in many booted eagle species, they may mate for life. Primarily females incubate the egg and brood the young, while males usually have the responsibility of food capture. Clutch sizes are usually small in booted eagles, rarely more than 3 eggs are laid, and most parents will manage to produce only one to two fledglings depending on species. In most booted eagles, beyond threats from
16072-406: The hallux claw averaged 45.2 mm (1.78 in), ranging from 38.6 to 48.8 mm (1.52 to 1.92 in) in males while in females, the hallux claw averaged 49.9 mm (1.96 in), ranging from 45.5 to 55.6 mm (1.79 to 2.19 in). In terms of osteological structure and size, the wedge-tailed eagle is said to be proportional to other eagles, being notably smaller and less robust than
16236-517: The heavier two Aquila and crowned eagles and they can rival the tail lengths of the Philippine and the Harpiinae eagles, Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagles are quite likely to be the longest-tailed of all modern eagles. The length of the tarsus may be from 99 to 139.9 mm (3.90 to 5.51 in). The tarsus of 7 males averaged 104.3 mm (4.11 in) while that of 7 females averaged 111.1 mm (4.37 in). In terms of bill measurements,
16400-442: The heaviest eagles, such as Steller's and harpies, but fairly similar in osteology, in both structure and proportions, to the golden eagle. Their unique combination of large size, lanky build, long, diamond-shaped tail (though can be round-ended when both central feathers are moulted together), mainly black or rather dark plumage, and long wings seen when soaring or gliding make all ages of the wedge-tailed eagle fairly unmistakable in
16564-400: The highest density of photoreceptors, and provide the highest points of visual acuity. The deep fovea points forward at an approximate 45° angle, while the shallow fovea points approximately 15° to the right or left of the head axis. Several raptor species repeatedly cock their heads into three distinct positions while observing an object. First, is straight ahead with their head pointed towards
16728-459: The highly acute deep fovea. Like all birds, raptors possess tetrachromacy , however, due to their emphasis on visual acuity, many diurnal birds of prey have little ability to see ultraviolet light as this produces chromatic aberration which decreases the clarity of vision. Aquilinae About 10, see article The Aquilinae are a subfamily of eagles of the family Accipitridae . The general common name used for members of this subfamily
16892-748: The kerfuffle and mob them, especially while the eagles perched, often engaging in noisy calling, presumably meant to disorient the predator, and occasionally in physical attacks against the eagle, typically focused where the big, relatively lumbering eagles could not grasp the attacking birds. The wedge-tailed eagle usually does not engage its tormentors but sometimes rolls in the air to present talons whether perched or not. Sometimes wedge-tailed eagles appear to fight but this and other behaviours, especially between young eagles, may be interpreted as playful. Some such behaviours have included fetching sticks tossed by others, athletic flipping between juvenile eagles and even playing games with dogs , via floating above them until
17056-441: The larger Haliaeetus and Philippine eagles amongst all eagles. In Tasmania, culmen lengths averaged 48.4 mm (1.91 in) in males and 51.4 mm (2.02 in) in females while the total length of the bill averaged 59.4 mm (2.34 in) and 63.2 mm (2.49 in). The hallux claw , the enlarged rear talon on the hind toe, is slightly smaller than that of a golden or Verreaux's eagle, even proportionately, but
17220-421: The larger species of booted eagle, whereas such attacks are exceptionally rare to non-existent in eagles of other lineages. At least four large booted eagles have been known to dispatch prey weighing 30 kg (66 lb) or more. Booted eagles, like almost all raptorial birds, are strongly territorial and tend to maintain expansive home ranges against conspecifics. Given their need for ample hunting ranges,
17384-461: The largest eagles in the world, but its wings , at more than 65 cm (26 in), and tail , at up to 45 cm (18 in), are unusually elongated for its body weight, and nine or ten other eagle species regularly outweigh it. It is around the third heaviest Aquila species, outsized only somewhat by the golden eagle and slightly by the Verreaux's eagle , although it only slightly exceeds
