103-428: The Kingdom of East Breifne or Breifne O'Reilly ( Old Irish : Muintir-Maelmordha ; Irish : Bréifne Uí Raghallaigh , IPA: [ˈbʲɾʲeːfʲnʲə iː ˈɾˠəil̪ˠiː] ) was an historic kingdom of Ireland roughly corresponding to County Cavan that existed from 1256 to 1607 . It took its present boundaries in 1579 when East Breifne was renamed Cavan, after Cavan town , and shired into Ulster . Originally part of
206-444: A broad labial (for example, lebor /ˈLʲev u r/ "book"; domun /ˈdoṽ u n/ "world"). The phoneme /ə/ occurred in other circumstances. The occurrence of the two phonemes was generally unrelated to the nature of the corresponding Proto-Celtic vowel, which could be any monophthong: long or short. Long vowels also occur in unstressed syllables. However, they rarely reflect Proto-Celtic long vowels, which were shortened prior to
309-464: A castle. This remained the residence of the O'Reilly king until the 17th century. Under his successor, Giolla Iosa Ruaidh, a town grew around the site and came to be known as " an Cabhán ", in reference to its topography as a hollow area between many drumlins . He also founded the Franciscan friary where he retired to around the year 1327. The eldest of his 13 sons, Maelseachleann, died in 1328 and
412-429: A consonant ensures its unmutated sound. While the letter ⟨c⟩ may be voiced / ɡ / at the end of some words, but when it is written double ⟨cc⟩ it is always voiceless / k / in regularised texts; however, even final /ɡ/ was often written "cc", as in bec / becc "small, little" (Modern Irish and Scottish beag , Manx beg ). In later Irish manuscripts, lenited f and s are denoted with
515-600: A crushing defeat for Fearghal and his rebel forces and O’Neill continued his march into Leinster, joined by Eoghan na Feosaige, inflicting defeats on the Anglo-Normans of " South Meath " and the Plunketts and Herberts of " Westmeath " in 1430. Eoghan na Feosaige had defeated the rebellion against him and defended his title, but at a cost. Tyrone had a policy of offering military or financial aid to other ruling families in exchange for subservience and recognition of
618-588: A force of no more than 600 men and was forced to return to England in late 1449. This left Fearghal without the support of the lord lieutenant and no local support within East Breifne, up against the formidable forces of Ulster. Fearghal's second attempt to claim the kingship had floundered, and with Butler's death in 1452 the Clan Mahon O’Reilly were left without allies. Their sept never again gained kingship of East Breifne. Due to East Breifne's location,
721-525: A full-scale rebellion against Eoghan na Feosaige in 1427. Fearghal had assembled a seemingly insurmountable force that included the MacCabes , a military clan from within East Breifne, King Tadhg O’Rourke of West Breifne, who had emerged victorious from the war of succession, as well as Richard Talbot the Lord Chancellor of Ireland . With a hostile O'Rourke in the west and Talbot marching up from
824-547: A kin-group known as Uí Briúin , who settled the east Breifne area in the eighth century AD. At some point they splintered off from the Uí Briúin sept and became known as Muintir-Maelmordha, named after their chief Maelmordha who lived in the 9th century. They did not assume a surname until the early 11th century when they became known as O Raghallaigh, from the chieftain Raghallach. They are believed to have arrived in what
927-722: A power vacuum which Maelmordha, son of King Cu Chonnacht (1349-1365), exploited to proclaim himself king with the support of the clans of East Breifne. This was in competition to Eoghan na Feosaige, Seoan's son, who was supported by the English government in Dublin and the Anglo-Normans in Meath. Eoghan na Feosaige reaffirmed his acknowledgement that he and his kingdom were lieges to England and vowed to observe and fulfill all agreements made between them and his late father. This ploy to get
1030-500: A short siege, retook the castle at Lough Oughter, which they finished in 1233. During Marshal's punitive war in Ireland, chief Cathal O'Reilly, great-grandson of Geofraidh, exploited the power vacuum left by de Lacy to secure control of Breifne from his enemies. In 1226 he captured and demolished de Lacy's castle at Kilmore and raided into western Breifne, killing the O'Rourke king's son Aodh at Lough Allen . Cathal had set into motion
1133-459: A sound / h / and a letter h , there is no consistent relationship between the two. Vowel-initial words are sometimes written with an unpronounced h , especially if they are very short (the Old Irish preposition i "in" was sometimes written hi ) or if they need to be emphasised (the name of Ireland, Ériu , was sometimes written Hériu ). On the other hand, words that begin with
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#17327931619861236-423: A verb, the term can be used in both past and present tense ; in present tense the term is referred to as parleying . In some cases, opposing parties would signal their intent to invoke parley by using a white flag , however the use of a white flag to invoke or request parley is not considered mandatory. The term parley has been used to refer to numerous high-profile meetings of the 20th century, including
1339-426: Is forebear to Modern Irish , Manx and Scottish Gaelic . Old Irish is known for having a particularly complex system of morphology and especially of allomorphy (more or less unpredictable variations in stems and suffixes in differing circumstances), as well as a complex sound system involving grammatically significant consonant mutations to the initial consonant of a word. Apparently, neither characteristic
1442-489: Is known as Primitive Irish . Fragments of Primitive Irish, mainly personal names, are known from inscriptions on stone written in the Ogham alphabet. The inscriptions date from about the 4th to the 6th centuries. Primitive Irish appears to have been very close to Common Celtic , the ancestor of all Celtic languages , and it had a lot of the characteristics of other archaic Indo-European languages. Relatively little survives in
