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126-605: Early childhood education ( ECE ), also known as nursery education , is a branch of education theory that relates to the teaching of children (formally and informally) from birth up to the age of eight. Traditionally, this is up to the equivalent of third grade . ECE is described as an important period in child development . ECE emerged as a field of study during the Enlightenment , particularly in European countries with high literacy rates . It continued to grow through

252-690: A "socio-cultural learning theory" that emphasized the impact of social and cultural experiences on individual thinking and the development of mental processes. Vygotsky's theory emerged in the 1930s and is still discussed today as a means of improving and reforming educational practices. In Vygotsky's theories of learning, he also postulated the theory of the zone of proximal development. This theory ties in with children building off prior knowledge and gaining new knowledge related to skills they already have. This theory further describes how new knowledge or skills are taken in if they are not fully learned but are starting to emerge. A teacher or older friend lends support to

378-531: A 2020 study in the Journal of Political Economy by Clemson University economist Jorge Luis García, Nobel laureate James J. Heckman and University of Southern California economists Duncan Ermini Leaf and María José Prados, every dollar spent on a high-quality early-childhood programs led to a return of $ 7.3 over the long-term. The Perry Preschool Project, which was conducted in the 1960s in Ypsilanti, Michigan ,

504-591: A Milwaukee study reported a 25-point gain. In addition, students who had been enrolled in the Abecedarian Project , an often-cited ECE study, scored significantly higher on reading and math tests by age fifteen than comparable students who had not participated in early childhood programs. In addition, 36% of students in the Abecedarian Preschool Study treatment group would later enroll in four-year colleges compared to 14% of those in

630-539: A child learning a skill, be it building a block castle, tying a shoe, or writing one's name. As the child becomes more capable of the steps of the activity, the adult or older child withdraws supports gradually, until the child is competent completing the process on his/her own. This is done within that activity's zone—the distance between where the child is, and where he potentially will be. In each zone of proximal development, they build on skills and grow by learning more skills in their proximal development range. They build on

756-546: A child must operate in an environment that aligns with their developmental and individual learning constraints, taking into account any deviations from the norm for their age. If this condition is not met, the learning process may not progress as intended. Many educators have raised concerns about the effectiveness of this approach to instructional design , particularly when it comes to creating instruction for beginners. While some proponents of constructivism claim that "learning by doing" improves learning, critics argue that there

882-404: A complex array of facts, problems, dimensions, and perceptions. Students benefit from being challenged with tasks that require them to apply skills and knowledge slightly beyond their current level of mastery. This approach can help to maintain their motivation and build on past achievements to boost their confidence. This is in line with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development , which refers to

1008-435: A comprehensive understanding. Discussion skills are crucial, and every participant is expected to contribute to keeping the discussion engaging and productive. Many cognitive psychologists and educators have raised concerns about the core principles of constructivism, arguing that these theories may be misleading or inconsistent with well-established findings. In neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development , it

1134-411: A crucial role in the learning process. The concept of the learner as an active processor is based on the idea that there are no universal learning laws that apply to all domains. When individuals possess decontextualized knowledge, they may struggle to apply their understanding to real-world tasks. This is due to the lack of engagement with the concept in its complex, real-world environment, as well as

1260-411: A facilitator encourages questions; a teacher leads from the front, while a facilitator provides support from the background; and a teacher delivers answers based on a set curriculum , whereas a facilitator offers guidance and creates an environment for the learner to form their own conclusions. Furthermore, a teacher typically engages in a monologue, whereas a facilitator maintains an ongoing dialogue with

1386-536: A foothold in institutionalized educational bodies. "Once fledgling programs have become departments, and faculty have been hired and tenured with full-time commitments". There are supporters of feminist education as well, many of whom are educators or students. Professor Becky Ropers-Huilman recounts one of her positive experiences with feminist education from the student perspective, explaining that she "...felt very 'in charge' of [her] own learning experiences," and "...was not being graded–or degraded... [while completing]

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1512-741: A foundational concept in education reform movements within cognitive science and neuroscience. The formalization of constructivism from a within-the-human perspective is commonly credited to Jean Piaget . Piaget described the mechanisms by which information from the environment and ideas from the individual interact to form internalized structures developed by learners. He identified processes of assimilation and accommodation as crucial in this interaction, as individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. When individuals assimilate new information, they integrate it into their existing framework without altering that framework. This can happen when their experiences align with their internal view of

1638-424: A full-fledged philosophical normative theory of education, besides analysis of the sorts described, there will normally be propositions of the following kinds: 1. Basic normative premises about what is good or right; 2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world; 3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the dispositions education should foster; 4. Further factual premises about such things as

1764-521: A great disservice to the feminist movement, while failing to instill the critical thinking and social awareness that feminist educational theory is intended to. Philosophical anthropology is the philosophical study of human nature . In terms of learning, examples of descriptive theories of the learner are: a mind, soul, and spirit capable of emulating the Absolute Mind ( Idealism ); an orderly, sensing, and rational being capable of understanding

1890-418: A great educational tool for young children when used to support the design and construction of their projects. McCarrick and Xiaoming found that computer play is consistent with this theory. However, Plowman and Stephen found that the effectiveness of computers is limited in the preschool environment; their results indicate that computers are only effective when directed by the teacher. This suggests, according to

