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86-547: The vowels were as follows: The consonants were as follows: The sound conventionally designated ř had originated from Indo-Aryan retroflex stops and appears to have still been a retroflex ([ ɽr ]) in Early Romani, judging from a retroflex reflex preserved in at least one dialect and from the diversity of reflexes in different dialects, which include geminated apical trills [rː] . Nonetheless, Yaron Matras also considers it possible that Early Romani had already shifted

172-643: A difference in function. If there was a difference, the long form may have been more emphatic and preferred when genitives were placed after the noun or nominalised. Layer III words in Early Romani were prepositions (as they mostly are in contemporary dialects as well). Some inherited prepositions were andar 'out of', andre 'in(to)', angle 'in front of', astjal 'for, because of', dži 'until', karig 'towards', ( ka)tar 'from', ke 'at, to', mamuj 'against', maškar ' between', pal 'behind', paš 'next to, by', perdal 'across, through', te 'at, to', tel 'under', truja(l) 'past, around', upral/opral 'from

258-428: A flat or concave shape, with no associated palatalization, and no groove running down the tongue. The term "retroflex", in fact, literally means "bent back" (concave), although consonants with a flat tongue shape are commonly considered retroflex as well. The velar bunched approximant found in northern varieties of Dutch and some varieties of American English is acoustically similar to the retroflex approximant. It

344-457: A given manner of articulation . An exception, however, is the Toda language , with a two-way distinction among retroflex sibilants between apical (post)alveolar and subapical palatal. Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced , to the left are voiceless . Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible. Legend: unrounded  •  rounded Vocative case In grammar ,

430-433: A possibility as well. The native cardinal numerals , namely the ones for 1-6, 10, 20 and 100, inflected in modifier position like adjectives ending in a consonant: e.g. deš-e 'ten (oblique)'. The Greek-derived ones (7-9 and 30-50) did not. Retroflex consonant A retroflex ( / ˈ r ɛ t r ə f l ɛ k s , - r oʊ -/ ), apico-domal , or cacuminal ( / k ə ˈ k juː m ɪ n əl / ) consonant

516-483: A semivowel /j/ before a vowel-initial suffixes: sg. buti 'work' - pl. butja . The morphology exhibited a split between two strata - native (including both inherited words and loans from before the immigration into the Byzantine Empire) and foreign (predominantly loans from Byzantine Greek and some from Slavic ; later borrowings from other languages also join this group in descendant dialects). Words of

602-560: A sentence. For example, in the sentence "I don't know, John," John is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed, as opposed to the sentence "I don't know John", in which "John" is the direct object of the verb "know". Historically, the vocative case was an element of the Indo-European case system and existed in Latin , Sanskrit , and Ancient Greek . In many modern Indo-European languages (English, Spanish, etc.)

688-421: A sequence of r and a coronal consonant may be replaced by the coronal's retroflex equivalent: the name Martin is pronounced [ˈmǎʈːɪn] (Swedish) or [ˈmɑ̀ʈːɪn] (Norwegian), and nord ("north") is pronounced [ˈnuːɖ] in (Standard) Swedish and [ˈnuːɽ] in many varieties of Norwegian. That is sometimes done for several consonants in a row after an r : Hornstull

774-463: A vocative case form. In the absence of a noun argument, some adjectives decline like masculine nouns that do not end in आ / aː / ā . The vocative case has many similarities with the oblique case in Hindustani. In Sanskrit , the vocative ( सम्बोधन विभक्ति sambodhana vibhakti ) has the same form as the nominative except in the singular. In vowel-stem nouns, if there is a -ḥ in

860-523: A vocative ending of -če ( otьcь  : otьče ' father ' , kupьcь  : kupьče ' merchant ' ), likewise nouns ending with -dzь assume the vocative suffix -že ( kъnědzь  : kъněže ' prince ' ). This is similar to Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, and Sanskrit, which also employ the -e suffix in vocatives. Unlike most other Slavic languages , Bulgarian has lost case marking for nouns. However, Bulgarian preserves vocative forms. Traditional male names usually have

946-749: A vocative ending. More-recent names and foreign names may have a vocative form but it is rarely used ( Ричарде , instead of simply Ричард Richard, sounds unusual or humorous to native speakers). Vocative phrases like господине министре (Mr. Minister) have been almost completely replaced by nominative forms, especially in official writing. Proper nouns usually also have vocative forms, but they are used less frequently. Here are some proper nouns that are frequently used in vocative: Vocative case forms also normally exist for female given names: Except for forms that end in -[е] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) , they are considered rude and are normally avoided. For female kinship terms,