17548-438: The latter for attack. Wedge-tailed eagles are also known to at times prey on another animal introduced for human hunting purposes, the red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), which can form up to about 4% of an eagle's breeding diet and 5% of the biomass, weighing up to 9 kg (20 lb). In Canberra, about 59% of the foxes found in the diet were adults. Additionally, feral cats , mainly juveniles, can be part of their prey. Presumably,
17712-546: The main call is sometimes considered to have a "melancholy" quality. The opinion on their call is not dissimilar to the golden eagle, whose voice is similarly considered unimpressive. Female calls in wedge-tailed eagles are similar but are generally lower and harsher than males. Wedge-tailed eagles are found throughout Australia (including Tasmania), as well as southern New Guinea, in almost all habitats, though they tend to be more common in favourable habitat in southern and eastern Australia. In Australia, they may be found almost all
17876-418: The majority of their range. The only main confusion species is often the black-breasted kite ( Hamirostra melanosternon ), which is surprisingly similar in colouring but is much smaller with a relatively short, squared tail and extensive clear white windows covering a good part of their wings. Juveniles of the white-bellied sea eagle ( Haliaeetus leucogaster ), at times mentioned as potentially confusable with
18040-550: The mean prey size for wedge-tailed eagles is estimated at 1,750 g (3.86 lb), similar but just slightly ahead of the Verreaux's eagle and some 14% ahead of the golden eagle global mean prey size. Further studies estimated mean prey weight, showing the mean prey weigh in the Canberra - Australian Capital Territory region in three different studies was estimated to be 1,298 g (2.862 lb), 2,131 g (4.698 lb) and 2,890 g (6.37 lb), changing likely due to
18204-603: The most important variables in shaping distribution areas, and also the geographic dissimilarities may mask important relationships between life history traits and migratory behaviours. The West Palearctic-Afrotropical and the North-South American migratory systems are fundamentally different from the East Palearctic-Indomalayan system, owing to the presence versus absence of ecological barriers." Maximum entropy modelling can help in answering
18368-556: The most numerous of all eagles after a disastrous, ongoing decline mostly due to electrocutions from dangerous powerlines, poisonings and increasing steppe fires around nests, these killing them off en masse while breeding and migrating. An even more drastic classification of Critically Endangered was given to the Flores hawk-eagle ( N. floris ). In all five endangered hawk-eagles, near epidemic levels of forest habitat degradation , primarily direct deforestation , has been determined as
18532-821: The narrower definition followed in this page, excluding many piscivorous predators such as storks , cranes , herons , gulls , skuas , penguins , and kingfishers , as well as many primarily insectivorous birds such as passerines (e.g. shrikes ), nightjars , frogmouths , songbirds such as crows and ravens , alongside opportunistic predators from predominantly frugivorous or herbivorous ratites such as cassowaries and rheas . Some extinct predatory telluravian birds had talons similar to those of modern birds of prey, including mousebird relatives ( Sandcoleidae ), and Messelasturidae indicating possible common descent . Some Enantiornithes also had such talons, indicating possible convergent evolution , as enanthiornithines weren't even modern birds . The term raptor
18696-444: The nest and hunting. Larger females are favored because they can incubate larger numbers of offspring, while also being able to brood a larger clutch size. It is a long-standing belief that birds lack any sense of smell, but it has become clear that many birds do have functional olfactory systems . Despite this, most raptors are still considered to primarily rely on vision, with raptor vision being extensively studied. A 2020 review of