2016-437: A number of disciplines, including psychology , sociology , education , and the history of science . In its early stages, constructivism focused on the relationship between human experiences and their reflexes or behavior patterns. Piaget referred to these systems of knowledge "schemes." Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has significantly influenced learning theories and teaching methods in education. It serves as

2142-461: A passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasized that learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information. When considering students' learning, it is essential to take into account their motivation and confidence. According to Von Glasersfeld,

2268-415: A process called " scaffolding ," a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation, allowing the development process to catch up to the learning process. When students present and teach new material to their peers, it fosters a non-linear process of collective knowledge construction. The social constructivist paradigm emphasizes that the environment in which learning takes place plays

2394-448: A result of external factors shaping behavior. Instead, meaningful learning occurs when individuals participate in social activities. According to Vygotsky (1978), an important aspect of intellectual development is the convergence of speech and practical activity. He emphasized that as children engage in practical activities, they construct meaning on an individual level, and through speech, they connect this meaning to their culture and

2520-458: A set curriculum to follow, they inevitably personalize it to reflect their own beliefs, thoughts, and emotions about the subject matter and their students. As a result, the learning experience becomes a collaborative effort, influenced by the emotions and life experiences of all involved. It's important to consider the student's motivation as central to the learning process. Incorporating an appropriate balance between structure and flexibility into

2646-509: A significant part in shaping the learning experience. Students compare their own thoughts with those of the instructor and their peers, leading to the development of a new, socially validated understanding of the subject matter. The task or problem serves as the interface between the instructor and the student, creating a dynamic interaction. As a result, both students and instructors need to develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and consider their own beliefs, standards, and values, making

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2772-572: A student's motivation to learn is strongly influenced by their belief in their potential for learning This belief is shaped by their past experiences of successfully mastering problems, which is more influential than external acknowledgment and motivation . This idea aligns with Vygotsky 's concept of the " zone of proximal development ," where students are challenged at a level slightly above their current development. By successfully completing challenging tasks, students build confidence and motivation to take on even more complex challenges. According to

2898-446: A study by UNESCO shows, 4 per cent of children are physically abused each year and 10 per cent are neglected or psychologically abused. In both developed and developing countries , children of the poor and the disadvantaged remain the least served, despite that the added value of early childhood care and education services are higher for them than for their more affluent counterparts, even when such services are of modest quality. While

3024-572: A study on the impact that COVID-19 had on the learning process in Australian University students, a student's motivation and confidence depends on self-determination theory . This theory requires support from the educational environment to fulfill three basic needs to achieve growth, including autonomy, relatedness, and competency. During the historical event of COVID-19, the basic needs were hindered in some way, along with environments that were meant to foster education and growth, which

3150-465: A superficial understanding of a wide range knowledge (e.g. Core knowledge ), social and community problems and issues, knowledge and understanding specific to cultures and their achievements (e.g. African-Centered Education ). Scholars such as Robyn Wiegman argue that, " academic feminism is perhaps the most successful institutionalizing project of its generation, with more full-time faculty positions and new doctoral degree programs emerging each year in

3276-403: Is a theory that suggests that learners do not passively acquire knowledge through direct instruction . Instead, they construct their understanding through experiences and social interaction, integrating new information with their existing knowledge. This theory originates from Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget 's theory of cognitive development . Constructivism in education

3402-636: Is also a professional designation earned through a post-secondary education program. For example, in Ontario , Canada, the designations ECE (Early Childhood Educator) and RECE (Registered Early Childhood Educator) may only be used by registered members of the College of Early Childhood Educators, which is made up of accredited child care professionals who are held accountable to the College's standards of practice. Research shows that early-childhood education has substantial positive short- and long-term effects on

3528-400: Is also evidence of contemporary (or even preceding) discussions among Arabic, Indian, and Chinese scholars. Educational thought is not necessarily concerned with the construction of theories as much as the "reflective examination of educational issues and problems from the perspective of diverse disciplines." For example, a cultural theory of education considers how education occurs through

3654-418: Is an empirical science that provides descriptive theories of how people learn. Examples of theories of education in psychology are: constructivism , behaviorism , cognitivism , and motivational theory Educational neuroscience is an emerging field that brings together researchers in diverse disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education. The sociology of education

3780-422: Is commonly classified as one. Social constructivists believe that an individual's cognitive system is a resditional learning time. Vygotsky advocated that teachers facilitate rather than direct student learning. Teachers should provide a learning environment where students can explore and develop their learning without direct instruction. His approach calls for teachers to incorporate students' needs and interests. It

3906-797: Is contributing into child rights through their preschool curriculum. Curricula in early childhood care and education (ECCE) is the driving force behind any ECCE programme. It is 'an integral part of the engine that, together with the energy and motivation of staff, provides the momentum that makes programmes live'. It follows therefore that the quality of a programme is greatly influenced by the quality of its curriculum. In early childhood, these may be programs for children or parents, including health and nutrition interventions and prenatal programs, as well as center-based programs for children. Children's learning potential and outcomes are negatively affected by exposure to violence, abuse and child labour . Thus, protecting young children from violence and exploitation

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4032-418: Is crucial to promote speculation and intuitive thinking in students. According to other constructivist scholars, individuals create meanings through their interactions with each other and the environment they inhabit. Knowledge is created by people and is shaped by social and cultural influences. McMahon (1997) also emphasizes the social nature of learning, stating that it is not solely a mental process or