1545-585: Is now County Cavan in the 10th century. Muintir-Maelmordha first appear in the Irish annals as a clan ruling a small territory around Lough Ramor called Machaire Gailenga in 1126, at which point they are a vassal of the O'Rourkes. Machaire Gailenga was annexed after the O'Reilly were defeated by the O'Rourkes and became a constituent clan within what was then known as the Kingdom of Bréifne and Conmaicne . King Tigernán Mór Ua Ruairc , who reigned from 1124 to 1172,
1648-431: Is subject to u -affection, becoming ⟨éu⟩ or ⟨íu⟩ , while /e₁ː/ is not. A similar distinction may have existed between /o₁ː/ and /o₂ː/ , both written ⟨ó⟩ , and stemming respectively from former diphthongs (*eu, *au, *ou) and from compensatory lengthening. However, in later Old Irish both sounds appear usually as ⟨úa⟩ , sometimes as ⟨ó⟩ , and it
1751-463: Is the oldest form of the Goidelic/Gaelic language for which there are extensive written texts. It was used from c. 600 to c. 900. The main contemporary texts are dated c. 700–850; by 900 the language had already transitioned into early Middle Irish . Some Old Irish texts date from the 10th century, although these are presumably copies of texts written at an earlier time. Old Irish
1854-594: Is unclear whether /o₂ː/ existed as a separate sound any time in the Old Irish period. /ou/ existed only in early archaic Old Irish ( c. 700 or earlier); afterwards it merged into /au/ . Neither sound occurred before another consonant, and both sounds became ⟨ó⟩ in later Old Irish (often ⟨ú⟩ or ⟨u⟩ before another vowel). The late ⟨ó⟩ does not develop into ⟨úa⟩ , suggesting that ⟨áu⟩ > ⟨ó⟩ postdated ⟨ó⟩ > ⟨úa⟩ . Later Old Irish had
1957-674: The Stowe Missal date from about 900 to 1050. In addition to contemporary witnesses, the vast majority of Old Irish texts are attested in manuscripts of a variety of later dates. Manuscripts of the later Middle Irish period, such as the Lebor na hUidre and the Book of Leinster , contain texts which are thought to derive from written exemplars in Old Irish now lost and retain enough of their original form to merit classification as Old Irish. The preservation of certain linguistic forms current in
2060-559: The eclipsis consonants also denoted with a superdot: Old Irish digraphs include the lenition consonants: the eclipsis consonants: the geminatives : and the diphthongs : The following table indicates the broad pronunciation of various consonant letters in various environments: When the consonants b, d, g are eclipsed by the preceding word (always from a word-initial position), their spelling and pronunciation change to: ⟨mb⟩ / m / , ⟨nd⟩ /N/ , ⟨ng⟩ / ŋ / Generally, geminating
2163-589: The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1447, renewed their backing of Fearghal. He also received the support of Eoghan na Feosaige's brother Domnall and James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond . Sean an Einigh, Eoghan na Feosaige's son, received the support of Tyrone, and with it the support of the other magnates of Ulster. What could’ve spiraled into a protracted war of succession was avoided when Domnall dropped his support for Fearghal and backed his nephew Sean an Einigh in 1450. The heavily indebted Duke of York commanded
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#17327931619862266-569: The Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. With Norman aid Mac Murchada retook Leinster, and set Kells, Breifne's easternmost outpost, ablaze. In 1170 Breifne was invaded and in the following years the kingdom was carved up by the Normans. O'Rourke power was weakened whilst the O'Reilly submitted to Mac Murchada and his Norman allies during the conquest. Shortly after Mac Murchada's death in May 1171, most of
2369-549: The Rough Wooing period, he offered to send his eldest son Aodh Connallach to command the forces of the English king in Scotland. Tyrone would again cast its shadow over East Breifne during Shane O’Neill's conquest of Ulster from 1559 to 1567. The virulently anti-English O’Neill took aim at every lord who co-operated with them and by 1560 was the undisputed ruler of Ulster "from Drogheda to Erne". The restrictions placed on
2472-858: The Würzburg Glosses (mainly) on the Pauline Epistles , the Milan Glosses on a commentary to the Psalms and the St Gall Glosses on Priscian 's Grammar. Further examples are found at Karlsruhe (Germany), Paris (France), Milan, Florence and Turin (Italy). A late 9th-century manuscript from the abbey of Reichenau , now in St. Paul in Carinthia (Austria), contains a spell and four Old Irish poems. The Liber Hymnorum and
2575-468: The orthography of Old Irish is not fixed, so the following statements are to be taken as generalisations only. Individual manuscripts may vary greatly from these guidelines. The Old Irish alphabet consists of the following eighteen letters of the Latin alphabet : in addition to the five long vowels , shown by an acute accent (´): the lenited consonants denoted with a superdot (◌̇): and
2678-609: The parliament in Dublin in 1541 to take the oath of allegiance and initiate the process of surrendering his lands to be re-granted an English Lordship of them. O’Reilly continued to serve the crown's interests, arranging a meeting between Lord Deputy Anthony St Ledger and Manus O'Donnell in Cavan in 1541, during which the latter agreed to travel to England and submit to the king. East Breifne sent soldiers to accompany Henry VIII's expedition into France in 1544 and in February 1546 during