18860-420: The nest and in aerial display, and can be hard to hear unless at close range. The commonest calls for wedge-tailed eagles are high, rather thin whistles, sometimes transcribed as I-see, I-see followed by a short descending see-tya . Also documented during the breeding season are various other whistles, yelps and squeals and an often rolling series. Characteristically, all their calls are surprisingly weak, though
19024-655: The nest determined that seemingly freshly killed, albeit usually quite young macropods were delivered to nests near Broken Hill . As much as 20% to 30% of the diet can be made up of by macropods. Large and prominent species are known including the grey kangaroos and the red kangaroo ( Osphranter rufus ). Generally, juveniles are targeted of these large species with eastern grey kangaroos ( Macropus giganteus ) estimated to weigh 17.2 to 20 kg (38 to 44 lb) when taken by wedge-tailed eagles, in Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales, while
19188-629: The object. Second and third are sideways to the right or left of the object, with their head axis positioned approximately 40° adjacent to the object. This movement is believed to be associated with lining up the incoming image to fall on the deep fovea. Raptors will choose which head position to use depending on the distance to the object. At distances as close as 8m, they used primarily binocular vision. At distances greater than 21m, they spent more time using monocular vision. At distances greater than 40m, they spent 80% or more time using their monocular vision. This suggests that raptors tilt their head to rely on
19352-470: The oldest dates published so far in the case of birds of prey. For example, a previous reconstruction of migratory behaviour in one Buteo clade with a result of the origin of migration around 5 million years ago was also supported by that study. Migratory species of raptors may have had a southern origin because it seems that all of the major lineages within Accipitridae had an origin in one of
19516-412: The order Ciconiiformes . The secretary bird and/or osprey are sometimes listed as subfamilies of Acciptridae: Sagittariinae and Pandioninae, respectively. Australia's letter-winged kite is a member of the family Accipitridae , although it is a nocturnal bird. The nocturnal birds of prey—the owls —are classified separately as members of two extant families of the order Strigiformes : Below
19680-503: The order Gruiformes . And they are still not considered birds of prey in general parlance. Their bodies are also shaped completely differently from birds of prey. They have long legs and long necks. While secretarybirds also have long legs, they otherwise resemble raptors. Seriemas do not. Their beak is hooked, but too long. Migratory behaviour evolved multiple times within accipitrid raptors. The earliest event occurred nearly 14 to 12 million years ago. This result seems to be one of
19844-847: The other eagle distracts and drives the prey towards it. When hunting domesticated prey, they've been seen to land near livestock mothers to intimidate them and separate their young, so they can attack the latter. Sometimes, wedge-tailed eagles may use fences to limit a prey's escape routes. In some cases, these eagles will attempt to force large prey such as kangaroos and dingos to fall off steep hillsides and injure themselves. At times, wedge-tailed eagles appear to hunt at earliest light or late twilight in order to come upon nocturnal prey such as hare-wallaby and bettongs . These eagles have been seen removing rabbits from traps and eating carrion in bright moonlight as well. At times, remarkably, wedge-tailed eagles have been covering large prey with vegetation, apparently to cache food too heavy to carry. Carrion
20008-1049: The outside world, most eggs are laid and hatched at intervals, thus one sibling is usually considerably bigger and often kills its younger siblings. While brood size and fledgling rates are typically low, booted eagles may have even lower productivity due to the long dependence period of the young relying on their parents for food and protection, and some species may only nest every other year. Due to their large territories and low productivity, most booted eagle species are sparsely distributed and not infrequently uncommon-to-rare even in regional strongholds where ample habitat remains. Booted eagle species tend to be highly sensitive to human activities, mainly habitat alteration or destruction, human disturbance, collision with man made objects (especially non-insulated electrical pylons and wind turbines), accidental or intentional killing of staple prey species and various forms of persecution by humans. Due mainly to these factors, seven species of booted eagle are currently classified as Vulnerable to extinction by