4158-503: Is equally important. Piaget's concept of reflective abstraction was particularly influential in mathematical education. Through reflective abstraction, children construct more advanced cognitive structures out of the simpler ones they already possess. This allows children to develop mathematical constructs that cannot be learned through equilibration – making sense of experiences through assimilation and accommodation – alone. According to Piagetian theory, language and symbolic representation

4284-417: Is essential to consider the learner's background and culture throughout the learning process, as these factors help shape the knowledge and truth that the learner acquires. Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the student being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played

4410-710: Is important to do this because students' levels of interest and abilities will vary and there needs to be differentiation. However, teachers can enhance understandings and learning for students. Vygotsky states that by sharing meanings that are relevant to the children's environment, adults promote cognitive development as well. Their teachings can influence thought processes and perspectives of students when they are in new and similar environments. Since Vygotsky promotes more facilitation in children's learning, he suggests that knowledgeable people (and adults in particular), can also enhance knowledges through cooperative meaning-making with students in their learning, this can be done through

4536-478: Is insufficient empirical evidence to support this assertion, especially for novice learners. Sweller and his colleagues argue that novices do not possess the underlying mental models, or "schemas" necessary for "learning by doing". Additionally, Mayer (2004) conducted a review of the literature and concluded that fifty years of empirical data do not support the use of pure discovery as a constructivist teaching technique. In situations requiring discovery, he recommends

4662-531: Is learned simply by being in a learning environment . For example, a student in a teacher-led classroom is learning submission. The hidden curriculum is not necessarily intentional. Instructional theories focus on the methods of instruction for teaching curricula . Theories include the methods of: autonomous learning , coyote teaching , inquiry-based instruction , lecture , maturationism , socratic method , outcome-based education , taking children seriously , transformative learning Educational psychology

4788-445: Is named after Edward Harkness, who funded its development at Phillips Exeter Academy in the 1930s. This method involves students sitting in a circle, guiding their own discussion. The teacher's role is minimized, with the students initiating, directing, and focusing the discussion. They work together as a team, sharing responsibility and goals. The ultimate aim is to illuminate the subject, interpret different viewpoints, and piece together

4914-420: Is no subject to be considered taboo, starting with the most basic knowledge of the world that they live in, and ending with deeper areas, such as morality, religion and science. Visual stimulus and response time as early as 3 months can be an indicator of verbal and performance IQ at age 4 years. When parents value ECE and its importance their children generally have a higher rate of attendance. This allows children

5040-667: Is not surprising that the single most recognized dictum of educational anthropology is that the field is centrally concerned with cultural transmission. Cultural transmission involves the transfer of a sense of identity between generations, sometimes known as enculturation and also transfer of identity between cultures, sometimes known as acculturation . Accordingly, thus it is also not surprising that educational anthropology has become increasingly focused on ethnic identity and ethnic change. Descriptive theories of curriculum explain how curricula "benefit or harm all publics it touches". The term hidden curriculum describes that which

5166-419: Is not the case that any and all activities or solutions are adequate. The critical goal is to support the student in developing effective thinking skills. In the social constructivist viewpoint, the role of the facilitator involves both the instructor and the students being actively engaged in learning from each other. This dynamic interaction requires that the instructor's culture, values , and background play

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5292-481: Is part of broad educational concerns. Due to difficulties and sensitivities around the issue of measuring and monitoring child protection violations and gaps in defining, collecting and analysing appropriate indicators, data coverage in this area is scant. However, proxy indicators can be used to assess the situation. For example, ratification of relevant international conventions indicates countries' commitment to child protection . By April 2014, 194 countries had ratified

5418-417: Is particularly relevant to peer collaboration is the zone of proximal development . This is defined as the gap between a learner's actual developmental level, determined by independent problem-solving, and the level of potential development, determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. It differs from Piaget's fixed biological stages of development. Through

5544-446: Is preceded by the development of corresponding mental representations. Research shows that the level of reflective abstraction achieved by young children was found to limit the degree to which they could represent physical quantities with written numerals. Piaget held that children can invent their own procedures for the four arithmetical operations, without being taught any conventional rules. Piaget's theory implies that computers can be

5670-446: Is proposed that learning is influenced by the processing and representational resources available at a particular age. This implies that if the demands of a concept to be learned exceed the available processing efficiency and working memory resources, then the concept is considered unlearnable. This approach to learning can impact the understanding of essential theoretical concepts and reasoning. Therefore, for effective learning to occur,

5796-431: Is rooted in epistemology , a theory of knowledge concerned with the logical categories of knowledge and its justification. It acknowledges that learners bring prior knowledge and experiences shaped by their social and cultural environment and that learning is a process of students "constructing" knowledge based on their experiences. While Behaviorism focuses on understanding what students are doing, constructivism emphasizes

5922-542: Is strongly influenced by Vygotsky's work, proposes that knowledge is initially built within a social setting and is then taken in by individuals. According to social constructivists, the act of sharing individual viewpoints, known as collaborative elaboration , leads to learners jointly constructing understanding that would not be achievable on their own. Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process in which students are encouraged to discover principles , concepts , and facts independently. Therefore, it

6048-591: Is the oldest social experiment in the field of early childhood education and has heavily influenced policy in the United States and across the globe. The experiment enrolled 128 three- and four-year-old African-American children with cognitive disadvantage from low-income families, who were then randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. The intervention for children in the treatment group included active learning preschool sessions on weekdays for 2.5 hours per day. The intervention also included weekly visits by