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1032-659: A vocative singular usually identically written but distinct in accentuation. In Lithuanian, the form that a given noun takes depends on its declension class and, sometimes, on its gender. There have been several changes in history, the last being the -ai ending formed between the 18th and 19th centuries. The older forms are listed under "other forms". Some nouns of the e- and a- stems declensions (both proper ones and not) are stressed differently: "aikš tė ": " aikš te!" ( square ); "tau ta": " tau ta!". In addition, nouns of e-stems have an ablaut of long vowel ė in nominative and short vowel e /ɛ/ in vocative. In pronunciation, ė

1118-540: A vowel (or f followed immediately by a vowel, which becomes silent when lenited). Examples of the use of the vocative personal names (as in Irish): The name "Hamish" is just the English spelling of Sheumais (the vocative of Seumas and pronounced ˈheːmɪʃ ), and thus is actually a Gaelic vocative. Likewise, the name "Vairi" is an English spelling of Mhàiri , the vocative for Màiri . The basic pattern

1204-501: A written source. The symbol ◌̩ (vertical line below) indicates a consonant serving as a vowel (it should appear directly below the "l" or "r" in these examples but may appear after them on some systems from issues of font display). All final consonants were lost in Proto-Slavic, so both the nominative and vocative Old Church Slavonic forms do not have true endings, only reflexes of the old thematic vowels. The vocative ending changes

1290-456: A zero ending (i.e. the stem alone acts as the voc. sg.): Adõm "Adam!" in addition to Adõmai , Mýkol "Michael!" in addition to Mýkolai , vaikẽl "kid!" in addition to vaikẽli , etc. The vocative case in Irish operates in a similar fashion to Scottish Gaelic. The principal marker is the vocative particle a , which causes lenition of the following initial letter. In the singular there

1376-470: Is close-mid vowel [ eː ] , and e is open-mid vowel /ɛ/ . The vocative of diminutive nouns with the suffix -(i)ukas most frequently has no ending: broliùk "brother!", etc. A less frequent alternative is the ending -ai , which is also slightly dialectal: broliùkai , etc. Colloquially, some personal names with a masculine -(i)(j)o stem and diminutives with the suffixes -elis, -ėlis have an alternative vocative singular form characterized by

1462-455: Is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate . They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants —especially in Indology . The Latin -derived word retroflex means "bent back"; some retroflex consonants are pronounced with the tongue fully curled back so that articulation involves

1548-515: Is also used in prayers: " Отче наш! " ( Otče naš , "Our Father!"). Such expressions are used to express strong emotions (much like English "O my God!"), and are often combined (" Господи, Боже мой "). More examples of the historic vocative can be found in other Biblical quotes that are sometimes used as proverbs: " Врачу, исцелися сам " ( Vraču, iscelisia sam , "Physician, heal thyself", nom. " врач ", vrač ). Vocative forms are also used in modern Church Slavonic . The patriarch and bishops of

1634-560: Is articulated with the body of the tongue bunched up at the velum. In the International Phonetic Alphabet , the symbols for retroflex consonants are typically the same as for the alveolar consonants , but with the addition of a right-facing hook to the bottom of the symbol. Retroflex consonants are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet as follows: Some linguists restrict these symbols for consonants with subapical palatal articulation, in which

1720-631: Is dripping." Colognian examples: The vocative case generally does not appear in Icelandic , but a few words retain an archaic vocative declension from Latin, such as the word Jesús , which is Jesú in the vocative. That comes from Latin, as the Latin for Jesus in the nominative is Jesus and its vocative is Jesu . That is also the case in traditional English (without the accent) (see above ): The native words sonur ' son ' and vinur ' friend ' also sometimes appear in

1806-404: Is identical to the nominative ( νύξ , night); otherwise, the stem (with necessary alterations, such as dropping final consonants) serves as the vocative (nom. πόλις , voc. πόλι ; nom. σῶμα , gen. σώματος , voc. σῶμα ). Irregular vocatives exist as well, such as nom. Σωκράτης, voc. Σώκρατες. In Modern Greek , second-declension masculine nouns still have a vocative ending in -ε. However,