2781-491: The 12-year-old Gerald FitzGerald to his title in Kildare, but which later expanded into a war against Henry VIII 's encroachments in Ireland. Lord Deputy Leonard Grey demanded that O’Reilly join the English against the rebel league, but he refused due to internal instability and the insecurity of his position. Grey's hollow threats against the kingdom only strained relations. In 1538 with his position secure, O’Reilly joined
2884-611: The 1530s with the latter's affiliation with the Geraldine League . The league was an alliance that brought Conn O’Neill of Tyrone together with the Anglo-Irish FitzGeralds of Kildare , traditional enemies of the O'Reillys. This left East Breifne alienated from both the north and south and anxious to secure good relations with England as a bulwark against the historical dominance of their Tyrone overlords. In 1533 King Fearghal mac Seaain appealed directly to
2987-533: The Anglo-Norman forces despite the latter's superior technology, such as chain armour . However, by 1239 and throughout the 1240s, the O'Reilly came into conflict with O'Conor. The king of Connacht was severely diminished and ruled only the area of modern-day County Roscommon , most of the province had fallen to de Burgh. The O'Reilly were now the most powerful players in the region and Cúchonnacht attempted to cement his dominance. Given his actions, Cúchonnacht
3090-470: The Autumn of 1242, when it had become apparent that Tadhg had garnered little support for his claim and was no longer of any use to Cúchonnacht, he was seized and imprisoned. In the spring of 1243, Cúchonnacht ordered the young prince to be blinded and castrated. This drove Felim to throw more support behind the O'Rourkes and their claim to Breifne. The 1240s saw widespread conflict between the native Irish and
3193-747: The Clan Muircheartaigh attempted to assassinate Tiernan Mór, possibly in an unsuccessful attempt to curry favour with the O’Reillys and return from exile. Seoan O'Reilly was made king in 1392. In autumn of 1394 Richard II of England arrived in Ireland with a force of 8,000 at the behest of the Anglo-Irish lords in and around the Pale , who were in danger of being overrun by the Irish clans of Leinster . The invasion proved to be one of Richard II's few successes and many Irish chieftains submitted to
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3296-530: The Continent were much less prone to the same risk because once they ceased to be understood, they were rarely consulted. The earliest Old Irish passages may be the transcripts found in the Cambrai Homily , which is thought to belong to the early 8th century. The Book of Armagh contains texts from the early 9th century. Important Continental collections of glosses from the 8th and 9th century include
3399-582: The English and gave strong support to their expeditions into Ulster against the Geraldine League. The rebellion collapsed following a heavy defeat at Lake Bellahoe in Monaghan and East Breifne was now regarded as one of the most dependable crown allies in Ireland. Maolmordha O’Reilly was an enthusiastic supporter of surrender and regrant as a way of not only officially securing his own title, but securing greater independence from Tyrone. He arrived at
3502-544: The English king. A future king of East Breifne, Sean's brother Giolla Iosa, met with Richard and promised to remain a faithful subject and refrain from attacking England's other subjects in Ireland. King Seoan himself did not submit to the English king but made a separate agreement with Roger Mortimer , Earl of March and Ulster , to improve relations. Following Seoan's death in 1400, his brother and chosen successor Giolla Iosa died just one month into his reign. Giolla Iosa's unexpected death so shortly after his inauguration left
3605-525: The English to support his claim alienated him from his kinsmen. The English invaded the territory in an attempt to install Eoghan na Feosaige as king but were repelled, as were the O’Rourkes of West Breifne who simultaneously attacked the east in order to capitalize on the situation. In 1403 the victorious Maelmordha was made king and ordered the assassination of one of Tighernan Mór O’Rourke's sons in retaliation for their opportunistic invasion. Eoghan na Feosaige
3708-565: The Fitzgeralds and even harmonized relations with the O’Rourkes . The Annals of the Four Masters record that Pilib crushed an attempted invasion by the O'Neills in 1581, before negotiating a peace with them later that year. The ability to project a show of strength was vital to the reputation of any Gaelic leader and as such, rather than depending on the lethargic Dublin government for security, he raised an army by drawing support from
3811-675: The Maguires, MacMahons and O'Reillys. The Fitzsimons were an English merchant family that settled in County Meath . Following a dispute with his family, one Richard FitzSimon journeyed to the Gaelic territory to seek the patronage of King Tomas Mór, who granted him lands in return for his services as a Secretan , a role that primarily consisted of letter writing due to FitzSimon's literary proficiency. Tomas Mór provided refuge and support to rivals of King Tiernan Mór O'Rourke of West Breifne in
3914-576: The Normans, who were at this stage engaged in near constant war. De Burgh's advance forced Felim O'Conor to flee to Tyrconnell in 1249. There he met with King Brian Ua Néill of Tyrone and the deposed Conchobar O'Rourke of Breifne, and they formed a coalition against the Normans and their allies. While the O'Reilly joined Maurice FitzGerald , Justiciar of Ireland in his abortive march into Ulster, Ua Néill marched south and restored Felim O'Conor to his throne in Connacht. From 1250 onwards western Breifne
4017-426: The O'Conors and the O'Rourkes, were removed and replaced with puppet leaders by Cúchonnacht. He effectively ruled by decree and garnered a reputation as a tyrant. One such instance that provoked outrage across the province was an unscrupulous deal in 1242 in which Cúchonnacht supported the claim of Tadhg O'Conor, a rival claimant to Felim, on the condition that he, as king of Connacht, renounce all claims to Breifne. By