6174-502: Is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is most concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher , further , adult , and continuing education. Examples of theories of education from sociology include: functionalism , conflict theory , social efficiency , and social mobility . Constructivism (philosophy of education) Constructivism in education

6300-721: Is underscored with targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 . As of 2023, however, "only around 4 in 10 children aged 3 and 4 attend early childhood education" around the world. Furthermore, levels of participation vary widely by region with, "around 2 in 3 children in Latin American and the Caribbean attending ECE compared to just under half of children in South Asia and only 1 in 4 in sub-Saharan Africa". ECE

6426-593: The CRC3 ; and 179 had ratified the 1999 International Labour Organization 's Convention (No. 182) concerning the elimination of the worst forms of child labour. However, many of these ratifications are yet to be given full effect through actual implementation of concrete measures. Globally, 150 million children aged 5–14 are estimated to be engaged in child labour. In conflict-affected poor countries, children are twice as likely to die before their fifth birthday compared to those in other poor countries. In industrialized countries,

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6552-430: The intersectionality of feminism in many cases, and has also focused exclusively on present content with a singular perspective. Wiegman refers to feminist scholar James Newman's arguments, centered around the idea that, "When we fail... to challenge both students and ourselves to theorize alterity as an issue of change over time as well as of geographic distance, ethnic difference, and sexual choice, we repress... not only

6678-456: The 'thickness' of historical difference itself, but also... our (self) implication in a narrative of progress whose hero(in)es inhabit only the present". Newman (and Wiegman) believe that this presentist ideology imbued within modern academic feminism creates an environment breeding antifeminist ideologies, most importantly an abandonment of the study of difference, integral to feminist ideology. Wiegman believes that feminist educational theory does

6804-423: The 1970s and '80s. Although Piaget himself was primarily interested in a descriptive psychology of cognitive development , he also laid the groundwork for a constructivist theory of learning. Piaget believed that learning comes from within: children construct their own knowledge of the world through experience and subsequent reflection. He said that "if logic itself is created rather than being inborn, it follows that

6930-649: The Convention on the Rights of the Child states that "States Parties recognized the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progression and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular: The first World Conference on Early Childhood Care and Education took place in Moscow from 27 to 29 September 2010, jointly organized by UNESCO and the city of Moscow. The overarching goals of

7056-560: The Perry program on the children and siblings of the original participants. A study concludes, "The children of treated participants have fewer school suspensions, higher levels of education and employment, and lower levels of participation in crime, compared with the children of untreated participants. Impacts are especially pronounced for the children of male participants. These treatment effects are associated with improved childhood home environments." The study also documents beneficial impacts on

7182-550: The absence of experience with the intricate interrelationships that influence the application of the concept. One concept within social constructivism is authentic or situated learning , which involves students participating in activities directly related to the practical application of their learning within a culture similar to the real-world setting. Cognitive apprenticeship is a suggested effective model of constructivist learning that aims to immerse students in authentic practices through activity and social interaction, similar to

7308-683: The aids epidemic. UNICEF reports that "13.3 million children (0–17 years) worldwide have lost one or both parents to AIDS. Nearly 12 million of these children live in sub-Saharan Africa." Government policies such as the Free Basic Education Policy have worked to provide education for orphan children in this area, but the quality and inclusiveness of this policy has brought criticism. Education sciences The earliest known attempts to understand education in Europe were by classical Greek philosophers and sophists , but there

7434-401: The assessor and the learner to understand the current performance level on a task and explore ways to improve future performance. This approach views assessment and learning as interconnected processes, rather than separate entities. According to this viewpoint, instructors should approach assessment as an ongoing and interactive process that evaluates the learner's achievements, the quality of

7560-496: The bounds of the traditional lecture-based classroom. Though these tenets at times overlap, they combine to provide the basis for modern feminist educational theory, and are supported by a majority of feminist educators. Feminist educational theory derives from the feminist movement , particularly that of the early 1970s, which prominent feminist bell hooks describes as, "a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression". Academic feminist Robyn Weigman recalls that, "In

7686-435: The children who attend such education, and that the costs are dwarfed by societal gains of the education programs. The Developmental Interaction Approach is based on the theories of Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson , John Dewey , and Lucy Sprague Mitchell. The approach focuses on learning through discovery. Jean Jacques Rousseau recommended that teachers should exploit individual children's interests to make sure each child obtains

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7812-418: The classroom. When Ropers-Huilman became a teacher herself, she embraced feminist educational theory, noting that, "[Teachers] have an obligation as the ones who are vested with an assumed power, even if that power is easily and regularly disrupted, to assess and address the effects that it is having in our classrooms". Ropers-Huilman firmly believes that educators have a duty to address feminist concepts such as

7938-508: The combinations of grasping and transforming experience." The experimental learning theory is distinctive in that children are seen and taught as individuals. As a child explores and observes, teachers ask the child probing questions. The child can then adapt prior knowledge to learning new information. Kolb breaks down this learning cycle into four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Children observe new situations, think about

8064-478: The concepts and constructs" that define curriculum . These normative propositions differ from those above in that normative curriculum theory is not necessarily untestable. A central question asked by normative curriculum theory is: given a particular educational philosophy, what is worth knowing and why? Some examples are: a deep understanding of the Great Books , direct experiences driven by student interest,