20172-813: The owls remained monogeneric (family Ægolii, genus Strix ), whilst the diurnal raptors were divided into three families: Vulturini, Gypaëti, and Accipitrini. Thus Vieillot's families were similar to the Linnaean genera, with the difference that shrikes were no longer included amongst the birds of prey. In addition to the original Vultur and Falco (now reduced in scope), Vieillot adopted four genera from Savigny: Phene , Haliæetus , Pandion , and Elanus . He also introduced five new genera of vultures ( Gypagus , Catharista , Daptrius , Ibycter , Polyborus ) and eleven new genera of accipitrines ( Aquila , Circaëtus , Circus , Buteo , Milvus , Ictinia , Physeta , Harpia , Spizaëtus , Asturina , Sparvius ). Falconimorphae
20336-428: The pale based primaries with black tips. Above, the juvenile bears much paler and more sandy rufous colour from the head to at least upper mantle and along broad wing band (as well as more than half the wing width). The lighter dorsal colour sometimes extends to much of the back and scapulars. Rare individual juvenile eagles are dull black, without a wing band or paler edges. With much variation in individuals, generally as
20500-422: The pale brown to rufous crissum , and narrow mottled grey-brown band across the greater wing coverts, all stand out well. The sexes are indistinguishable by plumage. The juvenile is mainly darkish brown, with extensive rufous feather edging, and a paler, fairly streaky head. Furthermore, the juvenile has a lighter-brown crissum, and a light reddish-brown to golden nape, with similar colouring extending sometimes to
20664-417: The pale brown to rufous crissum and the pale greyish bases to their flight feathers . Juvenile wedge-tailed eagles appear much browner although in general are not dissimilar in pattern below though the body and wings relative to adult. However, juveniles may show some paler mottling, of an off-rufous colour. Meanwhile, the juvenile's tail and most flight feathers are barred greyish which in turn contrast against
20828-833: The placement of the birds of prey. Their analysis has found support in a clade consisting of the Strigiformes and Accipitriformes in new clade Hieraves . Hieraves was also recovered to be the sister clade to Australaves (which it includes the Cariamiformes and Falconiformes along with Psittacopasserae ). Below is their phylogeny from the study. Coraciimorphae (woodpeckers, rollers, hornbills, etc.) [REDACTED] Strigiformes (owls) [REDACTED] Accipitriformes (hawks, vultures, and relatives) [REDACTED] Cariamiformes (seriemas) [REDACTED] Falconiformes (falcons) [REDACTED] Psittacopasserae (parrots and songbirds) [REDACTED] Cariamiformes
20992-443: The prey spectrum. Occasionally, an eagle may take a monotreme including both the platypus ( Ornithorhynchus anatinus ) and the short-beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ). Several species of rat are readily taken and even the house mouse ( Mus musculus ), likely the smallest mammalian prey known for wedge-tailed eagles at around 20 g (0.71 oz) in weight. Although rare, a dingo ( Canis familiaris ) may be taken by
21156-429: The primary historic driver for the persecution of the species. However, in no known study have domestic livestock been known to be primary prey. The closest association with them was in northwestern Queensland where lambs ( Ovis aries ) made up 32.7% of prey in pellets and 17.1% in remains, accounting for 15–21% of the prey biomass, while juvenile pigs ( Sus scrofa domesticus ) made up 7.3% of pellet remains and 22% of
21320-489: The primary native prey of wedge-tailed eagles is marsupials , particularly macropods , which is also in accord with studies involving places where rabbits have declined or never occurred. Many wallabies, kangaroos, and associated animals are included in the diet, with over 50 marsupials known to be in the species’ prey spectrum. When selecting marsupials, wedge-tailed eagles tend to ignore smaller species and focus on larger-sized ones. However, they generally most often take alive