4120-496: The O'Reilly nobles recalled Eoghan na Feosaige, who finally assumed the kingship in 1418. Eoghan na Feosaige's inauguration coincided with a war of succession that broke out in neighboring West Breifne where one of the O’Rourke claimants, Tadhg, had provocatively declared himself " king of all Breifne " In response to this claim, Eoghan weighed in on the politics of the west and backed the claim of his rival Art O’Rourke, who reigned from
4223-592: The O'Reilly territory, including the stony island at Lough Oughter , where William Gorm began construction of a castle. Cathal O'Connor , King of Connacht , wrote to Henry III in 1224 informing him that the de Lacy family had not only seized Breifne from the O'Rourkes, but the Earldom of Ulster as well. Seeing that Walter had clearly overstepped his boundaries, Henry III sent an English force led by William Marshal to Ireland to put down de Lacy. The O'Reillys assisted Marshal in his campaign against de Lacy and, following
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4326-486: The O'Rourke leaders. In 1233 William Gorm de Lacy, having received a royal pardon for his overseas service, attempted to retake Breifne with a large force of English and Anglo-Irish soldiers. He was decisively defeated by Cathal and Cúchonnacht at Moin Crandchain near the Meath border, and died from his wounds. Following the battle, eastern Breifne emerged relatively stable, but Cúchonnacht is mentioned numerous times in
4429-484: The Old Irish period may provide reason to assume that an Old Irish original directly or indirectly underlies the transmitted text or texts. The consonant inventory of Old Irish is shown in the chart below. The complexity of Old Irish phonology is from a four-way split of phonemes inherited from Primitive Irish, with both a fortis–lenis and a "broad–slender" ( velarised vs. palatalised ) distinction arising from historical changes. The sounds /f v θ ð x ɣ h ṽ n l r/ are
4532-473: The Old Irish period, but the short vowels changed much less. The following short vowels existed: The short diphthong ŏu likely existed very early in the Old Irish period, but merged with /u/ later on and in many instances was replaced with /o/ due to paradigmatic levelling. It is attested once in the phrase i r ou th by the prima manus of the Würzburg Glosses . /æ ~ œ/ arose from
4635-523: The O’Neill's overlordship of their kingdoms. Following Eoghan na Feosaige's allegiance to O’Neill, the O’Reillys appear multiple times in the annals partaking in Tyrone's various wars across Ulster, illustrating East Breifne's position as a vassal state of Tyrone. Eoghan na Feosaige died in 1449 and was buried in the monastery in Cavan. With the long disaffected claimant Fearghal still living, another dispute over
4738-479: The O’Reilly kings of East Breifne by the English to rein in their power proved to be their undoing, as the kingdom's force of less than 600 men was decimated by O’Neill's army of over 5,000. The entire English garrison for the whole of Ireland at this time was no more than 2,500. East Breifne was burnt and pillaged by O’Neill, and the O’Reillys were once again forced to submit to a Tyrone king. Maolmordha died in 1565 and
4841-529: The O’Reillys historically held a unique position as mediators between the English and Anglo-Irish of Leinster and the Gaelic lords of Ulster. With the ever-present threat of further English expansion and its western rivals persisting with their centuries-old claim over the kingdom, political stability and the ability to balance strong alliances and play both sides were vital for the country's survival. East Breifne's nearly 100-year alliance with Tyrone collapsed in
4944-631: The ailing Aodh, his son Pilib and Tánaiste Emon unexpectedly rode to Dublin with a band of horsemen to submit their lordship and apply for it to be made a shire. Following this, William Drury again travelled north and toured East Breifne to seal the agreement, after which Aodh travelled to England and was knighted. On 21 August 1579 East Breifne was officially shired as County Cavan against the backdrop of separate rebellions in Munster and Ulster by James Fitzmaurice and Turlough Luineach respectively. Unlike other counties such as Westmeath and Queen's , there
5047-461: The annals suppressing what was effectively a guerilla warfare campaign against his usurpation of their rule by various O'Rourke nobles in western Breifne. In 1237 Richard Mór de Burgh ousted Felim O'Conor who turned to Cúchonnacht for aid. Cúchonnacht was able to raise an army from the men of western Breifne, illustrating that his grip on that half of the kingdom was relatively strong by this point. Cúchonnacht and Felim had remarkable success against
5150-478: The archbishop about Riocard's behavior, which included harsh treatment of clergy and a relationship with his first cousin. Pilib took matters into his own hands and seized the bishop's lands and revenue. Although the archbishop was against Pilib's intrusions, he was far removed in Armagh and powerless to stop them. Pilib was briefly overthrown in 1369 and imprisoned at Cloughoughter castle by his nephew Maghnus, with
5253-414: The battle, as were 14 other O'Reilly nobles. Connacht and the O'Rourke emerged victorious and O'Reilly power was shattered. Relations between the O'Conor and the O'Reilly were extremely hostile and, following his victory at Magh Slecht, Aodh O'Conor , Prince of Connacht, was determined to continue to conquer into the east and bring all of Breifne under Connacht's control. This was briefly achieved following
