East Oakland is a geographical region of Oakland, California, United States , that stretches between Lake Merritt in the northwest and San Leandro in the southeast. As the southeastern portion of the city, East Oakland takes up the largest portion of the city's land area.
146-755: The area is a major hub of Northern California's black community, with over 50% of East Oakland's inhabitants being black. According to figures from a 2000 U.S. Census , over 87,000 people reside in the East Oakland area. East Oakland stretches between Lake Merritt in the northwest and San Leandro in the southeast. It generally has a diagonal layout. East Oakland has numbered avenues (1st to 109th) that run northeast to southwest, and numbered streets (East 7th to East 38th) that run northwest to southeast. Interstates 580 and 880 also run northwest to southeast. Main northwest–southeast thoroughfares include East 14th Street (renamed International Blvd. in 1996 within
292-566: A 2023 poll from the UC Berkeley , the majority of California voters oppose cash reparations as a form of compensation to residents of the state who are the descendants of enslaved African Americans. 82% of African Americans in California voted for Joe Biden in a exit poll in 2020. 82% of African American voters are registered as Democrats. 88% of African Americans in California voted for Hillary Clinton in 2016. Kamala Harris
438-528: A 97% immigrant share. Schools in Oslo are increasingly divided by ethnicity. For instance, in the Groruddalen (Grorud valley), four boroughs which currently have a population of around 165,000 saw the ethnic Norwegian population decrease by 1,500 in 2008, while the immigrant population increased by 1,600. In thirteen years, a total of 18,000 ethnic Norwegians have moved from the borough. In January 2010,
584-607: A decrease in their populations by 24% and 16% respectively. Nonetheless, African Americans predominate in East Oakland, where they represent over 54% of East Oakland's residents. The deep east side has a population of roughly 15,000 residents and is 63% African American thus maintaining the highest concentration of African Americans in Northern California and the highest concentration of African Americans in California outside of Los Angeles . The Foothill Square neighborhood in East Oakland, located off of MacArthur Blvd., has
730-510: A desolate, inhospitable city landscape. White flight contributed to the draining of cities' tax bases when middle-class people left. Abandoned properties attracted criminals and street gangs , contributing to crime. In the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay was associated with Western cities, especially in North America and parts of Europe. In that time, major structural changes in global economies, transportation, and government policy created
876-705: A farm community 25 miles from Fairfield , is over 10% Black, and Siskiyou County community Weed, California is at least 8% Black including multiracial people; its first Black neighborhood, Lincoln Heights, which still had a modern-day sizable Black community up until its destruction, burned down in 2022 in the Mill Fire . Clearlake, California is about 6% Black including mixed people, substantially higher than other towns nearby or en route from such as Middletown (~1% Black) and Calistoga (~1%). Central Valley areas like Kings County have higher Black communities. Rural Southern Californian towns such as Bombay Beach ,
1022-500: A greater impact on the decision to migrate among white than black professionals. Between 1982 and 2000 Zimbabwe registered a net loss of 100,000 whites, or an average of 5,000 departures per year. A second wave of white emigration was sparked by President Robert Mugabe 's violent land reform programme after 2000. Popular destinations included South Africa and Australia , which emigrants perceived to be geographically, culturally, or sociopolitically similar to their home country. From
1168-437: A higher risk for diabetes, obesity, and other health problems. YPAR 2.0 is a method of conducting research done by the youth in the community to try and address the problems they and their families face. By going across East Oakland and classifying it as a food desert and critiquing the limited access to healthy food, they pushed for liquor and corner stores to have fresh produce and nutritious staple foods visible and affordable to
1314-605: A loss. The realtors profited from these en masse sales and the ability to resell to the incoming black families, through arbitrage and the sales commissions from both groups. By such tactics, the racial composition of a neighborhood population was often changed completely in a few years. Urban decay is the sociological process whereby a city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair and decrepitude. Its characteristics are depopulation , economic restructuring , abandoned buildings, high local unemployment (and thus poverty), fragmented families, political disenfranchisement , crime, and
1460-598: A lower life expectancy, relative to nearby neighborhoods like Alameda County, approximating 72 years. Amongst the heavily populated races present within Oakland , Hispanics lead in life expectancy, averaging 82 years. African Americans and Whites typically average 67–68 years within Oakland, while Asians live nearly 78 years. Conversely, there is a high all-cause mortality rate amongst the East Oakland community, leading in cancer, stroke, heart disease, and homicide death rates. It
1606-542: A majority group is reluctant to accept a minority influx, they may leave the district, avoid the district, or use tactics to keep the minority out. The minority group in turn react by either dispersing or congregating, avoiding certain districts in turn. Detailed analysis of data from the 1990s onwards indicates that the concentration of immigrants in certain city districts, such as Husby in Stockholm and Rosengård in Malmö ,
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#17327722105301752-493: A mass exodus. The establishment of the Republic of Zimbabwe in 1980 sounded the death knell for white political power, and ushered in a new era of black majority rule. White emigration peaked between 1980 and 1982 at 53,000 persons, with the breakdown of law and order, an increase in crime in the rural areas, and the provocative attitude of Zimbabwean officials being cited as the main causes. Political conditions typically had
1898-415: A means to control non-white migration. By subterfuge, real estate agents would facilitate black people buying a house in a white neighborhood, either by buying the house themselves, or via a white proxy buyer, and then re-selling it to the black family. The remaining white inhabitants (alarmed by real estate agents and the local news media), fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at
2044-517: A neighborhood as long as the proportion of other ethnic groups is relatively low, but if a critical level of other ethnicities is exceeded, the original residents may make rapid decisions and take action to leave. This tipping point is viewed as simply the end-result of a domino effect originating when the threshold of the majority ethnicity members with the highest sensitivity to sameness is exceeded. If these people leave and are either not replaced or replaced by other ethnicities, then this in turn raises
2190-527: A news feature from Dagsrevyen on the public Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation said, "Oslo has become a racially divided city. In some city districts the racial segregation starts already in kindergarten." Reporters said, "In the last years the brown schools have become browner, and the white schools whiter," a statement which caused a minor controversy. After the Second World War , immigration into Sweden occurred in three phases. The first