8190-1004: The conference are to: Under Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals , which the UN General Assembly unanimously approved in 2015, countries committed to "ensure inclusive and equitable quality education' including early childhood." Two targets related to goal 4 are "by 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education." The 'Framework for Action' adopted by UNESCO member states later in 2015 outlines how to translate this last target into practice, and encourages states to provide "at least one year of free and compulsory pre-primary education of good quality." The Sustainable Development Goals, however, are not binding international law. It has been argued that "International law provides no effective protection of

8316-411: The constructivist theory, that the role of preschool teachers is critical in successfully adopting computers as they existed in 2003. David Kolb 's experiential learning theory, which was influenced by John Dewey, Kurt Lewin and Jean Piaget, argues that children need to experience things to learn: "The process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from

8442-744: The control group. In 2017, researchers reported that children who participate in ECE graduate high school at significantly greater rates than those who do not. Additionally, those who participate in ECE require special education and must repeat a grade at significantly lower rates than their peers who did not receive ECE. The NIH asserts that ECE leads to higher test scores for students from preschool through age 21, improved grades in math and reading, and stronger odds that students will keep going to school and attend college. Nathaniel Hendren and Ben Sprung-Keyser, two Harvard economists, found high Marginal Values of Public Funds (MVPFs) for investments in programs supporting

8568-413: The crucial role of instruction in fostering development. In order to effectively engage and challenge students, it is important that the tasks and learning environment mirror the complexity of the real-world environment in which the students are expected to operate upon completing their education. Students should not only take ownership of the learning and problem-solving process but also take ownership of

8694-508: The early childhood years for orphans is a worldwide concern. Orphans are at higher risk of "missing out on schooling, living in households with less food security, and suffering from anxiety and depression." Education during these years has the potential to improve a child's "food and nutrition, health care, social welfare, and protection." This crisis is especially prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa which has been heavily impacted by

8820-406: The early seventies, feminism in the U.S. academy was less an organized entity than a set of practices: an ensemble of courses listed on bulletin boards often taught for free by faculty and community leaders". While feminism traditionally existed outside of the institutionalization of schools (particularly universities), feminist education has gradually taken hold in the last few decades and has gained

8946-415: The educator's ability to share his or her knowledge, learned through years of education and experience. Others challenge the legitimacy of feminist educational theory, arguing that it is not unique and is instead a sect of liberatory education. Even feminist educational scholars such as Frances Hoffmann and Jayne Stake are forced to concede that, "feminist pedagogy shared intellectual and political roots with

9072-637: The field it inaugurated, Women's Studies". Feminist educational theory stems from four key tenets, supported by empirical data based on surveys of feminist educators. The first tenet of feminist educational theory is, "Creation of participatory classroom communities". Participatory classroom communities often are smaller classes built around discussion and student involvement. The second tenet is, "Validation of personal experience". Classrooms in which validation of personal experience occur often are focused around students providing their own insights and experiences in group discussion, rather than relying exclusively on

9198-1072: The first task of education is to form reasoning." Within Piaget's framework, teachers should guide children in acquiring their own knowledge rather than simply transferring knowledge. According to Piaget's theory, when young children encounter new information, they attempt to accommodate and assimilate it into their existing understanding of the world. Accommodation involves adapting mental schemas and representations to make them consistent with reality. Assimilation involves fitting new information into their pre-existing schemas. Through these two processes, young children learn by equilibrating their mental representations with reality. They also learn from mistakes. A Piagetian approach emphasizes experiential education; in school, experiences become more hands-on and concrete as students explore through trial and error. Thus, crucial components of early childhood education include exploration, manipulating objects, and experiencing new environments. Subsequent reflection on these experiences

9324-492: The first wave of results from the Perry Preschool Project were published, there has been widespread consensus that the quality of early childhood education programs correlate with gains in low-income children's IQs and test scores, decreased grade retention, and lower special education rates. Several studies have reported that children enrolled in ECE increase their IQ scores by 4–11 points by age five, while

9450-494: The four basic tenets of the theory, "...[contesting] both their legitimacy and their implementation". Lewis Lehrman particularly describes feminist educational ideology as, "...'therapeutic pedagogy' that substitutes an 'overriding' (and detrimental) value on participatory interaction for the expertise of the faculty" (Hoffman). Lehrman argues that the feminist educational tenets of participatory experience and validation of person experience hinder education by limiting and inhibiting

9576-419: The gap between a person's current level of ability and their potential level of development under the guidance of adults or more capable peers. Vygotsky (1978) argued that effective instruction should be slightly ahead of a learner's current developmental stage . By doing so, instruction can stimulate the development of a range of functions that are in the learner's zone of proximal development. This highlights

9702-826: The health and early education of children, particularly those that reach children from low-income families. The average MVPF for these types of initiatives is over 5, while the MVPFs for programs for adults generally range from 0.5 to 2. Beyond benefitting societal good, ECE also significantly impacts the socioeconomic outcomes of individuals. For example, by age 26, students who had been enrolled in Chicago Child-Parent Centers were less likely to be arrested, abuse drugs, and receive food stamps; they were more likely to have high school diplomas, health insurance and full-time employment. Studies also show that ECE heightens social engagement, bolsters lifelong health, reduces

9828-516: The idea of children learning through play. Specifically, he said, "play is the highest expression of human development in childhood, for it alone is the free expression of what is in the child's soul." Froebel believed that teachers should act as a facilitators and supporters for the students's play, rather than an authoritative, disciplinary figure. He created educational open-ended toys that he called "gifts" and "occupations" that were designed to encourage self expression and initiation. Maria Montessori