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1892-628: Is identical to the nominative. When different from the nominative, the vocative is simply formed from the nominative by appending either -e ( rabъ  : rabe ' slave ' ) or -o ( ryba  : rybo ' fish ' ), but occasionally -u ( krai  : kraju ' border ' , synъ  : synu ' son ' , vračь  : vraču ' physician ' ) and ' -i ' ( kostь  : kosti ' bone ' , gostь  : gosti ' guest ' , dьnь  : dьni ' day ' , kamy  : kameni ' stone ' ) appear. Nouns ending with -ьcь have

1978-969: Is in the indigenous languages of Australia and the Western Pacific (notably New Caledonia ). Here, most languages have retroflex plosives, nasals and approximants . Retroflex consonants are relatively rare in the European languages but occur in such languages as Swedish and Norwegian in Northern Europe , some Romance languages of Southern Europe ( Sardinian , Sicilian , including Calabrian and Salentino , some Italian dialects such as Lunigianese in Italy , and some Asturian dialects in Spain ), and (sibilants only) Faroese and several Slavic languages ( Polish , Russian , Serbo-Croatian , Slovak and Sorbian ). In Swedish and Norwegian,

2064-468: Is more easily observable with adjectives that inflect for plural and definite differently, e.g. liten being lille when definite, but små when plural, an instance of suppletion . In several Norwegian dialects, north of an isogloss running from Oslo to Bergen , names in argument position are associated with proprial articles , e.g. gendered pronouns such as han ' he ' or hun ' she ' , which either precede or follow

2150-423: Is no special form, except for first declension nouns. These are masculine nouns that end in a broad (non-palatal) consonant, which is made slender (palatal) to build the singular vocative (as well as the singular genitive and plural nominative). Adjectives are also lenited . In many cases this means that (in the singular) masculine vocative expressions resemble the genitive and feminine vocative expressions resemble

2236-481: Is pronounced [huːɳʂˈʈɵlː] ). The retroflex approximant [ɻ] is in free variation with the postalveolar approximant /ɹ/ in many dialects of American English , particularly in the Midwestern United States . Polish and Russian possess retroflex sibilants , but no stops or liquids at this place of articulation. Retroflex consonants are largely absent from indigenous languages of

2322-488: Is similar to Irish and Scottish. The vocative is confined to personal names, in which it is common. Foreign names (not of Manx origin) are not used in the vocative. The vocative case causes lenition of the initial consonant of names. It can be used with the particle " y ". The name Voirrey is actually the Manx vocative of Moirrey (Mary). Welsh lacks case declension but marks vocative constructions by lenition of

2408-402: Is sometimes used to "archaeise" speech; it is often seen as very formal, and sees use in rhetoric and poetry, or as a comedic device to subvert modern speech. Another example is the recurrent use of the phrase "O (my) Best Beloved" by Rudyard Kipling in his Just So Stories . The use of O may be considered a form of clitic and should not be confused with the interjection oh . However, as

2494-649: The IPA symbols: Stress was on the final syllable in the native lexical stratum ( čhavó 'boy'), except that certain suffixes were not counted as part of the word for the purposes of stress placement, so the stress was placed before them instead ( čhavés-ke 'for the boy'). These were the Layer II case markers (e.g. -ke , 'for'), the vocative markers, the present/future marker -a and the remoteness marker -asi . The mediopassive suffix did not receive stress either, e.g. díkh-jol 'is seen'. The special behaviour of these suffixes

2580-745: The International Phonetic Association . In their Handbook , they give the example of [ᶑ] , a retroflex implosive, but when they requested an expansion of coverage of the International Phonetic Alphabet by Unicode in 2020, they supported the addition superscript variants of not just [ᶑ] but of the retroflex lateral fricatives [ꞎ] and [𝼅] , of the retroflex lateral flap [𝼈] , and of the retroflex click release [𝼊] . (See Latin Extended-F .) The lateral fricatives are explicitly provided for by extIPA . Most of these sounds are not common, but they all occur. For example,

2666-767: The Iwaidja language of northern Australia has a retroflex lateral flap [𝼈] ( [ɺ̢] ) as well as a retroflex tap [ɽ] and retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ] ; and the Dravidian language Toda has a subapical retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ] ( [ɭ̊˔] ) and a retroflexed trill [ɽr] . The Ngad'a language of Flores has been reported to have a retroflex implosive [ᶑ] . Subapical retroflex clicks occur in Central !Kung , and possibly in Damin . Most languages with retroflex sounds typically have only one retroflex sound with