2336-695: A preponderantly black African majority. Nevertheless, unlike white South Africans, a significant percentage of white Rhodesians represented recent immigrants from Europe. After World War II , there was a substantial influx of Europeans migrating into the region (formerly known as Southern Rhodesia ), including former residents of India , Pakistan , and other parts of Africa. Also represented were working-class emigrants responding to economic opportunities. In 1969, only 41% of Rhodesia's white community were natural-born citizens, or 93,600 people. The remainder were naturalised European and South African citizens or expatriates, with many holding dual citizenship. During
2482-507: A strictly economic point of view, the departure figures were not as significant as the loss of the skills of those leaving. A disproportionate number of white Zimbabwean emigrants were well educated and highly skilled. Among those living in the United States, for example, 53.7% had a bachelor's degree, while only 2% had not completed secondary school. Most (52.4%) had occupied technical or supervisory positions of critical importance to
2628-509: A studied area (Dublin 15). 27% of residents were foreign-born immigrants. The report stated that Dublin was risking creating immigrant-dominated banlieues , on the outskirts of a city, similar to such areas in France. The immigrants in the area included Eastern Europeans (such as those from Poland ), Asians , and Africans (mainly from Nigeria ). White flight in Norway has increased since
2774-413: A study performed at Örebro University , mothers of young children were interviewed to study attitudes on Swedishness, multiculturalism and segregation. It concluded that while many expressed values such as ethnic diversity being an enriching factor, when, in practice, it came to choosing schools or choosing which district to move to, ensuring the children had access to a school with a robust Swedish majority
2920-441: Is $ 16,800, whereas non-enrolled Hispanics receive a median annual income of $ 19,200. The average family household enrolled in health insurance amongst Hispanics is approximately 4-6 people. Along with the socioeconomic disparities that people in East Oakland face, is the issue of food scarcity. East Oakland is considered a food desert because of the lack of access to affordable, healthy, fresh food. Some studies have found that food
3066-857: Is a greater onset of chronic diseases, accounting for 64% of deaths primarily in cancer, heart diseases, Alzheimer's, stroke, and respiratory diseases. As an effort to improve these existing conditions, East Oakland has become one of 14 different site across the state of California to participate in a 10-year comprehensive community initiative dedicated to improving and supporting a healthy community through active collaborations among youths, residents, and community partners within three Action Teams: Health Happens in Schools, Health Happens in Neighborhoods and Health Happens through Culture, Arts, Storytelling & Healing. Adults in East Oakland are more likely to visit emergency rooms than go to doctor's visits within
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#17327722105303212-485: Is a set of laws, policies, guidelines, and administrative practices "intended to end and correct the effects of a specific form of discrimination". In November 1996, affirmative action was abolished through Proposition 209 by California lawmakers. In the year 2000, California claimed 113,255 African immigrants in state, with the San Francisco Bay Area housing around 29,930 black immigrants. Most of
3358-701: Is also a black foreign born population from Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean in California. 3% of black people in California are noncitizens, and 4% are naturalized immigrants. African Americans mainly live in Los Angeles, the East Bay of the San Francisco Bay Area and Sacramento . Solano County has the highest black percentage by county. Cities with the largest black population in
3504-407: Is also a diverse Asian population, including Chinese, Vietnamese, Lao, and other southeast Asian ethnic groups generally inhabit the area of East Oakland closest to downtown, from Chinatown east to San Antonio . Asians make up smaller percentage of only 4% of the population, but between 1990 and 2000 saw an increase of 13%. Between 1990 and 2000 both the white and black population of East Oakland saw
3650-477: Is also a small Bahamian, Barbadian, Bermudan, British West Indian, Dutch West Indian, and Trinidadian population in California. The earliest black residents were the first pioneers of Alta California and were Afro-Latino slaves (or mulatto ) brought by the Spanish. African Americans (and Louisiana Creole ) migrated from Southern states like Oklahoma , Louisiana , Arkansas , and Texas to California during
3796-489: Is at fair or poor health, relative to Alameda County 's 15% and California's 16%. Similar patterns are also prevalent in children ages 0–17, with approximately 48% of children diagnosed with obesity, compared to 29% within the state of California. 13% of children in East Oakland also experience fair or poor health, a rate much higher than that of California (7%) or Alameda County (5%). Amongst older adults, due to increases in disabilities (accounting for 42% of disabilities), there
3942-594: Is concentrated in Los Angeles , San Bernardino , and San Diego Counties . California also has a growing Afro-Caribbean and African immigrant population to the United States. Most African immigrants in California come from Nigeria , Ethiopia , and Eritrea . Many Ethiopians live in Little Ethiopia in West Los Angeles. California has one of the highest concentrations of black Africans in
4088-405: Is found that communities and families of lower socioeconomic status typically experience higher mortality rates and lower survival rates compared to those from higher socioeconomic status. East Oakland displays a significantly higher rate of common health conditions, with residents cumulatively experiencing 32% obesity, compared to 21% amongst all of California. Nearly 32% of adults in the community
4234-414: Is in part due to an immigration influx, but primarily caused by white flight. According to researcher Emma Neuman at Linnaeus University , the white flight phenomenon commences when the fraction of non-European immigrants reaches 3-4%, but European immigration shows no such effect. High income earners and the highly educated move out first, so the ethnic segregation also leads to class segregation. In
4380-561: Is more than 2.5 times California's annual budget of $ 300 billion The statewide estimate includes $ 246 billion in compensation for eligible Black Californians whose neighborhoods were aggressively policed and prosecuted in the "war on drugs" from 1970 to 2020. That would be nearly $ 125,000 for each person who qualifies. Economists also included $ 569 billion in reparations for the discriminatory practice of redlining in housing loans. The compensation would be about $ 223,000 per eligible resident who lived in California from 1933 to 1977. According to
4526-1026: Is over 27% black. The first African American newspaper in California is thought to be the Mirror of the Times , published in the mid-1850s. Other early African American newspapers in Northern California included Pacific Appeal and The Elevator ; and in Southern California included the California Eagle , California Voice , and Los Angeles Sentinel . African American residents of California were first mentioned in 1919 by Black Californian historian Delilah Beasley , and later on Rudolph Lapp, others. More information appeared in journals such as The Journal of Negro History and The Journal of African American History . (3) The largest film festival focused on black filmmaking