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#17327931619865356-435: The border town of Kells in May 1579 to " determine the hurt done " between the people of the frontier and the O’Reillys. At Kells he met with Aodh, who had travelled alone. Aware that the O’Reilly king lacked the power to properly police his own borders, Drury refused to negotiate and instructed Aodh to gather his sons and the nobles of East Breifne and return when they also agreed to settle the border dispute. Later that year
5459-504: The broad lenis equivalents of broad fortis /p b t d k ɡ s m N L R/ ; likewise for the slender (palatalised) equivalents. (However, most /f fʲ/ sounds actually derive historically from /w/ , since /p/ was relatively rare in Old Irish, being a recent import from other languages such as Latin.) Some details of Old Irish phonetics are not known. /sʲ/ may have been pronounced [ɕ] or [ʃ] , as in Modern Irish. /hʲ/ may have been
5562-403: The chiefs of a branch of the O’Reilly sept known as Clan Mahon. Sean and his allies supported Eoghan na Feosaige as king, while Fearghal and his supporters argued that Fearghal was the rightful ruler of East Breifne. Fearghal continued to push his claim and garner support for a number of years. He eventually killed his brother Sean to solidify his position as the chief of Clan Mahon before launching
5665-554: The complicated Proto-Indo-European (PIE) system of morphology. Nouns and adjectives are declined in three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); three numbers (singular, dual, plural); and five cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, dative and genitive). Most PIE noun stem classes are maintained ( o -, yo -, ā -, yā -, i -, u -, r -, n -, s -, and consonant stems). Most of the complexities of PIE verbal conjugation are also maintained, and there are new complexities introduced by various sound changes (see below ). Old Irish
5768-500: The country and relieve pressure on the O'Reillys who further north had ventured into western Breifne to retake control of the territory. The two armies were meant to rendezvous at Lough Allen but the O'Reillys came under heavy attack and were forced to retreat. They were pursued northwards to Magh Slécht , where the Battle of Magh Slecht ensued. The O'Reilly and the O'Rourke suffered heavy losses, both Cúchonnacht and Cathal were slain in
5871-468: The deletion (syncope) of inner syllables. Rather, they originate in one of the following ways: Stress is generally on the first syllable of a word. However, in verbs it occurs on the second syllable when the first syllable is a clitic (the verbal prefix as- in as·beir /asˈberʲ/ "he says"). In such cases, the unstressed prefix is indicated in grammatical works with a following centre dot ( ⟨·⟩ ). As with most medieval languages ,
5974-698: The early 13th century when they were soured by Hugh's two sons, Walter and William Gorm. The influence of the Normans in eastern Breifne was considerable and by 1211 they had established castles in Belturbet and Kilmore. King John of England took possession of the Lordship of Meath from the de Lacy family following Hugh's death, but it was returned to Hugh's son Walter de Lacy in 1215. Walter, William Gorm, and their Anglo-Norman forces began expanding into Breifne in an attempt to increase their influence to western Ulster. By 1220 de Lacy had taken control of most of
6077-509: The establishment of an English shire in East Breifne. Aodh gave up his son John to Sidney in 1575. John was to be his agent in England and he travelled with Sidney to Hampton Court to formally surrender his father's lordship. John remained in England for eight years, where he learned to speak and write English fluently and became well versed in English law and agricultural practices. Due to
6180-450: The events which over the following 30 years would culminate in the dissolution of Breifne. For his assistance in the campaign against de Lacy, Henry III issued a royal grant to the King of Connacht giving him overlordship of Breifne, a position which he delegated to his son Aedh . Naturally, this position was challenged by the O'Rourkes, who themselves were overlords of Breifne. Keen to usurp
6283-592: The exception of a failed invasion by Aodh O'Conor in 1261, the early years of East Breifne were relatively uneventful. In contrast to the tumultuous decades of Cathal and Cúchonnacht, the kingdom exerted very little influence outside of its own borders. Following two combined attacks on his residence by the McKiernans of Teallach Dúnchadha and the MacGaurans of Teallach Eochaid in the late 13th century, King Ferghal moved eastwards to Tullymongan Hill, where he built
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#17327931619866386-433: The following consonant (in certain clusters) or a directly following vowel in hiatus . It is generally thought that /e₁ː/ was higher than /e₂ː/ . Perhaps /e₁ː/ was [eː] while /e₂ː/ was [ɛː] . They are clearly distinguished in later Old Irish, in which /e₁ː/ becomes ⟨ía⟩ (but ⟨é⟩ before a palatal consonant). /e₂ː/ becomes ⟨é⟩ in all circumstances. Furthermore, /e₂ː/
6489-470: The following inventory of long vowels: Early Old Irish /ai/ and /oi/ merged in later Old Irish. It is unclear what the resulting sound was, as scribes continued to use both ⟨aí⟩ and ⟨oí⟩ to indicate the merged sound. The choice of /oi/ in the table above is somewhat arbitrary. The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables is a little complicated. All short vowels may appear in absolutely final position (at
6592-669: The former were trills while the latter were flaps . /m(ʲ)/ and /ṽ(ʲ)/ were derived from an original fortis–lenis pair. Old Irish had distinctive vowel length in both monophthongs and diphthongs . Short diphthongs were monomoraic , taking up the same amount of time as short vowels, while long diphthongs were bimoraic, the same as long vowels. (This is much like the situation in Old English but different from Ancient Greek whose shorter and longer diphthongs were bimoraic and trimoraic, respectively: /ai/ vs. /aːi/ .) The inventory of Old Irish long vowels changed significantly over