Early Romani - Misplaced Pages Continue

2752-562: The Oxford English Dictionary points out, "O" and "oh" were originally used interchangeably. With the advent of "oh" as a written interjection , however, "O" is the preferred modern spelling in vocative phrases. Modern English commonly uses the objective case for vocative expressions but sets them off from the rest of the sentences with pauses as interjections, rendered in writing as commas (the vocative comma ). Two common examples of vocative expressions in English are

2838-500: The grooved alveolar sibilants. The farther back the point of contact with the roof of the mouth, the more concave is the shape of the tongue, and the duller (lower pitched) is the sound, with subapical consonants being the most extreme. The main combinations normally observed are: Subapical sounds are sometimes called "true retroflex" because of the curled-back shape of the tongue, and the other sounds sometimes go by other names. For example, Ladefoged and Maddieson prefer to call

2924-480: The hard palate ( palatal ). Finally, both sibilant ( fricative or affricate ) and nonsibilant ( stop , nasal , lateral , rhotic ) consonants can have a retroflex articulation. The greatest variety of combinations occurs with sibilants, because for them, small changes in tongue shape and position cause significant changes in the resulting sound. Retroflex sounds generally have a duller, lower-pitched sound than other alveolar or postalveolar consonants, especially

3010-414: The locative case , with the exception of a handful of words such as Bóg → Boże ' God ' , ojciec → ojcze ' father ' and chłopiec → chłopcze ' boy ' . Neuter nouns and all plural nouns have the same form in the nominative and the vocative: The latter form of the vocative of człowiek ' human ' is now considered poetical. The nominative is increasingly used instead of

3096-521: The nominative . The vocative plural is usually the same as the nominative plural except, again, for first declension nouns. In the standard language first declension nouns show the vocative plural by adding -a . In the spoken dialects the vocative plural is often has the same form as the nominative plural (as with the nouns of other declensions) or the dative plural (e.g. A fhearaibh! = Men!) The vocative case in Scottish Gaelic follows

3182-409: The vocative case ( abbreviated VOC ) is a grammatical case which is used for a noun that identifies a person (animal, object, etc.) being addressed or occasionally for the noun modifiers ( determiners , adjectives , participles , and numerals ) of that noun. A vocative expression is an expression of direct address by which the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within

3268-1109: The Americas with the exception of the extreme south of South America, an area in the Southwestern United States as in Hopi and O'odham , and in Alaska and the Yukon Territory as in the Athabaskan languages Gwich’in and Hän . In African languages retroflex consonants are also rare but reportedly occur in a few Nilo-Saharan languages , as well as in the Bantu language Makhuwa and some other varieties. In southwest Ethiopia, phonemically distinctive retroflex consonants are found in Bench and Sheko , two contiguous, but not closely related, Omotic languages. There are several retroflex consonants that are implied by

3354-583: The Early Romani forms were: The numeral jekh 'one' could be used to express indefiniteness, but its use was not obligatory. The numerals from 1 to 10 were: The teens were formed according to the pattern 'ten-and-unit' using the conjunction -u- 'and' borrowed from an Iranian language, little used elsewhere in Early Romani: e.g. deš-u-trin for 13, except for teens containing the Greek-derived units 7, 8 and 9: thus deš-efta for 17. Thus: Of

3440-504: The Indo-European word for "wolf" in various languages: The elements separated with hyphens denote the stem, the so-called thematic vowel of the case and the actual suffix. In Latin, for example, the nominative case is lupu s and the vocative case is lupe , but the accusative case is lupu m . The asterisks before the Proto-Indo-European words means that they are theoretical reconstructions and are not attested in

3526-476: The accusative case is often used as a vocative in informal speech for a limited number of nouns, and always used for certain modern Greek person names: " Έλα εδώ, Χρήστο " "Come here, Christos" instead of " ...Χρήστε ". Other nominal declensions use the same form in the vocative as the accusative in formal or informal speech, with the exception of learned Katharevousa forms that are inherited from Ancient Greek Ἕλλην (Demotic Έλληνας , "Greek man"), which have

Early Romani - Misplaced Pages Continue

3612-534: The appropriate Layer I oblique case form. After the plural oblique Layer I suffix ending in /n/, the initial voiceless consonant of the suffixes became voiced and the sibilant turned into an affricate. The forms were as follows: The genitive took the inflectional endings of adjectives and agreed with the modified noun: -ker-o , -ker-e , etc (an example of Suffixaufnahme ). The genitive suffix may also have had an optional short variant - k -/- g - besides - ker -/ -ger -, as seen in several modern dialects, with or without