21484-701: The pygmy and wedge-tailed eagles, respectively. The record sizes for wild booted eagles are 7.7 kg (17 lb) for a golden eagle in body mass and 2.84 m (9 ft 4 in) for a wedge-tailed eagle in wingspan. Dwarfing these species, the booted eagle species Haast's eagle ( Hieraaetus moorei ) of New Zealand , was probably the most massive species ever known in the entire accipitrid family, with females averaging an estimated 10 to 14 kg (22 to 31 lb) and perhaps weighing up to 17 kg (37 lb) and measuring up to about 140 cm (55 in) long, while males weighed an estimated 9 to 12 kg (20 to 26 lb). The Haast's eagle went extinct by
21648-464: The question: why species winters at one location while the others are elsewhere. Temperature and precipitation related factors differ in the limitation of species distributions. "This suggests that the migratory behaviours differ among the three main migratory routes for these species" which may have important conservational consequences in the protection of migratory raptors. Birds of prey (raptors) are known to display patterns of sexual dimorphism . It
21812-524: The rabbits as prey along with another introduced leporid, the European hare ( Lepus europaeus ). In almost every part of Australia, these eagles take rabbits in some numbers and they usually constitute the bulk of the prey species in most, if not all, Australian food studies. In some dietary studies rabbits have accounted for up to 89.2% of the diet by number and 86% by biomass, as in Bacchus Marsh , however they more typically range from 16% to 49% of
21976-646: The recently recognized pygmy eagle ( Hieraaetus weiskei ) of Papua New Guinea , which weighs about 500 g (1.1 lb), to the martial eagle ( Polemaetus bellicosus ) and golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ), which both weigh about 4.2 kg (9.3 lb) on average. In wingspan, extant Aquilinae range from the pygmy eagle, with a median of 1.18 m (3 ft 10 in), to the wedge-tailed eagle ( Aquila audax ) and martial eagles, which average about 2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) and 2.12 m (6 ft 11 in) in wingspan, respectively. Total length can vary from 38 to 106 cm (15 to 42 in), in
22140-531: The region of Broken Hill , White Cliffs and Cunnamulla , rabbits have gone down from accounting for 56–69% of the diet to 16–31% of it. Furthermore, wedge-tailed eagles have been known to successfully maintain population in the absence of any rabbits in a few areas. Much more controversial at one time than hunting introduced rabbits and hares is the wedge-tailed eagle's occasional tendency to feed on and sometimes kill domesticated livestock animals. The predation of wedge-tailed eagles on young farm animals has been
22304-512: The roadside in rural Australia, feeding on animals that have been killed in collisions with vehicles. The importance of carrion relative to live prey has not been greatly studied but away from human development, especially roads, carrion is less likely to be encountered and eagles of all ages must presumably hunt to survive. In general, Australian accipitrids of many species not infrequently come to carrion and they along with large passerines like Corvus species and currawongs probably fulfill
22468-515: The same radiation across the Indo-Pacific region. The wedge-tailed, Gurney's and Verreaux's eagles form a clade or a species complex with the well-known golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ), the most widely distributed species in the entire accipitrid family, as well as outwardly dissimilar (smaller and paler-bellied yet also powerful) eagles like the Bonelli's eagle ( Aquila fasciata ),
22632-678: The same sample, from the Nullarbor Plain , males averaged wingspan of 193 cm (6 ft 4 in) (sample of 26) and body length of 85.2 cm (33.5 in) (sample 5) while females had an average wingspan of 209 cm (6 ft 10 in) (sample 23) and body length of 92.1 cm (36.3 in). However, the Nullarbor Plain eagles appear slightly smaller than wedge-tailed eagle sizes from other surveys, based on body mass and wing chord sizes. An average length for males of 91 cm (36 in) and 100 cm (39 in)