6695-584: The government in England for redress against Tyrone, bypassing the Fitzgerald viceroy , who raided East Breifne in response to this circumvention of their authority. Maolmordha O'Reilly was inaugurated in 1534 to replace the ailing Ferghal mac Seaain, but was met with opposition and had to secure his position and unify the kingdom. His inauguration coincided with the FitzGerald Rebellion, a campaign initially led by Manus O'Donnell to restore
6798-470: The inauguration of Conchobar O'Reilly, Aodh's ally, as head of the O'Reilly clan. However Conchobar died the following year and was succeeded by Matha O'Reilly, who immediately broke ties with Connacht. Aodh's goal of re-establishing control of the east was never realized as political chaos, largely of Aodh's making, erupted amongst the newly restored O'Rourke dynasty, which went on to have 7 kings in 3 years (1257-1260). Any potential invasion of eastern Breifne
6901-530: The king. The country faced a potential crisis against an ascendant and hostile Tyrone and with John still in England, Aodh's second son Pilib became his lieutenant and the chief defender of East Breifne. During this time Pilib demonstrated that he could capably lead the country through the turbulence. His proficiency in Gaelic politics proved invaluable. He sealed an alliance with the Maguires through marriage, continued to strengthen East Breifne's alliance with Tyrone's enemy Tyrconnell , opened communications with
7004-403: The kingdom that year and turned out of desperation to Eoghan O’Neill, King of Tyrone , for help. O’Neill, eager to expand his kingdom's influence, happily obliged and entered the war along with his allied kingdoms Airgíalla and FirManach . The forces of O’Neill and his allies marched south and met with those of Fearghal, Talbot, O’Rourke and MacCabe at Achadh-cille-moire . The battle ended in
7107-460: The kingship was inevitable. Unlike in neighbouring West Breifne, where wars of succession were largely internal affairs decided by the clans of the kingdom, in East Breifne they were characterized by the prevalence of external forces and once again, Fearghal had the backing of some impressive allies. The English government in Dublin, headed by Richard Plantagenet the Duke of York , who had been appointed
7210-544: The late 1370s and 1380s, prompting O'Rourke to invade East Breifne in 1390. Curiously, the Clan Muircheartaigh, who had been expelled from Breifne twenty years earlier through a combined offensive by both Tadhg na gCoar O'Rourke of West Breifne and Pilib O'Reilly of East Breifne, decided to fight alongside the O'Reillys against the O'Rourkes. Tiernan Mor raided deep into East Breifne but was defeated when his forces became bogged down and surrounded in early 1391, forcing him to surrender. On his way to Drumlane to submit to Tomas Mór,
7313-422: The letter h ⟨fh⟩ , ⟨sh⟩ , instead of using a superdot ⟨ḟ⟩ , ⟨ṡ⟩ . When initial s stemmed from Primitive Irish *sw- , its lenited version is ⟨f⟩ [ ɸ ] . The slender ( palatalised ) variants of the 13 consonants are denoted with / ʲ / marking the letter. They occur in the following environments: Although Old Irish has both
7416-518: The letter m usually becomes the nasal fricative / ṽ / , but in some cases it becomes a nasal stop, denoted as / m / . In cases in which it becomes a stop, m is often written double to avoid ambiguity. Ambiguity arises in the pronunciation of the stop consonants ( c, g, t, d, p, b ) when they follow l, n, or r : Parley A parley (from French: parler – "to speak") is a discussion or conference , especially one designed to end an argument or hostilities between two groups of people. As
7519-412: The military castes of East Breifne and reached out to every branch of the O’Reilly sept to unify the kingdom and steer an independent path between Tyrone and England. Old Irish language Old Irish , also called Old Gaelic ( Old Irish : Goídelc , Ogham script : ᚌᚑᚔᚇᚓᚂᚉ; Irish : Sean-Ghaeilge ; Scottish Gaelic : Seann-Ghàidhlig ; Manx : Shenn Yernish or Shenn Ghaelg ),
7622-519: The native Irish kingdoms waged war on his successor, Richard de Clare or "Strongbow". However, the O'Reilly allied themselves with the Normans as a way of breaking free of the O'Rourke. The division between the two clans is most apparent during the Siege of Dublin, when the O'Rourke king is encamped outside the city with his Gaelic allies, and the O'Reilly king is inside aligned with Strongbow and his council. During parley in 1172 at Trim , Tighernán Mór
7725-442: The older Kingdom of Breifne , East Breifne came into existence following a protracted war between the ruling O'Rourke clan and the ascendant O'Reillys which culminated in the division of the kingdom in 1256. The Kingdom was ruled by the dynasty of the Ó Raghallaigh ( O'Reilly ) and lasted until the early 17th century. The area of modern-day east County Cavan has been inhabited for over 5,000 years. The O'Reilly are descendant from
7828-529: The power of the O'Rourkes, Aedh entered into an alliance with their most intractable enemy, the O'Reillys. The O'Rourkes now had the O'Reillys attacking from the east and Connacht attacking from the west. Evidently alarmed by the prospect of a "lesser clan" rising up and seizing control of the kingdom, Domnhall O'Donnell, King of Tyrconnell , sailed south across Lough Erne and into Lough Oughter , where he destroyed Cathal O'Reilly's home, abducting his wife Cacht, and killing his favourite horse. Cathal survived and
7931-486: The ruling O’Reilly elite's willingness to work within English institutions it was decided that East Breifne, traditionally seen as part of Connacht, was to be excluded from the first Composition of Connaught in 1577. Instead, the Lord Deputy of Ireland was to deal directly with the kingdom. First the border disputes between East Breifne and the Pale had to be resolved. Attorney General William Drury travelled to