3698-644: The consonant k ). The inflection pattern in the nominative was somewhat unique. The forms were as follows (sources differ on whether the consonants in parentheses were present): In addition, the following more archaic and simpler demonstrative forms must have still had some limited (less emphatic) use in Early Romani, since they are preserved in various dialects and even retain the default function in Epiros Romani to this day: Corresponding adverbs were adaj 'here', odoj 'there', akaj 'precisely here' and okoj 'precisely there'. A related temporal adverb

3784-412: The determiner precedes nouns in all cases except the vocative. Any noun not preceded by an article or other determiner is in the vocative case. It is most often used to address someone or some group of living beings, usually in conjunction with an imperative construct. It can also be used to address dead matter as if the matter could react or to tell something astonishing or just happening such as "Your nose

3870-452: The forms without -s , but if the latter interpretation is correct, then both rules would be the result of a later generalisation. Note, moreover, that originally neuter Greek words like kókalo also seem to have retained a Greek plural in -a : kókala 'bones'. *** - However, the oblique form of the abstract nouns formed with the suffix -im-o ended in -im-as . They retained a Greek plural in -im-ata . The Layer II suffixes are added to

3956-403: The gender of the word and exhibit some unpredictable lexical variation that makes it possible to speak of declension classes. Layer II suffixes express only case and have largely the same form. The most common endings can be summarised as follows: Native feminine stems had a tendency to exhibit /j/ in front of the vowel of the suffix outside of the nominative singular: -j-a , -j-en etc. This

4042-491: The grammatical morphemes in Romani noun declension are classified into three layers - Layer I (remainders of Old Indo-Aryan inflectional endings), Layer II (a set of originally separate words turned into new postposed inflectional elements) and Layer III ( adpositions ). Layer I suffixes are portmanteau morphs that simultaneously express case (nominative, oblique or vocative ) and number, have different variants according to

4128-475: The grammatical particles lê (feminine) and lo (masculine): In Hindi - Urdu ( Hindustani ), the vocative case has the same form as the nominative case for all singular nouns except for the singular masculine nouns that terminate in the vowel आ / aː / ā and for all nouns in their plural forms the vocative case is always distinct from the nominative case. Adjectives in Hindi-Urdu also have

4214-597: The importance of the notice. The vocative is not generally marked in English in regular communication. A vocative expression in English may be marked by the particle "O" preceding the noun; this is often used in English translations of languages that do have the vocative case. It is often seen in the King James Version of the Bible : "O ye of little faith" (in Matthew 8:26). While it is not strictly archaic, it

4300-636: The initial consonant of the word, with no obligatory particle. Despite its use being less common, it is still used in formal address: the common phrase foneddigion a boneddigesau means "gentlemen and ladies", with the initial consonant of boneddigion undergoing a soft mutation; the same is true of gyfeillion ("[dear] friends") in which cyfeillion has been lenited. It is often used to draw attention to at public notices orally and written – teachers will say " Blant " (mutation of plant ' children ' ) and signage such as one right show mutation of myfyrwyr ' students ' to draw attention to

4386-449: The laminal post-alveolar sounds "flat post-alveolar". Retroflex sounds must be distinguished from other consonants made in the same parts of the mouth: The first three types of sounds above have a convex tongue shape, which gives them an additional secondary articulation of palatalization . The last type has a groove running down the center line of the tongue, which gives it a strong hissing quality. The retroflex sounds, however, have

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4472-719: The nominative commonly takes the place of the vocative as well: Ania, chodź tu! instead of Aniu, chodź tu! ("Anne, come here!"). The historic Slavic vocative has been lost in Russian and is now used only in archaic expressions. Several of them, mostly of Old Church Slavonic origin, are common in colloquial Russian: " Боже! " ( Bože , vocative of " Бог " Bog , "God") and " Боже мой! " ( Bože moj , "My God!"), and " Господи! " ( Gospodi , vocative of " Господь " Gospodj , "Lord"), which can also be expressed as " Господи Иисусе! " ( Gospodi Iisuse! , Iisuse vocative of " Иисус " Iisus , "Jesus"). The vocative

4558-461: The nominative, it is omitted and the stem vowel may be altered: -ā and -ĭ become -e , -ŭ becomes -o , -ī and -ū become short and -ṛ becomes -ar . Consonant-stem nouns have no ending in the vocative: The vocative form is the same as the nominative except in the masculine and feminine singular. Old Church Slavonic has a distinct vocative case for many stems of singular masculine and feminine nouns, otherwise it