9954-517: The idea that the dialectic or interactionist process of development and learning through the student's active construction should be facilitated and promoted by adults". The romantic maturationist stream emphasizes the natural development of students without adult interventions in a permissive environment. In contrast, constructivism involves adults actively guiding learning while allowing children to take charge of their own learning process. According to William Cobern (1991) Contextual constructivism

10080-603: The impact that early childhood education had on students' performance in grade school. Looking specifically at students who attended the Madrasa Early Childhood schools (virtually all of whom came from economically disadvantaged backgrounds), the study found that they had consistently ranked in the top 20% in grade 1 classes. The study also concluded that any formal early childhood education contributed to higher levels of cognitive development in language, mathematics, and non-verbal reasoning skills. Especially since

10206-438: The importance of sociocultural learning in his theory of social constructivism, highlighting how interactions with adults, peers, and cognitive tools contribute to the formation of mental constructs. Building upon Vygotsky's work, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists introduced the concept of instructional scaffolding , where the learning environment provides support that is gradually removed as learners internalize

10332-461: The importance of understanding what students are thinking and how to enrich their thinking. Constructivism in educational psychology can be attributed to the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980) and his theory of cognitive development . Piaget's focus was on how humans make meaning by integrating experiences with ideas, emphasizing human development as distinct from external influences Another influential figure, Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), emphasized

10458-399: The incidence of teen pregnancy, supports mental health, decreases the risk of heart disease, and lengthens lifespans. The World Bank 's 2019 World Development Report on The Changing Nature of Work identifies early childhood development programs as one of the most effective ways governments can equip children with the skills they will need to succeed in future labor markets. According to

10584-421: The incorporation of feminism into all aspects of society, including education, in her book Feminism is for Everybody . hooks notes that, "Everything [people] know about feminism has come into their lives thirdhand". hooks believes that education offers a counter to the, "...wrongminded notion of feminist movement which implied it was anti-male". hooks cites feminism's negative connotations as major inhibitors to

10710-504: The individuality and complexity of each learner, actively encouraging and rewarding it as a vital component of the learning process. Social constructivism, also known as socioculturalism, emphasizes the role of an individual's background, culture , and worldview in shaping their understanding of truth. According to this theory, learners inherit historical developments and symbol systems from their culture and continue to learn and develop these throughout their lives. This approach highlights

10836-428: The information most essential to his personal and individual development. The five developmental domains of childhood development include: To meet those developmental domains, a child has a set of needs that must be met for learning. Maslow's hierarchy of needs showcases the different levels of needs that must be met the chart to the right showcases these needs. Friedrich Froebel was a German Educator that believed in

10962-554: The insight of the educator. The third tenet is, "Encouragement of social understanding and activism". This tenet is generally actualized by classrooms discussing and reading about social and societal aspects that students may not be aware of, along with breeding student self-efficacy. The fourth and final tenet of feminist education is, "Development of critical thinking skills/open-mindedness". Classrooms actively engaging in this tenet encourage students to think for themselves and prompt them to move beyond their comfort zones, working outside

11088-460: The interpersonal world they share with others. Another tenet of social constructivism is that collaboration among individuals with diverse skills and backgrounds is essential for developing a comprehensive understanding of a particular subject or field. In some social constructivist models, there is an emphasis on the importance of collaboration among learners, which contrasts with traditional competitive approaches. One concept from Vygotsky that

11214-417: The knowledge. Views more focused on human development within the social sphere include the sociocultural or socio-historical perspective of Lev Vygotsky and the situated cognition perspectives of Mikhail Bakhtin , Jean Lave , and Etienne Wenger . Additionally, the works of Brown, Collins, and Duguid, as well as Newman, Griffin, Cole, and Barbara Rogoff . The concept of constructivism has impacted

11340-428: The learners. Additionally, a facilitator should be able to dynamically adapt the learning experience by taking the lead in guiding the experience to align with the learners' interests and needs in order to create value. The learning environment should be created in a way that both supports and challenges the student's thinking While it is advocated to give the student ownership of the problem and solution process, it

11466-428: The learning environment. However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active learning , or learning by doing. While there is much enthusiasm for constructivism as a design strategy , some experts believe that it is more of a philosophical framework than a theory that can precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies. Social constructivism recognizes and embraces

11592-588: The learning experience both subjective and objective at the same time. Several studies highlight the significance of mentoring in the learning process. The social constructivist model underscores the importance of the relationship between the student and the instructor in facilitating learning. Interactive learning can be facilitated through various approaches such as reciprocal teaching , peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeship , problem-based instruction, Anchored Instruction , and other methods that involve collaborative learning. Social constructivism, which

11718-443: The learning experience, and course materials. The feedback generated by the assessment process is crucial for driving further development. The organization of knowledge should prioritize integration over division into separate subjects or compartments. This again emphasizes the significance of presenting learning within a specific context. The world in which learners operate is not divided into separate subjects but rather comprises

11844-591: The learning process is essential. According to Savery (1994), a highly structured learning environment may pose challenges for learners in constructing meaning based on their existing conceptual understandings. A facilitator should strive to provide adequate structure to offer clear guidance and parameters for achieving learning objectives, while also allowing for an open and flexible learning experience that enables learners to discover, interact, and arrive at their own understanding of truth. A few strategies for cooperative learning include: The "Harkness" discussion method