8034-542: The same sound as /h/ or /xʲ/ . The precise articulation of the fortis sonorants /N/, /Nʲ/, /L/, /Lʲ/, /R/, /Rʲ/ is unknown, but they were probably longer, tenser and generally more strongly articulated than their lenis counterparts /n/, /nʲ/, /l/, /lʲ/, /r/, /rʲ/ , as in the Modern Irish and Scottish dialects that still possess a four-way distinction in the coronal nasals and laterals . /Nʲ/ and /Lʲ/ may have been pronounced [ɲ] and [ʎ] respectively. The difference between /R(ʲ)/ and /r(ʲ)/ may have been that
8137-408: The sound /h/ are usually written without it: a ór /a hoːr/ "her gold". If the sound and the spelling co-occur , it is by coincidence, as ní hed /Nʲiː heð/ "it is not". The voiceless stops of Old Irish are c, p, t . They contrast with the voiced stops g, b, d . Additionally, the letter m can behave similarly to a stop following vowels. These seven consonants often mutate when not in
8240-441: The south, Eoghan found himself not only fighting rebellion internally, but on two separate fronts as well. Eoghan's forces were thoroughly routed by the rebels, who almost achieved victory in 1429 when Fearghal and Talbot captured and razed Cavan town. In what would become a watershed moment in East Breifne's history that would see it firmly align itself with Ulster and drift away from the sphere of Connacht, Eoghan na Feosaige departed
8343-513: The stressed prefix air- (from Proto-Celtic *ɸare ). Archaic Old Irish (before about 750) had the following inventory of long vowels: Both /e₁ː/ and /e₂ː/ were normally written ⟨é⟩ but must have been pronounced differently because they have different origins and distinct outcomes in later Old Irish. /e₁ː/ stems from Proto-Celtic *ē (< PIE *ei), or from ē in words borrowed from Latin. /e₂ː/ generally stems from compensatory lengthening of short *e because of loss of
8446-531: The subjugated O'Reillys and their O'Rourke overlords. Tighernán Mór went to war with King Diarmait Mac Murchada of Leinster in 1152 following Mac Murchada's abduction of Queen Derbforgaill, and his claim over land that was in Brefnian possession. Taking advantage of Breifne's preoccupation, chief Geofraidh O'Reilly launched an unsuccessful rebellion in 1154 and was banished from the kingdom following his defeat. In 1155 when Donnchad Ua Cerbaill king of Airgíalla
8549-769: The support of the Clan Muircheartaigh and the McKiernans. The Maguires, who Pilib was allied with through marriage, along with the MacMahons , sailed south on the Erne and freed him. Maghnus and his plotters were then imprisoned in that same castle. 14th century East Breifne also saw the arrival of prominent Anglo-Norman families such as Lynch and Fitzsimons , as well as the Hiberno-Scottish mercenary clan MacCabe , who became gallowglass warriors for
8652-551: The territory of Carrigallen on the border with East Breifne. Eoghan stationed soldiers in Carrigallen to defend and support Art in 1419. However, like the O’Rourkes, the O’Reilly were also a deeply divided sept and a war of succession was about to unfold in East Breifne itself, forcing Eoghan to withdraw his soldiers just months later. The war's origins can be traced back to a disagreement between Sean and Fearghal O’Reilly. Both men were sons of King Tomas Mór (1385-1392) and were
8755-518: The u-infection of stressed /a/ by a /u/ that preceded a palatalized consonant. This vowel faced much inconsistency in spelling, often detectable by a word containing it being variably spelled with ⟨au, ai, e, i, u⟩ across attestations. Tulach "hill, mound" is the most commonly cited example of this vowel, with the spelling of its inflections including tulach itself, telaig , telocho , tilchaib , taulich and tailaig . This special vowel also ran rampant in many words starting with
8858-431: The very end of a word) after both broad and slender consonants. The front vowels /e/ and /i/ are often spelled ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨ai⟩ after broad consonants, which might indicate a retracted pronunciation here, perhaps something like [ɘ] and [ɨ] . All ten possibilities are shown in the following examples: The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables, other than when absolutely final,
8961-507: The way of strictly contemporary sources. They are represented mainly by shorter or longer glosses on the margins or between the lines of religious Latin manuscripts , most of them preserved in monasteries in Germany, Italy, Switzerland, France and Austria, having been taken there by early Irish missionaries . Whereas in Ireland, many of the older manuscripts appear to have been worn out through extended and heavy use, their counterparts on
9064-567: The word-initial position. In non-initial positions, the single-letter voiceless stops c, p, and t become the voiced stops / ɡ / , / b / , and / d / respectively unless they are written double. Ambiguity in these letters' pronunciations arises when a single consonant follows an l, n, or r . The lenited stops ch, ph, and th become / x / , / f / , and / θ / respectively. The voiced stops b, d, and g become fricative / v / , / ð / , and / ɣ / , respectively—identical sounds to their word-initial lenitions. In non-initial positions,
9167-408: Was able to put the traumatic event behind him, even agreeing a peace with Tyrconnell shortly afterwards. With Connacht's help, the O'Reillys had usurped control of Breifne by the early 1230s. Cathal O'Reilly ruled as king from the east of the kingdom and Cúchonnacht O'Reilly, Connacht's foremost general and close ally of King Felim O'Conor , had militarily taken control of western Breifne and expelled
9270-463: Was also banished from the kingdom that year. The O’Reilly sept and their allies continued to exclude Eoghan na Fesoagie from the kingship and elected Risdeard, son of King Tomas (1384-1392), as king following Mealmordha's death in 1411. After seven relatively uneventful years as king, Risdeard drowned along with his son and several others while sailing on Lough Sheelin , only his wife Finnuala survived and swam to safety. With few suitable heirs available