East Oakland, Oakland, California - Misplaced Pages Continue
4672-640: Is the Pan African Film Festival , founded in 1992. Other notable film festivals dedicated to enhancing the careers of Black filmmaking professionals include The San Diego Black Film Festival and the Hollywood Black Film Festival . Elizabeth Thorn Scott Flood was an early African American educator in Sacramento starting in 1854, and she later taught in Oakland. The Phoenixonian Institute of San Jose
4818-692: Is the first African American female Vice President, and she was born and raised in California. In 2021, the total number of hate crime events reported is the sixth-highest-ever-recorded, and the highest since the aftermath of September 11, 2001. According to a study by the California Department of Justice (DOJ), anti-Black hate crimes from 2021 to 2022 increased in the state by 27%; with all-over hate crimes also increasing by 20%. Blacks have higher arrest rates than white people in California's 58 counties. African Americans are often victims of racial profiling in California. California became
4964-590: The Atlanta metropolitan area . In 2018, there are Black neighborhoods and cities with Black populations surpassing 15% in Southern California like in Compton, South Los Angeles and Inglewood, and in Northern California like Stockton , Oakland , and Vallejo . Oakland has been noted for being a center of Northern California's black population, with it being at least 25% black as of 2020. Many African Americans who settled in California, likewise in Oakland, worked on
5110-562: The California Supreme Court established the notion of "separate but equal" schools in Ward v. Flood . African American students in lower education increased from 24 pupils in 1870, to 183 pupils by the late 19th-century; and they ranked the highest performing students in literacy subjects in 1900. The first university Black studies department in the United States was created at San Francisco State University , following
5256-534: The Economic Development Administration (EDA) declared that they would no longer fund large businesses or facilities but rather focus on creating jobs for the unemployed and poor, which in Oakland meant the ethnic minorities. A few years later, in 1978, California passes Proposition 13 which limited the addition of new or increased property taxes and protected property owners against inflation driven increases in assessed valuation. When
5402-591: The First African Methodist Episcopal Church of Los Angeles (founded in 1872). In the 1870s, Rev. Peter William Cassey helped form two new Black Episcopalian churches in San Francisco; "Christ's Mission Church" (or Christ Mission Church), and he worked closely with the congregation from what later became St. Cyprian's Church, however neither group had a building at that time. Many of the earliest African Americans in
5548-499: The Greater Toronto Area ), and referring to white Canadians , the "loss of more than 23,000 people, or 12 per cent, in a decade when the city's population rose by 60 per cent". The paper reported University of Manitoba sociologist Jason Edgerton's analysis that "After you control for retirement, low birth rate, etc. some of the other (shrinkage) could be white flight — former mainstream communities not comfortable being
5694-776: The Key System 's streetcars, the Elmhurst Carhouse. Chevrolet opened an auto assembly plant in Elmhurst in 1915, which shut down in the 1960s. Located near the Oakland International Airport . The main streets are 98th Avenue and Edes Avenue. The Brookfield District is located from 85th Avenue to 98th Avenue. Brookfield Village stops at the Union Pacific (formerly Southern Pacific ) train tracks after Railroad Avenue. Brookfield Village
5840-691: The Oakland Zoo , the Oakland Coliseum and Oakland Arena . East Oakland is a section of Oakland that has experienced many changes to its population as the West attracted immigrants in search of employment. Oakland was declared a city in 1852 where it was prominently populated by people who made it to the west during the Gold Rush. The dominant races that had relocated to the East Bay during
5986-514: The Rhodesian Bush War , almost the entire white male population between eighteen and fifty-eight was affected by various military commitments, and individuals spent up to five or six months of the year on combat duty away from their normal occupations in the civil service, commerce, industry, or agriculture. These long periods of service in the field led to an increased emigration of men of military age. In November 1963, state media cited
East Oakland, Oakland, California - Misplaced Pages Continue
6132-636: The Second Great Migration (1940s–1970s). The Black population in California has been declining since 2016, and moving out of the state along with Whites. Gentrification in California has caused some African Americans in California to become homeless and has pushed them out of historical urban centers like Oakland, San Francisco and Los Angeles, and into new cheaper suburban regions, like East Contra Costa, Inland Empire, and Central Valley. For example, many blacks from Los Angeles have moved to desert areas such as Palmdale and Lancaster in
6278-468: The Supreme Court of the United States ' decision Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation (or "integration") by means of busing in some areas led to more families' moving out of former areas. More generally, some historians suggest that white flight occurred in response to population pressures, both from the large migration of blacks from
6424-497: The Third World Liberation Front strikes of 1968 . In 1994, California's African American students made up about seven percent of higher education, compared to nine percent in the country. Black Californians have the highest death rates from breast, cervical, colorectal, lung, and prostate cancer. In 2022, Blacks in California have died at a higher rate than other ethnic groups in from COVID-19 and had
6570-492: The Western United States . 41,249 Afro-Asians live in California. There is a Blaxican community in California. There is also a growing Blaxican population in Los Angeles. California claimed 113,255 African-born residents in 2000. The majority came from Ethiopia, Nigeria, and South Africa . There is also a sizable Jamaican , Haitian , Caribbean, Afro-Latino, and Belizean population in California. There
6716-460: The 'chicken run', the earliest use of which was recorded the following year, often by Rhodesians who remained to contemptuously describe those who had left. Other phrases such as 'taking the gap' or 'gapping it' were also used. As the outward flow increased, the phrase 'owl run' also came into use, as leaving the country was deemed by many to be a wise choice. Disfavour with the biracial Zimbabwe Rhodesia administration in 1979 also contributed to
6862-537: The 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still substantially growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its "components." The first data set potentially capable of proving "white flight"
7008-555: The 1950s and 1960s, the terms became popular in the United States . They referred to the large-scale migration of people of various European ancestries from racially mixed urban regions to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions. The term has more recently been applied to other migrations by whites , from older, inner suburbs to rural areas, as well as from the American Northeast and Midwest to