4644-411: The noun in question. This is not the case when in vocative constructions. In Ancient Greek , the vocative case is usually identical to the nominative case, with the exception of masculine second-declension nouns (ending in -ος) and third-declension nouns. Second-declension masculine nouns have a regular vocative ending in -ε. Third-declension nouns with one syllable ending in -ς have a vocative that

4730-481: The noun to be in the locative case, at least if animate, but may have taken the nominative case if inanimate, as commonly found in modern dialects. However, bi 'without' took the genitive and vaš 'for' took the dative. Adjectives used attributively or predicatively were normally declined as follows: A small group of adjectives such as šukar 'pretty' ended in a consonant and were indeclinable. Nominalised adjectives were declined like nouns: e.g. e phures-ke 'for

4816-453: The old one'. The comparative and superlative were expressed by the form constructed with the suffix -eder . The personal pronouns were: The possessive forms inflected and agreed with the modified noun like adjectives: tir-o , tir-i , tir-e , etc. In the 3rd person, there were two sets of nominative forms - the emphatic and the non-emphatic pronouns, the latter being commonly used anaphorically and encliticised. The reflexive

4902-418: The older -asa ), the instrumental plural case ending after vowels ( -V-ha alongside older -V-sa ) and the copula having variants beginning in h- alongside the older s- . Many dialects have extended this pattern to many more forms and have generalised the /h/ variants, whereas others have only retained the conservative forms with /s/ without any trace of the alternation. The vowel /i/ was desyllabified to

4988-540: The phrases "Mr. President" and "Madam Chairwoman". Some traditional texts use Jesu , the Latin vocative form of Jesus . One of the best-known examples is Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring . In some German dialects , like the Ripuarian dialect of Cologne , it is common to use the (gender-appropriate) article before a person's name. In the vocative phrase then the article is, as in Venetian and Catalan, omitted. Thus,

5074-443: The place of articulation to a uvular, i.e. had acquired the modern Kalderash pronunciation [ ʁ ]. On the other hand, the possibility has also been entertained that there may still have been not just one, but several retroflexes in Early Romani, including a nasal and a lateral. Dentals may have been allophonically palatalised before /i/. The following Latin letters are used in this article to designate sounds in ways different from

5160-886: The rest having both stops and continuants. Retroflex consonants are concentrated in the Indian subcontinent , particularly in the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages , but are found in other languages of the region as well, such as the Munda languages and Burushaski . The Nuristani languages of eastern Afghanistan also have retroflex consonants. Among Eastern Iranian languages , they are common in Pashto , Wakhi , Sanglechi- Ishkashimi , and Munji - Yidgha . They also occur in some other Asian languages such as Mandarin Chinese , Javanese and Vietnamese . The other major concentration

5246-414: The same basic pattern as Irish. The vocative case causes lenition of the initial consonant of nouns. Lenition changes the initial sound of the word (or name). In addition, masculine nouns are slenderized if possible (that is, in writing, an 'i' is inserted before the final consonant) This also changes the pronunciation of the word. Also, the particle a is placed before the noun unless it begins with

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5332-411: The same form: see Czech declension .) Using the vocative is strongly recommended in official and written styles. In Polish , the vocative ( wołacz ) is formed with feminine nouns usually taking -o except those that end in -sia , -cia , -nia , and -dzia , which take -u , and those that end in -ść , which take -i . Masculine nouns generally follow the complex pattern of

5418-453: The same meaning), as seen in kaj-či and kaj-ni-či 'anything'. So could, possibly, an indefinite particle -ni, as seen in kaj-ni 'wherever' and in kaj-ni-či . The postposed particle -moni expressed free-choice indefinite constructions such as kon-moni 'whoever', či-moni 'whatever', kajmoni 'wherever'. Finally, there may have been a preposed particle vare- , which had been borrowed from Romanian - unusually for Early Romani - and

5504-478: The same nominative and vocative forms instead. Kurdish has a vocative case. For instance, in the dialect of Kurmanji , it is created by adding the suffix -o at the end of masculine words and the -ê suffix at the end of feminine ones. In the Jafi dialect of Sorani it is created by adding the suffix of -i at the end of names. Instead of the vocative case, forms of address may be created by using

5590-526: The sense of 'which' as well as 'where' and thus as a more or less general 'subordinator' and 'relativiser' of clauses (as well as in the sense of 'that' as a complementiser: 'I think that ...'). Indefinite pronouns could be formed in several ways. The word kaj (rarely daj ) 'some, any' could be preposed to other expressions to express indefiniteness (e.g. kaj-jekh 'anyone > anybody', kaj-či 'anything'). The word či 'something, anything' could apparently be postposed to other expressions (still retaining