22796-475: The separation of the two subspecies has been called into question, largely because the reported differences in both size and coloration can be attributed to clinal variation , and some of the insular populations may still be at an intermediate stage of subspecific formation. Wedge-tailed eagles are very large and quite lanky birds. They are characteristically black but can appear tar to charcoal brown, depending on lighting and individual variation. They have
22960-415: The shifting significances of leporids and larger macropods. In a small study from Armidale, New South Wales , it was estimated that mean prey weight was 1,309 g (2.886 lb). It only ranks behind the crowned eagle and harpy eagle and rivals the martial eagle as the eagle likely to attack the largest prey on average. While the introduction of invasive species to Australia has been generally having
23124-464: The source of prey is difficult to determine because, to minimize disturbance, examinations are usually done after breeding is complete. As well, the attendance at carrion by wedge-tailed eagles is disproportionately done by juvenile eagles. In one study of roadkills in Australia, the species ranked around fourth in frequency and capacity for carcass breakdown of scavengers at roadkills, behind feral pigs, red foxes, and ravens. A video surveillance study at
23288-713: The species can carry prey of at least 5 kg (11 lb). Large animals may be attacked by pairs or, occasionally, by groups acting cooperatively . One record shows 15 wedge-tailed eagles hunting kangaroos , two actively chasing at a time, then repeatedly being replaced by two more from the circling group overhead. Regardless of prey size and season, tandem hunts, mainly by breeding adult pairs or sometimes loosely associated young eagles, are not uncommon. Of 89 observed hunts in Central Australia around one-third were cooperative ones. As in other tandem hunting raptors, one eagle typically lies in wait generally unseen while
23452-454: The species is seldom seen other than as a flyover in more developed towns and cities. Additionally, it is not uncommon to see these eagles in man-made spots such as pasture areas, forestry clearings , and rolling farmland areas. This impressive bird of prey spends much of the day perching in trees, on rocks as well as similar exposed lookout sites such as cliffs from which it has a good view of its surroundings. Alternatively, they may sit on
23616-529: The species presence in places they don't breed, even adults. In addition to moving for drought in arid zone, also moves in highest part of New South Wales , e.g. the Snowy Mountains , the species often apparently vacates snow-covered alpine zone in winter. The small New Guinea population is apparently indistinguishable from the mainland race and so possibly result of recent colonization, although no records exist of migrating wedge-tailed eagles islands past
23780-471: The species, audax , is derived from the Latin audax , meaning "bold", indicative of their perceived disposition, perhaps when hunting, although the species is, in general, highly wary, and even timid, around humans. However, the species is quite similar in many aspects of its morphology, appearance, behaviour and life history, to other species in the Aquila genus. The eagles of the Aquila genus are part of
23944-501: The subfamily Aquilinae , within the larger Accipitridae family. The subfamily is commonly referred to as booted eagles or sometimes as true eagles. Those species may be distinguished from most other accipitrids by the feathering covering their legs, regardless of distribution. With some 39 or so species, the Aquilinae is present on every continent except Antarctica . By a variety of phylogenetic testing, largely via Mitochondrial DNA and Nuclear DNA genes, it has been determined that
24108-455: The subfamily are colored for camouflage with varying patterns of brown, black, yellowish or white being commonplace, darker colors being favored by forest dwelling varieties and brown to straw coloring common to open country species. A few more brightly colored species (in adult plumage), with striking patterns of chestnut in about four, none more striking than the ornate hawk-eagle ( Spizaetus ornatus ). Roughly half of booted eagle species have
24272-401: The territory of most booted eagles tend to be extremely large, with several dozen square kilometers being common. Territories are usually maintained with display flights but vocal displays are known in some of the denser forest dwelling varieties. Nests of Aquilinae tend to be typically large as in most eagles , with ample surface space needed, whether located in trees, rocky formations or on