7154-470: The 1970s, with the immigration of non-Scandinavians from (in numerical order, starting with the largest): Poland , Pakistan , Iraq , Somalia , Vietnam , Iran , Turkey , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Russia , Sri Lanka , the Philippines , the former Yugoslavia , Thailand , Afghanistan , and Lithuania . By June 2009, more than 40% of Oslo schools had an immigrant majority, with some schools having
7300-927: The 1990s. The black population in Los Angeles County has been rapidly declining. The black population has also declined in San Francisco. African Americans have the second highest poverty rate in California, after Hispanics. This has caused many blacks from California to move back to cities in the Southern United States , such as Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, Birmingham, Memphis, San Antonio and Jackson. The black population has decreased in many neighborhoods and cities in California. Many areas such as Compton, Inglewood, and Watts that were once predominately black are now predominately Latino. Many Mexicans and Central Americans have displaced them in their historical areas. In 2019, African Americans were more likely to become homeless in California. There
7446-479: The African immigrants came from Ethiopia . The next largest numbers were from Nigeria , Egypt , and South Africa . Approximately 45,000 Ethiopians and 6,000 Eritreans live in Los Angeles. California is a destination for Egyptian and South African immigrants. In the 2010s, California was a net loser of black migration for the first time in three decades. Most exiting California blacks are returning to Texas and
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#17327722105307592-603: The Clifton Park Junior High School had 2,023 white students and 34 black students; ten years later, it had twelve white students and 2,037 black students. In northwest Baltimore, Garrison Junior High School's student body declined from 2,504 whites and twelve blacks to 297 whites and 1,263 blacks in that period. At the same time, the city's working class population declined because of the loss of industrial jobs as heavy industry restructured. In Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971),
7738-512: The Federal decision in Penick v. The Columbus Board of Education (1977) accelerated white flight from Columbus, Ohio . Although the racial desegregation of schools affected only public school districts, the most vehement opponents of racial desegregation have sometimes been whites whose children attended private schools. A secondary, non-geographic consequence of school desegregation and busing
7884-625: The Ku Klux Klan which shows that even in the East Bay there was racial tension and segregation. In the 1920s, East Oakland was restricted from ethnic minorities unless they worked as servants for whites. Those who did not work as servants were hit by the Great Depression in the late 1920s and early 1930s which caused employment to drop by 41 percent in three years. In the 19th century, the Oakland-San Leandro Road
8030-726: The San Francisco Bay Area are African Americans in the Bay Area are Oakland , Vallejo , Antioch , Suisun City and Richmond . People of African descent first appeared in California from Mexico due to the Spanish conquest . Spanish soldiers, priests, and settlers brought black slaves and free blacks into the state in the 18th-century. The settlers and escort soldiers who founded the towns of San José de Guadalupe (San Jose), Yerba Buena (San Francisco), Monterey, San Diego, and La Reina de Los Ángeles (Los Angeles) were primarily mestizo and of mixed Negro and Native American ancestry from
8176-476: The Supreme Court ordered the desegregation busing of poor black students to suburban white schools, and suburban white students to the city to try to integrate student populations. In Milliken v. Bradley (1974), the dissenting Justice William Douglas observed, "The inner core of Detroit is now rather solidly black; and the blacks, we know, in many instances are likely to be poorer." Likewise, in 1977,
8322-447: The UK is mainly from areas with a high ethnic minority population to those with predominantly white populations; white British families have moved out of London, as many immigrants have settled in the capital. The report's writers expressed concern about British social cohesion, and stated that different ethnic groups were living "parallel lives"; they were concerned that lack of contact between
8468-479: The United States during the 1940s, the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 , low-cost mortgages through the G.I. Bill , and residential redlining enabled white families to abandon inner cities in favor of suburban living and prevent ethnic minorities from doing the same. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, resulted in crumbling " ghettos ". Prior to national data available in
8614-575: The United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, and Africa. Immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos , the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest , such as Albuquerque , Phoenix and Tucson . In 2006,
8760-512: The United States. African Americans are the fourth largest ethnic group in California after Hispanics , Whites , and Asians . Asians outnumbered African Americans in the 1980s. The Black community is prevalent in Alameda , Contra Costa , San Francisco , and Solano Counties in the San Francisco Bay Area , Sacramento County , and San Joaquin County . In Southern California, the population
8906-629: The abolitionist's perception of the pre- Civil War tension and how "the shadows of the impending civil disruption, had brought about a white exodus" of Northerners to Southern states such as Georgia. In the years leading up to World War I , the newspapers in the Union of South Africa were reporting on the "spectre of white flight", in particular due to Afrikaners travelling to the Port of Durban in search of ships for Britain and Australia. In 1958, political scientist Morton Grodzins identified that "once
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#17327722105309052-483: The area. Additionally, the majority of the population of East Oakland are Latinos and African Americans, both groups who have higher predisposition to alcohol-related diseases. As far as the stores that do sell food, a study by YPAR (Youth Participatory Action Research) 2.0 showed that the most available foods were chips, soda, and candy. Because it is cheap and available, these are the foods that people buy although they have little to no nutritional value and make people at
9198-404: The benefit of the lower prices, and going forward would pay less in taxes than if prices had not dropped. By the late 1960s buyers in East Oakland were taking advantage of several government backed loan programs to purchase houses. These programs had reduced rates or reduced qualifications, enabling people to buy homes who may not have qualified for conventional financing. Those arguing that this
9344-471: The changes in state funding to housing and the movement of impoverished groups in the 1930s, East Oakland became an area where poorer people lived which also resulted in a major loss of industry as businesses and markets started to close down and relocate to more financially sustainable areas. As time went on, supermarkets and other businesses saw East Oakland as an “undesirable place for residential and commercial investment” so few new stores opened up in place of
9490-425: The chief reasons for emigration as uncertainty about the future, economic decline due to embargo and war, and the heavy commitments of national service, which was described as "the overriding factor causing people to leave". Of the male emigrants in 1976 about half fell into the 15 to 39 age bracket. Between 1960 and 1976 160,182 whites immigrated, while 157,724 departed. This dynamic turnover rate led to depressions in