11970-413: The majority of the assigned work for the class (and additional work that [she] thought would add to class discussion)," all while "...[regarding] the teacher's feedback on [her] participation as one perspective, rather than the perspective". Ropers-Huilman experienced a working feminist classroom that successfully motivated students to go above and beyond, succeeding in generating self-efficacy and caring in

12096-539: The male siblings of the original participants. The Perry Preschool Project advocates for public spending on early childhood programs as an economic investment in a society's future, rather than in the interest of social justice. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1976), and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) have all addressed childhood education. Article 28 of

12222-641: The minimum core of the right to education. They further called on all states to adopt a detailed plan of action for the progressive implementation of further years of pre-primary education, within a reasonable number of years to be fixed in the plan. According to UNESCO, a preschool curriculum is one that delivers educational content through daily activities and furthers a child's physical, cognitive, and social development. Generally, preschool curricula are only recognized by governments if they are based on academic research and reviewed by peers. Preschool for Child Rights have pioneered into preschool curricular areas and

12348-536: The movements comprising the liberatory education agenda of the past 30 years". These liberatory attempts at the democratization of classrooms demonstrate a growth in liberatory education philosophy that some argue feminist educational theory simply piggybacks off of. The harshest critiques of feminist educational theory often come from feminists themselves. Feminist scholar Robyn Wiegman argues against feminist education in her article "Academic Feminism against Itself", arguing that feminist educational ideology has abandoned

12474-590: The nineteenth century as universal primary education became a norm in the Western world. In recent years, early childhood education has become a prevalent public policy issue, as funding for preschool and pre-K is debated by municipal, state, and federal lawmakers . Governing entities are also debating the central focus of early childhood education with debate on developmental appropriate play versus strong academic preparation curriculum in reading, writing, and math. The global priority placed on early childhood education

12600-554: The observed long-term impacts of the program. The intervention's many benefits also include improvements in late-midlife health for both male and female participants. Perry promoted educational attainment through two avenues: total years of education attained and rates of progression to a given level of education. Treated females received less special education, progressed more quickly through grades, earned higher GPAs, and attained higher levels of education than their control group counterparts. Research also demonstrates spillover effects of

12726-449: The opportunity to build and nurture trusting relationships with educators and social relationships with peers. By providing education in a child's most formative years, ECE also has the capacity to pre-emptively begin closing the educational achievement gap between low and high-income students before formal schooling begins. Children of low socioeconomic status (SES) often begin school already behind their higher SES peers; on average, by

12852-588: The parents' or child's "irregular situation with respect to stay." Less explicitly, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities requires that "States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels." In 2022, Human Rights Watch adopted a policy calling on states to make at least one year of free and compulsory, inclusive, quality pre-primary education available and accessible for all children. In doing so they advocated making one year of pre-primary education to be included as part of

12978-522: The potential of its actors". Ropers-Huilman believes that a feminist classroom carries the ability to greatly influence the society as a whole, promoting understanding, caring, and inclusivity. Ropers-Huilman actively engages in feminist education in her classes, focusing on concepts such as active learning and critical thinking while attempting to demonstrate and engage in caring behavior and atypical classroom settings, similar to many other feminist educators. Leading feminist scholar bell hooks argues for

13104-488: The problem is more intractable in developing countries, the developed world still does not equitably provide quality early childhood care and education services for all its children. In many European countries , children, mostly from low-income and immigrant families, do not have access to good quality early childhood care and education. The effect of early childhood programs tends to decrease from proof of concept trials to larger-scale programs. A lack of education during

13230-443: The problems themselves. When it comes to organizing subject matter, the constructivist perspective suggests that the fundamental principles of any subject can be taught to anyone at any point, in some capacity. This approach entails introducing the foundational concepts that makeup topics or subject areas initially and then consistently revisiting and expanding on these ideas. Instructors should recognize that while they are given

13356-491: The process of education include Bildung and paideia . Educational anthropology is a sub-field of anthropology and is widely associated with the pioneering work of George Spindler . As the name would suggest, the focus of educational anthropology is obviously on education, although an anthropological approach to education tends to focus on the cultural aspects of education, including informal as well as formal education. As education involves understandings of who we are, it

13482-417: The processes of education. "Normative philosophies or theories of education may make use of the results of [philosophical thought] and of factual inquiries about human beings and the psychology of learning, but in any case they propound views about what education should be, what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how and in whom it should do so, and what forms it should take. In

13608-720: The psychology of learning and methods of teaching; and 5. Further conclusions about such things as the methods that education should use." Examples of the purpose of schools include: to develop reasoning about perennial questions, to master the methods of scientific inquiry, to cultivate the intellect, to create change agents, to develop spirituality, and to model a democratic society. Common educational philosophies include: educational perennialism , educational progressivism , educational essentialism , critical pedagogy , Montessori education , Waldorf education , and democratic education . Normative theories of curriculum aim to "describe, or set norms, for conditions surrounding many of

13734-589: The right to pre-primary education." Just two global treaties explicitly reference education prior to primary school. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women requires states to ensure equality for girls "in pre-school." And in the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families , states agree that access to "public pre-school educational institutions" shall not be denied due to

13860-419: The significance of a learner's social interactions with knowledgeable members of society. It suggests that without such interactions, it is challenging to grasp the social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to effectively use them. Social constructivism also points out that young children develop their thinking abilities through interactions with peers, adults, and the physical world. Therefore, it