5676-400: The shape of the tongue. The tongue may be either flat or concave, or even with the tip curled back. The point of contact on the tongue may be with the tip ( apical ), with the blade ( laminal ), or with the underside of the tongue ( subapical ). The point of contact on the roof of the mouth may be with the alveolar ridge ( alveolar ), the area behind the alveolar ridge ( postalveolar ), or

5762-567: The shortened forms son and vin in vocative phrases. Additionally, adjectives in vocative phrases are always weakly declined, but elsewhere with proper nouns, they would usually be declined strongly: Nouns in Norwegian are not inflected for the vocative case, but adjectives qualifying those nouns are; adjectival adjuncts modifying vocative nouns are inflected for the definite (see: Norwegian language#Adjectives ). The definite and plural inflections are in most cases identical, so it

5848-489: The stem consonant in Old Church Slavonic because of the so-called First Palatalization. Most modern Slavic languages that retain the vocative case have altered the ending to avoid the change: Bulgarian вълко occurs far more frequently than вълче . The vocative is distinct in singular and identical to the nominative in the plural, for all inflected nouns. Nouns with a nominative singular ending in -a have

5934-551: The tens, 30 and probably 40 and 50 were borrowed into Early Romani from Greek, while the others were formed with native roots, mostly with the morpheme - var meaning 'times', i.e. 'X times 10': Combinations of tens between 30 and 90 and single digits were formed not with - u- but with thaj 'and' (the usual Romani conjunction with that meaning): trianda-thaj-jekh for 31, if a conjunction was used at all. The combinations with biš (20) also used - thaj- according to Peter Bakker, while Viktor Elšík and Yaron Matras consider - u- to be

6020-605: The tongue is curled back and contacts the hard palate, and use the alveolar symbols with the obsolete IPA underdot symbol for an apical post-alveolar articulation: ⟨ ṭ, ḍ, ṇ, ṣ, ẓ, ḷ, ɾ̣, ɹ̣ ⟩, and use ⟨ ᶘ, ᶚ ⟩ for laminal retroflex, as in Polish and Russian. The latter are also often transcribed with a retraction diacritic, as ⟨ s̠ ⟩. Otherwise they are typically but inaccurately transcribed as if they were palato-alveolar, as ⟨ ʃ ⟩. Consonants with more forward articulation, in which

6106-529: The tongue touches the alveolar or postalveolar region rather than the hard palate, can be indicated with the retracted diacritic ( minus sign below ). This occurs especially for [s̠ ẕ] ; other sounds indicated this way, such as ⟨ ṉ ḻ ḏ ⟩, tend to refer to alveolo-palatal rather than retroflex consonants. Although data are not precise, about 20 percent of the world's languages contain retroflex consonants of one sort or another. About half of these possess only retroflex continuants , with most of

6192-403: The top of', upre/opre 'above, on, over', and vaš 'for'. The pairs andre - andar , angle - anglal , ke / te - katar / tar formed locative-ablative pairs, but there were no special directive prepositions - the locative ones were used to express direction as well. Certain prepositions ending in vowels dropped them before the definite article: e.g. ke - + -o > ko . The bare oblique case

6278-418: The town'). The consonant /s/ appears to have exhibited an optional alternation with /h/ in certain morphemes in Early Romani, a variation pattern inherited from late Middle Indo-Aryan . These must have included the 2nd singular ending -es when followed by the suffix -a (producing - eha alongside the older -esa ), and, due to analogy, the 1st plural ending -as in front of -a (producing - aha alongside

6364-423: The two strata were often formed and declined somewhat differently. Early Romani nominals had two genders , masculine and feminine, two numbers - singular and plural, and eight cases - nominative, accusative (oblique), vocative, dative, ablative, locative, instrumental and genitive. The nominal phrases also expressed definiteness by means of a definite article . Partly like other Modern Indo-Aryan languages ,

6450-454: The underside of the tongue tip ( subapical ). These sounds are sometimes described as "true" retroflex consonants. However, retroflexes are commonly taken to include other consonants having a similar place of articulation without such extreme curling of the tongue; these may be articulated with the tongue tip ( apical ) or the tongue blade ( laminal ). Retroflex consonants, like other coronal consonants , come in several varieties, depending on