9636-585: The cities their residents had left. For instance, Milwaukee, Wisconsin partially annexed towns such as Granville ; the (then) mayor, Frank P. Zeidler , complained about the socially destructive "Iron Ring" of new municipalities incorporated in the post–World War II decade. Analogously, semi-rural communities, such as Oak Creek , South Milwaukee , and Franklin , formally incorporated as discrete entities to escape urban annexation. Wisconsin state law had allowed Milwaukee's annexation of such rural and suburban regions that did not qualify for discrete incorporation per
9782-407: The cities. During the later 20th century, industrial restructuring led to major losses of jobs, leaving formerly middle-class working populations suffering poverty, with some unable to move away and seek employment elsewhere. Real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws,
9928-432: The city of Oakland only), MacArthur Blvd., Foothill Blvd., Bancroft Avenue, and San Leandro Street (being the main one for commercial vehicles). Main northeast-southwest thoroughfares include Fruitvale Ave., 35th Ave., High St., Seminary Ave., 73rd Ave. (which becomes Hegenberger Road south of International Blvd. to Oakland International Airport ), and 98th Ave. East Oakland is home to Holy Names University , Mills College ,
10074-547: The city, such as San Leandro, Hayward and Walnut Creek . In the 1950s and 1960s, most areas of East Oakland still remained predominantly White. In 1962 construction began on the MacArthur Freeway (580) and providing an alternative route to the Nimitz Freeway. Although some Blacks were displaced when the right of way was cleared, most of the right of way through predominantly White neighborhoods. In 1969
10220-414: The coast and in the bay specifically. Because this was shortly after the great depression, many people were unemployed and looking for work, which was in abundance in the Oakland shipyard. Rather than an influx of whites, the new rush caused a surge of racial minorities which caused a restructuring of the demographics in the area. With the increase of workers, a housing crisis soon followed. In the city, there
10366-592: The defense industry and shipyards in California. Of the Black Louisianans who migrated to California, a number were Louisiana Creoles . Before World War II , African Americans totaled to less than one percent of California's population. The California population of African Americans grew slowly, alongside other minorities, with only 21,645 African American residents in 1910 compared to 2 million white residents. Post-World War II, African Americans boosted their population enormously in California. Between
10512-416: The downtown to live in the "underserved" East Oakland formerly occupied by working- and middle-class Whites. This narrative confuses Blacks displaced from West Oakland and later by BART construction, with the small population of Blacks living in downtown Oakland, which was a commercial area ,]The mayor at the time, Lionel Wilson, who was the first African American mayor, elected the year prior in 1977, combatted
10658-439: The early decay of non-white city neighborhoods by withholding maintenance capital mortgages, thus making it difficult for the communities to either retain or attract middle-class residents. The new suburban communities limited the emigration of poor and non-white residents from the city by restrictive zoning ; thus, few lower-middle-class people could afford a house in the suburbs. Many all-white suburbs were eventually annexed to
10804-499: The economic, then social, conditions resulting in urban decay. White flight in North America started to reverse in the 1990s, when the rich suburbanites returned to cities, gentrifying the decayed urban neighborhoods. New municipalities were established beyond the abandoned city's jurisdiction to avoid the legacy costs of maintaining city infrastructures; instead new governments spent taxes to establish suburban infrastructures. The federal government contributed to white flight and
10950-570: The environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism . In 1870, The Nation covered the large-scale migrations of white Americans ; "The report of the Emigration Commissioners of Louisiana, for the past year, estimates the white exodus from the Southern Atlantic States, Alabama, and Mississippi, to
11096-645: The ethnic White British population. The study, which examined the white population in London, the West Midlands , West Yorkshire , and Greater Manchester between 1991 and 2001, also concluded that white population losses were largest in areas with the highest ethnic minority populations. In 2018, research at Indiana University showed that between 2000 and 2010 in the US, of a sample size of 27,891 Census tracts, 3,252 experienced "white flight". The examined areas had "an average magnitude loss of 40 percent of
11242-410: The federally ordered school desegregation began, whites who could afford private schools withdrew their children from the racially diverse Pasadena public school system. By 2004, Pasadena had 63 private schools educating some 33% of schoolchildren, while white students made up only 16% of the public school populace. The Pasadena Unified School District superintendent characterized public schools as "like
11388-477: The first state to ban discrimination based on natural Black hair and hairstyles. The bill was signed into law by Gavin Newsom . Racial/ethnic makeup of California, treating Hispanics as a separate category (2017) White flight White flight or white exodus is the sudden or gradual large-scale migration of white people from areas becoming more racially or ethnoculturally diverse. Starting in
11534-578: The groups could result in fear more readily exploited by extremists. In a study, the London School of Economics found similar results. A 2016 BBC documentary, Last Whites of the East End , covered the migration of whites from Newham to Essex . A 2019 Guardian article stated that "came to represent 'white flight' in the UK", and a 2013 Prospect magazine article gave Essex as an example of white flight. Researcher Ludi Simpson has stated that
11680-557: The growth of ethnic minorities in Britain is due mostly to natural population growth (births outnumbering deaths), rather than immigration. Both white and non-white Britons who can do so economically are equally likely to leave mixed-race inner-city areas. In his opinion, these trends indicate counter urbanisation , rather than white flight. In 2013, the Toronto Star examined the "identity crisis" of Brampton (a suburban city in
11826-539: The heart of East Oakland, were a part of the Lincoln Highway , the first transcontinental highway, from 1913 until 1927. In the spring of 1943, there was an increase of immigrants to the Bay Area as a result of World War II; this time is called “the Second Gold Rush”. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the US government invested large sums of money on defense which created new jobs and opportunities on
11972-460: The highest concentration of African American residents of any Oakland neighborhood, at 75.4%. Though the population of whites had decreased, they still made up 4% of the population. With the increase of the population between 1990 and 2000 the number of households in the area increased by 3.4%. The residents work in all kinds of job areas including service, sales, transportation, construction, and even management and professional positions while 9.1% of