9373-410: Was betrayed and killed by Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath , throwing the O'Rourke dynasty into chaos. The instability and wars of succession between the various branches of the O'Rourke sept weakened their hold over the territory of Breifne even further. With the help of de Lacy, the O'Rourkes were driven back and expelled from O'Reilly land. Good relations between the O'Reilly and the Normans persisted until
9476-494: Was captured and imprisoned by Tighernán Mór, Geofraidh O'Reilly and his supporters ambushed the Brefnian guards and rescued Ua Cerbaill. O'Reilly was later captured and executed for this act of sedition. Tighernán Mór formed a coalition with the High King , Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair , which ousted Mac Murchada in 1166. Mac Murchada fled to England and sought help from Henry II to aid him in reconquering his kingdom. This prompted
9579-505: Was conquering eastward and it was under Tighernán Mór that the Kingdom of Breifne reached its greatest expanse, extending from Hill of Ward and Kells, County Meath to Drumcliff , County Sligo in the late 12th century. Tighernán Mór consolidated the eastern territories he had conquered through his marriage to Derbforgaill , daughter of the King of Meath . There was great animosity between
9682-489: Was listed as king in his obituary. Giolla Iosa Ruaidh remained in retirement and his second son Risdeard assumed kingship. Decades of succession stability followed, when Risdeard died his brother Cu Chonnacht became king. Cu Chonnacht retired in 1365 and passed the title to his brother Pilib. Upon his accession, Pilib confronted the Bishop of Kilmore Riocard O'Reilly, his brother Maelseachleann's son. Complaints had been made to
9785-522: Was made even more unlikely when the O'Conors and the O'Rourkes went to war in 1257 . Rivals at home and conflict in West Breifne occupied much of Aodh's time for the next decade or so. When he died in 1274 his successor had no interest in pursuing conflict with the O'Reilly. Thus, the division remained permanent. Despite a nominal claim by the O'Rourkes to the kingship of "all of Breifne", the kingdom had split into West Breifne and East Breifne. With
9888-454: Was no parliamentary statute passed to establish Cavan. It was instead created as part of an emergency defence act to protect the Pale from the aforementioned rebellions. As such, little progress was made in implementing English laws and institutions in the new county. One of the major pitfalls of dealing with the Tudor government which would consistently aggravate relations - its unaccountability -
9991-527: Was obvious just months after the agreement was made. Sir Aodh wrote to Attorney General Lucas Dillon in November to inform him that parts of his kingdom had been looted and destroyed by English captains, and that he " being under his Majesty's laws " should not be subject to such provocations. His grievances were not addressed by the government in Dublin. By 1580 Aodh's health had declined dramatically and he retreated from public life, although still officially
10094-405: Was perhaps more powerful than Cathal at this point, despite the former holding no official office or title. The conflict between the two kingdoms came to a head when the battered O'Conor sept attempted to reassert the primacy it once had over Breifne. In response to O'Conor's actions, the chiefs of the lesser clans of the area such as those at Moylurg and Muintir Eolais , traditionally vassals of
10197-519: Was present in the preceding Primitive Irish period, though initial mutations likely existed in a non-grammaticalised form in the prehistoric era. Contemporary Old Irish scholarship is still greatly influenced by the works of a small number of scholars active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Rudolf Thurneysen (1857–1940) and Osborn Bergin (1873–1950). Notable characteristics of Old Irish compared with other old Indo-European languages , are: Old Irish also preserves most aspects of
10300-488: Was quite restricted. It is usually thought that there were only two allowed phonemes: /ə/ (written ⟨a, ai, e, i⟩ depending on the quality of surrounding consonants) and /u/ (written ⟨u⟩ or ⟨o⟩ ). The phoneme /u/ tended to occur when the following syllable contained an *ū in Proto-Celtic (for example, dligud /ˈdʲlʲiɣ u ð/ "law" (dat.) < PC * dligedū ), or after
10403-427: Was succeeded by Aodh Connallach. Aodh and the newly appointed Lord Deputy Henry Sidney developed a close relationship. Upon coming to power he rebelled against Tyrone and supported Sidney against Shane O’Neill and his successor Turlough Luineach in the early 1570s. In turn, Sidney helped Aodh crush dissent against his kingship domestically. Sidney regarded Aodh as " the finest of Irishmen " and repeatedly recommended
10506-574: Was the only known member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages , which is, in turn, a subfamily of the wider Indo-European language family that also includes the Slavonic , Italic / Romance , Indo-Aryan and Germanic subfamilies, along with several others. Old Irish is the ancestor of all modern Goidelic languages: Modern Irish , Scottish Gaelic and Manx . A still older form of Irish
10609-410: Was wrested back from Cúchonnacht. In 1255 Breifne was raided three times by Ua Néill, and was invaded from the west by O'Conor and O'Rourke. Connacht declared Conchobar O'Rourke as King of Breifne, and gave Conchobar O'Reilly, Cathal's discontented son, the lesser position of Taoiseach . Cúchonnacht and his forces had been pushed out of the west. In 1256 Walter de Burgh raided into Connacht to devastate
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