6536-478: The variants of the nominative without -s found in some dialects might be due to a late reinterpretation of the -s as an oblique ending by analogy with native stratum words. However, the forms without -s might be original in words that were of neuter gender in Greek such as kókalo 'bone', since these, too, were adapted as masculine words in Romani. Present-day dialects have either only the forms with -s or only

6622-646: The vocative case has been absorbed by the nominative, but others still distinguish it, including the Baltic languages , some Celtic languages and most Slavic languages . Some linguists, such as Albert Thumb  [ de ] , argue that the vocative form is not a case but a special form of nouns not belonging to any case, as vocative expressions are not related syntactically to other words in sentences. Pronouns usually lack vocative forms. Distinct vocative forms are assumed to have existed in all early Indo-European languages and survive in some. Here is, for example,

6708-457: The vocative is always used: In Czech , the vocative ( vokativ , or 5. pád – ' the fifth case ' ) usually differs from the nominative in masculine and feminine nouns in the singular. In older common Czech (19th century), vocative form was sometimes replaced by nominative form in case of female names ( Lojzka, dej pokoj! ) and in case of male nouns past a title ( pane učitel! , pane továrník! , pane Novák! ). This phenomenon

6794-534: The vocative to address people with their proper names. In other contexts the vocative remains prevalent. It is used: The vocative is also often employed in affectionate and endearing contexts such as Kocham Cię, Krzysiu! ("I love you, Chris!") or Tęsknię za Tobą, moja Żono ("I miss you, my wife."). In addition, the vocative form sometimes takes the place of the nominative in informal conversations: Józiu przyszedł instead of Józio przyszedł ("Joey's arrived"). When referring to someone by their first name,

6880-472: Was akana 'now'. 'Such' was asav- . Interrogative pronouns were kon (obl. kas- ) 'who', kaj 'where' ( katar 'where from?'), kana 'when', so 'what', sav- 'which, what sort of' (declined as an adjective), sar 'how' and keti 'how much'. For 'why' the dative of so was used: sos-ke . There may also have been an interrogative kibor 'how big'. The interrogatives could also be used as relative pronouns , especially kaj, which also occurred in

6966-573: Was added to interrogative pronouns: vare-so 'something'. Totality was expressed by the particle sa 'everything, all, always', savořo 'all' and the Slavic-derived vsako 'every'. Early Romani had a definite article, which was also used, as in Greek, with proper nouns and to express generic reference in various constructions (e.g. content or origin, lit. 'made out of the X'). The exact forms are difficult to reconstruct due to great dialectal variation. According to Yaron Matras' account,

7052-492: Was always the case if the nominative singular ended in -i . The following is a complete list of Early Romani declension classes largely as reconstructed by Viktor Elšík (with terminology adapted for this article): singular (exceptional) (-a) * - The stems formed with the suffixes -ipen and -ibe(n) dropped the - e - before endings: oblique -ipn-as , -ibn-as , nominative plural -ipn-a , -ibn-a . ** - In foreign-stratum masculine words in -o(s) , -u(s) , -i(s) ,

7138-632: Was caused mainly by the German influence, and almost disappeared from the modern Czech. It can be felt as rude, discourteous or uncultivated, or as familiar, and is associated also with Slovakian influence (from the Czechoslovak Army) or Russian. In informal speech, it is common (but grammatically incorrect ) to use the male surname (see also Czech name ) in the nominative to address men: pane Novák! instead of pane Nováku! (Female surnames are adjectives , and their nominative and vocative have

7224-455: Was due the fact that they had originally been independent words. In addition, original compound verbs ending in -d- 'to give' had stress on the original first compound member ( váz-dav 'I lift'). In the foreign lexical component, words could be stressed on any syllable in accordance with the pronunciation in the source language ( fóros 'town'), but when native suffixes were added, the stems received final stress like native stems ( forós-ke 'for

7310-421: Was used only in the third person. The demonstrative pronouns had a four-term system that contrasted deictic use (for immediately present referents, expressed by the vowel a ) and anaphoric use (for discussed referents, expressed by the vowel o ), as well as plain use (for normal indication, expressed by the consonant d ) and specific use (for emphasis and contrast with other referents, expressed by

7396-489: Was used: 1. as an accusative ( direct object ) case with animate nouns (as well as with pronouns), whereas inanimate nouns used the nominative. 2. It was also used to express possession: man si kher 'I have a house'. 3. Further, it expressed the indirect object of the verb 'to give', i.e. functioned as a dative case. The instrumental was used also as a comitative case , meaning 'together with' as well as 'by means of'. Adjuncts to almost all prepositions required

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