12118-460: The highest users of the emergency department, with 15% enrolled in governmental programs whilst consisting of 43% of frequent ER users. Amongst elderly adults, rising numbers in disabilities have resulted in increased hospital emergency visits. Heart disease, leading in chronic diseases amongst elders, accounts for over 19,500 hospitalizations each year. However, racial, linguistic, cultural, and cost barriers continue to influence level of access amongst
12264-405: The housing that was being built was reserved for whites so minorities were pushed out of the city and forced to relocate to the outskirts of East Oakland. With the redistribution of living, this area, known as Brooklyn (until it was also annexed by the city in 1909) became the backbone of Oakland's African American community and caused an exodus of more prosperous whites to suburbs south and east of
12410-569: The increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities. In the 1930s, states outside the South (where racial segregation was legal) practiced unofficial segregation via exclusionary covenants in title deeds and real estate neighborhood redlining – explicit, legally sanctioned racial discrimination in real property ownership and lending practices. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it. Suburban expansion
12556-503: The late 1840s were Caucasian, Chinese, Mexican, and African American. By 1910, Oakland had the largest African American population in the East Bay because it tripled in the previous decade as a result of fires and earthquakes in the surrounding areas. Despite the new influx of African Americans, the East Oakland hills were known as “the Bible Belt” because of the white, Protestant community that occupied those houses. This area supported
12702-612: The late-1940s until the early-1960s in San Francisco and Los Angeles, a new style of jazz was developed primarily by African Americans called West Coast jazz . Your Black Muslim Bakery was a chain of bakeries opened by Yusuf Bey in 1968 in Santa Barbara, and moved headquarters in 1971 to Oakland; it had been a model of African American economic self-sufficiency but was later linked to physical and sexual abuse, welfare fraud, and murder which forced its closure on August 9, 2007. In 1991, Rodney King , an African American,
12848-536: The legal incorporation standards. In some areas, the post–World War II racial desegregation of the public schools catalyzed white flight. In 1954, the US Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ordered the de jure termination of the "separate, but equal" legal racism established with the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case in the 19th century. It declared that segregation of public schools
12994-764: The level of mixing of neighbors, exceeding the departure threshold for additional people. About 800,000 out of an earlier total population of 5.2 million whites left post- apartheid South Africa after 1995, according to a 2009 report in Newsweek . The country has suffered a high rate of violent crime, a primary stated reason for emigration. Other causes cited in the Newsweek report include attacks against white farmers , concern about being excluded by affirmative action programmes, political instability and worries about corruption. Many of those who leave are highly educated , resulting in skills shortages. Some observers fear
13140-441: The local government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people financially unable to leave their destroyed community. The real estate business practice of "blockbusting" was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, and
13286-474: The long-term consequences, as South Africa's labor policies make it difficult to attract skilled immigrants. In the global economy, some professionals and skilled people have been attracted to work in the U.S. and European nations. Until 1980, the unrecognised Republic of Rhodesia held a well-publicised image as being one of two nations in sub-Saharan Africa where a white minority of European descent and culture held political, economic, and social control over
13432-544: The lowest COVID-19 vaccination rates. Blacks in California are more prone to obesity . Homicide rates are higher for African Americans in California. California was the first state to consider reparations for Black residents, and the California Reparations Task Force was formed in order to present the state legislature its recommendations. Economists tell the state that Black Californians could be owed $ 800 billion in reparations. The $ 800bn
13578-480: The lowest-elevated town in the US, are examples of remote towns where many African Americans settled; it is over 15% Black. Many Los Angeles Black individuals and families moved to areas with cheaper estate, such as San Bernardino County and Riverside County . While not particularly very rural but situated more in a suburban and countryside setting, Moreno Valley has a substantial Black population (20%). Marin City
13724-446: The majority of London's population was still ethnic British). In the 2001 census , the London boroughs of Newham and Brent were found to be the first areas to have non-white majorities. The 2011 census found that, for the first time, less than 50% of London's population were white British, and that in some areas of London white British people make up less than 20% of the population. A 2005 report stated that white migration within
13870-524: The majority still live in largely segregated neighborhoods, which have continued to form. In 1969, Nobel Prize-winning economist Thomas Schelling published "Models of Segregation", a paper in which he demonstrated through a "checkerboard model" and mathematical analysis, that even when every agent prefers to live in a mixed-race neighborhood, almost complete segregation of neighborhoods emerges as individual decisions accumulate. In his "tipping model", he showed that members of an ethnic group do not move out of
14016-623: The members of the community. As a result, stores responded and started to sell fresh produce from local farmers and receive deliveries twice a week for fresh produce. A list of notable people who have lived or currently live in East Oakland: 37°46′N 122°12′W / 37.77°N 122.2°W / 37.77; -122.2 African Americans in California African American Californians or Black Californians are residents of
14162-608: The milder climate in the Southeast and Southwest . The term 'white flight' has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa , or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial or anti-white state policies. Migration of middle-class white populations was observed during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s out of cities such as Cleveland , Detroit , Kansas City and Oakland , although racial segregation of public schools had ended there long before
14308-628: The minority." A 2016 article from The Globe and Mail , addressing the diversity of Brampton, acknowledged that while academics in Canada are sometimes reluctant to use the term of white flight, it reported that: [...] the Brampton story reveals that we have our own version of white flight, and before we figure out how to manage hyper-diverse and increasingly polarized cities like Greater Toronto, we need to reflect on our own attitudes about race and ethnic diversity . In 2018, The Guardian covered
14454-752: The modern sector of the economy. Inasmuch as black workers did not begin making large inroads into apprenticeships and other training programs until the 1970s, few were in a position to replace their white colleagues in the 1980s. A study of school choice in Copenhagen found that an immigrant proportion of below 35% in the local schools did not affect parental choice of schools. If the percentage of immigrant children rose above this level, white Danes are far more likely to choose other schools. Immigrants who speak Danish at home also opt out. Other immigrants, often more recent ones, stay with local schools. In Finland, white flight has been observed in districts where