13986-513: The situation, make meaning of the situation, then test that meaning in the world around them. In recent decades, studies have shown that early childhood education is critical in preparing children to enter and succeed in the (grade school) classroom, diminishing their risk of social-emotional mental health problems and increasing their self-sufficiency later in their lives. In other words, the child needs to be taught to rationalize everything and to be open to interpretations and critical thinking. There

14112-468: The skills by being guided by teachers and parents. They must build from where they are in their zone of proximal development. Vygotsky argued that since cognition occurs within a social context, our social experiences shape our ways of thinking about and interpreting the world. People such as parents, grandparents, and teachers play the roles of what Vygotsky described as knowledgeable and competent adults. Although Vygotsky predated social constructivists, he

14238-408: The small sample size of the experiment, flaws in its randomization procedure, and sample attrition. There is some evidence on reduction of criminal convictions of male participants, especially for violent crime, and their earnings in middle adulthood. Research points to improvements in non-cognitive skills, executive functioning, childhood home environment, and parental attachment as potential sources of

14364-416: The spread and adoption of feminist ideologies. However, feminist education has seen tremendous growth in adoption in the past few decades, despite the negative connotations of its parent movement. Opposition to feminist educational theory comes from both those who oppose feminism in general and feminists who oppose feminist educational theory in particular. Critics of feminist educational theory argue against

14490-403: The subject matter, a facilitator assists the student in developing their own understanding of the content. This shift in roles places the focus on the student's active involvement in the learning process, as opposed to the instructor and the content itself. As a result, a facilitator requires a different set of skills compared to a teacher. For instance, a teacher imparts information, whereas

14616-402: The successful methods used in craft apprenticeship. Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) highlight the concept of dynamic assessment , which offers a distinct approach to evaluating learners compared to traditional tests. Dynamic assessment extends the interactive nature of learning to the assessment process, emphasizing interaction between the assessor and the learner. It involves a dialogue between

14742-423: The teachers to the homes of the children for about 1.5 hours per visit to improve parent-child interactions at home. Initial evaluations of the Perry intervention showed that the preschool program failed to significantly boost an IQ measure. However, later evaluations that followed up the participants for more than fifty years have demonstrated the long-term economic benefits of the program, even after accounting for

14868-536: The time they are three, children with high SES have three times the number of words in their vocabularies as children with low SES. Participation in ECE, however, has been proven to increase high school graduation rates, improve performance on standardized tests, and reduce both grade repetition and the number of children placed in special education. A study was conducted by the Aga Khan Development Network 's Madrasa Early Childhood Programme on

14994-478: The totality of culture, including prisons, households, and religious institutions as well as schools. Other examples are the behaviorist theory of education that comes from educational psychology and the functionalist theory of education that comes from sociology of education . Normative theories of education provide the norms, goals, and standards of education. In contrast, descriptive theories of education provide descriptions, explanations or predictions of

15120-499: The use and flow of power within the classroom, and strongly believes in the potential of feminist educational theory to create positive learning experiences for students and teachers as she has personally experienced. Ropers-Huilman also celebrates the feminist classroom's inclusivity, noting that in a feminist classroom, "in which power is used to care about, for, and with others… educational participants can shape practices aimed at creating an inclusive society that discovers and utilizes

15246-1118: The use of guided discovery instead. Some researchers, such as Kirschner et al. (2006), have characterized the constructivist teaching methods as "unguided methods of instruction" and have suggested more structured learning activities for learners with little to no prior knowledge. Slezak has expressed skepticism about constructivism, describing it as "fashionable but thoroughly problematic doctrines that can have little benefit for practical pedagogy or teacher education." Similar views have been stated by Meyer, Boden, Quale and others. Kirschner et al. grouped several learning theories together, including Discovery , Problem-Based , Experiential , and Inquiry-Based learning , and suggested that highly scaffolded constructivist methods such as problem-based learning and inquiry learning may be ineffective. They described several research studies that were favorable to problem-based learning given learners were provided some level of guidance and support. Many people confuse constructivism with maturationism . The constructivist (or cognitive-developmental) stream "is based on

15372-426: The world of things ( Realism ), a rational being with a soul modeled after God and who comes to know God through reason and revelation ( Neo-Thomism ), an evolving and active being capable of interacting with the environment ( Pragmatism ), a fundamentally free and individual being who is capable of being authentic through the making of and taking responsibility for choices ( Existentialism ). Philosophical concepts for

15498-411: The world, but it can also occur if they fail to update a flawed understanding. Accommodation is the process of adjusting one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. It can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning. It is important to note that constructivism is not a specific pedagogy, but rather a theory explaining how learning occurs, regardless of

15624-402: The zone of proximal development by guiding children's learning or thinking skills . Vygotsky's approach encourages guided participation and student exploration with support. Teachers can help students achieve their cognitive development levels through consistent and regular interactions of collaborative knowledge-making learning processes. Jean Piaget's constructivist theory gained influence in

15750-445: Was an Italian physician that, based on her observations of young children in classrooms, developed a method of education that focused on independence. In Montessori education, a typical classroom is made up of students of different ages and curriculum is based on the students' developmental stage, which Montessori called the four planes of development. Montessori's Four Planes of Development: Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky proposed

15876-415: Was hindered through the change from traditional in-person classes to online classes that left students with significantly less opportunities for social interactive and active learning opportunities. According to the social constructivist approach, instructors are expected to adapt to the role of facilitators rather than traditional teachers . While a teacher teacher gives a didactic lecture that covers

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