24436-506: The two main hawk-eagle genera, they apparently evolved separately for some time and are not closely related. The peak diversity for Aquilinae are in Africa , where nearly half of extant species are known to dwell at least seasonally, exploiting a diversity of different hunting styles, habitats, nesting habits and general body forms. All booted eagle species are opportunistic predators which prey mostly on small vertebrates , often subsisting on
24600-475: The way from the Cape York Peninsula in the north down to Wilsons Promontory National Park and Great Otway National Parks in the southern tips of the continent, and from Shark Bay in the western side of the continent to Great Sandy National Park and Byron Bay in the east. They are widespread throughout the desert interior of Australia, but are rare in low densities in the most arid parts of
24764-422: The wedge-tailed eagle clusters with certain other Aquila eagles. The species found to share the most genetic similarities is the Verreaux's eagle ( Aquila verreauxii ) of Africa. However, the Gurney's eagle ( Aquila gurneyi ), a mostly allopatric but outwardly fairly similar eagle, is clearly a very close relation of the wedge-tailed eagle and the two are likely sister species , most probably originating from
24928-515: The wedge-tailed eagle otherwise generally lives off of marsupials , including many surprisingly large macropods . Additionally, wedge-tailed eagles often eat carrion , especially while young. The species tends to pair for several years, possibly mating for life. Wedge-tailed eagles usually construct a large stick nest in an ample tree, normally the largest in a stand, and typically lay two eggs, although sometimes one to four. Usually, breeding efforts manage to produce one or two fledglings which, after
25092-537: The wedge-tailed in size, is a highly distinct and forest-restricted species, being much paler, particularly below, with long, bare legs and different proportions, more like a giant Accipiter with short rounded wings, a long, somewhat rounded tipped tail, and a large, rounded head. Wedge-tailed eagles are not well known for its vocalization nor are they often heard. They may be silent for long stretches of time, possibly months, at least outside of breeding season. When vocalizations have been documented, it usually only near
25256-487: The weight of the Spanish imperial eagle ( Aquila adalberti ). Among the entire booted eagle subfamily, in addition to the two heavier Aquila , it is outsized in bulk by the martial eagle ( Polemaetus bellicosus ), while the also long-tailed crowned eagle ( Stephanoaetus coronatus ) can average of a roughly similar body mass to the wedge-tailed eagle, although the latter is marginally the heavier bird. The wedge-tailed
25420-1371: The weight of young western grey kangaroos ( Macropus fuliginosus ) was said to be 3.8 kg (8.4 lb) in one study in Western Australia. The estimated weight of juvenile red kangaroos taken was 9 kg (20 lb) in northwestern Queensland where they were the primary prey species ahead of lambs. However, wedge-tailed eagles do not shy away from attacking large, adult macropods. Similarly large adult macropods killed by these eagles can include common wallaroos ( Osphranter robustus ) (mean adult weight around 25 kg (55 lb)), antilopine kangaroo ( Osphranter antilopinus ) (mean adult weight around 30 kg (66 lb)), agile wallaby ( Notamacropus agilis ) (median adult weight around 16.8 kg (37 lb)), black-striped wallaby ( Notamacropus dorsalis ) (median adult weight around 13 kg (29 lb)), red-necked wallaby ( Notamacropus rufogriseus ) estimated to weigh around 16 kg (35 lb) when taken, swamp wallaby ( Wallabia bicolor ) (mean adult weight around 15 kg (33 lb)), and even red kangaroo adults. They've been recorded attacking eastern grey kangaroos weighing over 35 kg (77 lb). In extreme cases, wedge-tailed eagles have killed kangaroos weighing approximately 60 kg (130 lb). In one case,
25584-663: The wing chord averaged 618.8 mm (24.36 in) in males and 661.3 mm (26.04 in) in females. The extreme tail length, slightly to greatly exceeding that of other Aquila , is in males from 352 to 479 mm (13.9 to 18.9 in), averaging 370 mm (15 in) in the Nullarbor eagles and 421.2 mm (16.58 in) in Tasmania, and from 376 to 536 mm (14.8 to 21.1 in), averaging 410 mm (16 in) in Nullarbor and 448.9 mm (17.67 in) in Tasmania. Although they only slightly exceed in tail length