14600-494: The music industry without the assistance of a major record company. The sound of the music was different from East Coast hip hop, which is known for its technique of sampling and looping to create a song. Instead, funk and blues were infused with synthesizers and drum machines, giving birth to the Bay Area hip hop sound known as Mobb music . Today, mainstream hip-hop continues to lyrically and musically incorporate much of what
14746-472: The new immigrants were Chicano/Latino who had a growth between 150 and 400 percent in that decade. That same time saw a decline in the African American population between 17 and 31 percent. Fruitvale has become the backbone of Oakland's Latino community, in which East Oakland had a rapid increase of 132% of Latinos between 1990 and 2000. Latinos make up 38% of the population of East Oakland. There
14892-424: The ones that left. The smaller commercial stores that did stick around were forced to raise the prices of their food and focus more on selling alcohol and tobacco products to stay afloat. In the flatlands of East Oakland there are only four supermarkets and over 40 liquor stores. Alcohol was easy to sell and made the stores more money, but the number of liquor stores is proportional to the levels of crime in violence in
15038-641: The original white population." Published in Social Science Research , the study found "relative to poorer neighborhoods, white flight becomes systematically more likely in middle-class neighborhoods at higher thresholds of black , Hispanic, and Asian population presence." In studies in the 1980s and 1990s, blacks said they were willing to live in neighborhoods with 50/50 ethnic composition. Whites were also willing to live in integrated neighborhoods, but preferred proportions of more whites. Despite this willingness to live in integrated neighborhoods,
15184-466: The overcrowding and physical deterioration of areas with large minority populations. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations. The limited facilities for banking and insurance, due to a perceived lack of profitability, and other social services, and extra fees meant to hedge against perceived profit issues, increased their cost to residents in predominantly non-white suburbs and city neighborhoods. According to
15330-600: The past year than many other counties in the Bay Area and in the entire state of California. In 2012, 35% of the community did not meet with their doctor, resulting in approximately 30% of residents taking advantage of the emergency room, relative to 13% in Alameda County and 18% in all of California . Amongst all ER visits, Blacks and Hispanics had the most frequent visits in 2011, with four times more visits compared to whites and Asian/Pacific Islanders. Furthermore, even when having healthcare coverage, Blacks continue to be
15476-470: The phenomenon of "unconscious segregation", the article points to large East Asian and South Asian enclaves within Greater Vancouver such as Burnaby , East Vancouver , Richmond , South Vancouver and Surrey . In contrast, other cities and neighbourhoods within the metropolitan region such as Tsawwassen , South Surrey , White Rock and Langley host equally large white enclaves. In
15622-436: The phrase misleadingly suggests that whites immediately departed when blacks moved into the neighborhood, when in fact, many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics. Leah Boustan , Professor of Economics at Princeton, attributes white flight both to racism and economic reasons. The business practices of redlining , mortgage discrimination , and racially restrictive covenants contributed to
15768-492: The poor, underserved surrounding areas. With the new availability of jobs created by the EDA, between 1990 and 2000 more Latino and Asian (primarily Cambodian , Lao , and Chinese ) immigrants moved to Oakland and specifically Central East Oakland because of how cheap the cost of living was compared to the city. A census on overcrowding showed an increase from 17 to 27 percent because of the new people who moved there. The majority of
15914-411: The population is unemployed. For the whites who stayed, it was often because they were too poor to relocate and saw an unemployment rate of 30%. In dominantly African American neighborhoods, such as Central East Oakland, between 40-70% of the population were without high school diplomas. The Latino population had 50-70% without high school diplomas and 5% with college degrees. Asians saw a smaller amount of
16060-732: The population without education with 39.3% without high school diplomas and 22.8% with bachelor's degrees. East Oakland, together with West Oakland and portions of North Oakland , is a hub for Northern California 's African American community. Hip hop culture is associated with East Oakland. It is known within the hip hop community as "Oaktown", "O-Town" (old school names), or currently, "The Town". A number of East Bay rappers and singers such as Raphael Saadiq , Keak da Sneak , Dru Down , Too Short , Digital Underground , MC Hammer , Luniz , Hieroglyphics , Keyshia Cole , Philthy Rich , Db tha General , Shady Nate , and Bobby Brackins originated there. The prostitution, violence and drug culture of
16206-595: The population, almost 30% higher than that of California. In the elderly population, 98% of older adults within the entire Alameda County have health insurance. However, due to rising costs in medical care in recent decades, the California Health Interview Survey observed that 48.5% of adults age 60+ let go of their insurance coverage. Amongst Hispanics, nearly 74% were enrolled in government health insurance, such as Medi-Cal and Healthy Families. Median income amongst enrolled Hispanic families
16352-429: The population. East Oakland ranks amongst the lowest communities to provide healthcare coverage to adults and children. 52% of adults and 40% of children remain insured by private insurance companies, compared to 61% and 57% coverage throughout the state of California. East Oakland residents are one of the higher users of governmental health programs like Medi-Cal and Medicare, covering 27% of adults and 58% of children in
16498-446: The property market, a slump in the construction industry, and a decline in retail sales. The number of white Rhodesians peaked in 1975 at 278,000, and rapidly declined as the bush war intensified. In 1976, around 14,000 whites left the country, marking the first year since Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 that more whites had left the country than arrived, with most leaving for South Africa. This became known as
16644-402: The property sold the assessed value could be increased to market value. Some have argued that this disadvantaged Blacks seeking to buy property if property values had increased. Some have also argued, post hoc propter hoc , that this somehow caused property values to decline as Whites moved out and Blacks moved in. If home prices declined as Whites departed, then Blacks buying those houses, had
16790-408: The proportion of non-whites exceeds the limits of the neighborhood's tolerance for interracial living, whites move out." Grodzins termed this phenomenon the tipping point in the study of white flight. In 2004, a study of UK census figures at the London School of Economics demonstrated evidence of white flight, resulting in ethnic minorities in inner-city areas becoming increasingly isolated from