25748-420: The wing chord measured from 594 to 664 mm (23.4 to 26.1 in) in males and 620 to 711 mm (24.4 to 28.0 in) in females. In Nullarbor Plain, males averaged 587 mm (23.1 in) in wing chord while females averaged 638 mm (25.1 in). Other Australian wedge-tailed eagles averaged 611 mm (24.1 in) in wing chord among males and 650 mm (26 in) among females. In Tasmania,
25912-422: The young eagles age, the signature wing band shrinks incrementally and, after the fifth year, the plumage darkens. The female wedge-tailed eagle is one of the world's largest eagles. Its nearest rival in Australia for size is some 15 per cent smaller linearly and 25 per cent lighter in weight. As is typical in birds of prey, the female is larger than the male. Although a few individual females are larger by only
26076-430: The young, small and sickly of large macropod marsupials. Findings were that juvenile macropods were taken out of proportion to their numbers in the environment, unlike rabbits which were taken roughly in proportion to their abundance. In recent times, they have been known to eat marsupials, such as kangaroos killed by cars. There is little evidence that macropods delivered to nests are usually roadkills or from carrion, but
26240-489: Was 1.4 kg (3.1 lb), lower than estimated in the past. However, other studies estimated the mean weights of rabbits taken by wedge-tailed eagles as variously from 1.5 to 2.2 kg (3.3 to 4.9 lb) or “usually over 1.65 kg (3.6 lb)”, infrequently reported to 2.47 kg (5.4 lb), size of the rabbits being perhaps limited the poorly-suited soil and environs of the Australian wilderness. Meanwhile,
26404-811: Was 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) while that for females was 4.1 kg (9.0 lb). The largest wingspan ever verified for an eagle was for this species. A female killed in Tasmania in 1931 had a wingspan of 284 cm (9 ft 4 in), and another female measured barely smaller at 279 cm (9 ft 2 in). Similar claims, however, have been made for the Steller's sea eagle ( Haliaeetus pelagicus ), which has been said to reach or exceed 274 cm (9 ft 0 in) in wingspan. Reported claims of wedge-tailed eagles spanning 312 cm (10 ft 3 in) and 340 cm (11 ft 2 in) were unverified and deemed to be unreliable per Guinness World Records . This eagle's great length and wingspan place it among
26568-458: Was described for wedge-tailed eagles in Queensland. Another source claimed an average male weight of 3.2 kg (7.1 lb) and average female body mass of 4.3 kg (9.5 lb). Yet another book lists males as averaging 2.95 kg (6.5 lb) and females as averaging 3.97 kg (8.8 lb). A sample of 10 males averaged 3.14 kg (6.9 lb) while 19 females weighed 4.18 kg (9.2 lb). The mean body mass of males in Tasmania
26732-485: Was detected for C. cunninghamiana alternatively with several Eucalyptus species was detected in the Australian Capital Territory , sloping ground allowing good access and access to tall, mature trees being paramount to the eagles in the study. Quite often they will be seen soaring over hills , mountains or escarpments as well as over flat plains, especially spinex grassland. Dense forest
26896-969: Was the second most prominent prey species in the diet near Melbourne , comprising 20.1% of the diet, with some numbers of common brushtails also taken there. Long-nosed bandicoots ( Perameles nasuta ) were regular supplemental prey in northeastern New South Wales. Other notable marsupials known to fall prey to wedge-tailed eagles include adults of the following: koalas ( Phascolarctos cinereus ), quokkas ( Setonix brachyurus ), eastern ( Dasyurus viverrinus ), western ( Dasyurus geoffroii ) and tiger quolls ( Dasyurus maculatus ), Tasmanian devils ( Sarcophilus harrisii ), bilbies , numbats ( Myrmecobius fasciatus ), common wombats ( Vombatus ursinus ), southern greater gliders ( Petauroides volans ) and potoroos . With relative infrequency, other classes of mammals, beyond leporids and marsupials, may be taken opportunistically by wedge-tailed eagles. At least two species each of flying foxes and wattled bats are included in
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