16936-579: The province of Sonora y Sinaloa in Mexico. There were also many mulattoes (part black, part Spanish) in Alta California . Influential people of African ancestry were among the earliest California settlers and landowners. Pío Pico was a Californio politician, ranchero, and entrepreneur of mixed-race with African ancestry, he had served as the last governor of Alta California under Mexican rule (from 1845 until 1846). Juana Briones de Miranda
17082-467: The railroad in Oakland and East Bay areas in the early-to-mid 1900s. In 2020, anti-Black hate crimes in California has increased. In 2020–2022, the COVID-19 deaths rose for African Americans in California, which had the lowest vaccination rates in the state. Black people in California generally live in cities or metropolitan areas, although there are some rural Black communities. Rio Vista ,
17228-524: The region spawned a new subgenre of hip hop by the late 1980s. Rappers like Too Short incorporated drugs, violence, prostitution and gang life into their music, in sharp contrast to much of the East Coast hip hop of the day. Too Short was also one of the first rap artists to promote and sell records independently and is one of the pioneers responsible for the birth of Northern California's independent hip hop scene; leading other artists to pursue success in
17374-414: The regulation on property taxes by using many public resources to create investment in downtown Oakland which increased the cost of living in the city and pushed more poor and marginalized populations to surrounding areas such as East Oakland. This is one example of gentrification that has occurred in the city and makes the cost of living higher in the city so the original residents are forced to relocate to
17520-599: The rural Southern United States to urban cities of the Northern United States and the Western United States in the Great Migration and the waves of new immigrants from around the world. Some historians have challenged the phrase "white flight" as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. In her study of West Side in Chicago during the post-war era, historian Amanda Seligman argues that
17666-789: The share of non-Finnish population is 20% or above. In Greater Helsinki region, there are more than 30 such districts. Those include e.g. Kallahti in Helsinki , Suvela in Espoo , and Länsimäki in Vantaa . Outside the Greater Helsinki region, the phenomenon has been witnessed at least in Varissuo district of Turku . A 2007 government report stated that immigration in Dublin has caused "dramatic" white flight from elementary schools in
17812-547: The state by 1858. Edward Duplex was the first Black mayor in California, elected to office in Wheatland in 1888. The first census recorded of African Americans in California appeared in 1850 with 962 people, and in 1860 with 4,086 people. Then, in 1910 the number rose to 22,000. In the 1920s during the end of the Barbary Coast-era , Terrific Street was an entertainment district in San Francisco and it
17958-518: The state during the California gold rush seeking their own gold discoveries. Additionally, white Southerners brought black slaves into the California mines starting in 1849, and were primarily migrating from Texas, Mississippi, Missouri, and Arkansas. The Sweet Vengeance Mine was a gold mine in Browns Valley , discovered by African American miners during the gold rush. Moses Rodgers
18104-523: The state held the California State Convention of Colored Citizens , a series of colored convention events active from 1855 to 1902. At the conventions they had elected delegates from the various counties and would discuss topics like slavery, public education, and voting rights. Archy Lee had been formerly enslaved African American and he was part of a series of notable 19th-century court cases that helped defined civil rights in
18250-446: The state of California who are of African ancestry . According to 2019 United States Census Bureau estimates, those identified solely as African American or Black constituted 5.8% or 2,282,144 residents in California. Including an additional 1.2% who identified as having partial African ancestry, the figure was 7.0% (2.8 million residents). As of 2021, California has the largest multiracial African American population by number in
18396-772: The states. After World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System , many white Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs, and shifting the tax base away from the city. This may have exacerbated urban decay . In some cases, such as in the Southern United States, local governments used highway road constructions to deliberately divide and isolate black neighborhoods from goods and services, often within industrial corridors. In Birmingham, Alabama ,
18542-530: The trans-Mississippi regions, at scores of thousands". By 1888, with rhetoric typical of the time, Walter Thomas Mills 's The Statesman publication predicted: Social and political equality and the political supremacy of the negro element in any southern state must lead to one of three things: A white exodus, a war of races , or the destruction of representative institutions, as in the District of Columbia . An 1894 biography of William Lloyd Garrison reveals
18688-494: The white flight that had occurred in Brampton, and how the suburban city had been nicknamed "Bramladesh" and "Browntown", due to its "73% visible minority, with its largest ethnic group Indian ". It was also reported how "the white population fell from 192,400 in 2001 to 169,230 in 2011, and now hovers around 151,000." In 2014, the Vancouver Sun addressed the issue of white flight across Metropolitan Vancouver . Detailing
18834-666: Was "cultural" white flight: withdrawing white children from the mixed-race public school system and sending them to private schools unaffected by US federal integration laws. In 1970, when the United States District Court for the Central District of California ordered the Pasadena Unified School District desegregated, the proportion of white students (54%) reflected the school district's proportion of whites (53%). Once
18980-410: Was a Californio business woman of mixed-race with African ancestry, she is considered the "Founding Mother of San Francisco ", as an early settler of Yerba Buena (now San Francisco). William Leidesdorff was black and multi-racial, he was one another founder of San Francisco. After the discovery of gold in California on January 24, 1848, African Americans in search of wealth, and freedom arrived in
19126-456: Was a county road connecting Oakland with San Leandro . Along this road, small settlements developed such as Melrose, Elmhurst and Fitchburg. All these were annexed by the city of Oakland after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. After annexation, the Oakland-San Leandro Road was renamed East 14th Street which lasted for most of the 20th century, until it was renamed International Blvd. Both Foothill Boulevard and MacArthur Boulevard, which run through
19272-635: Was a direct result of the war, with refugees from concentration camps and surrounding countries in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The second, prior to 1970, involved immigrant workers, mainly from Finland , Italy , Greece , and Yugoslavia . In the most recent phase, from the 1970s onwards, refugees immigrated from the Middle East , Africa, and Latin America , joined later by their relatives. A study which mapped patterns of segregation and congregation of incoming population groups found that, if
19418-498: Was all to the disadvantage of Blacks, are those who advocate using property taxes to pay for programs specifically aimed at the Black population. An argument that continues to be made by local and state politicians. . [ The following paragraph reflects political and social ideas but not objective history. It nicely captures the circular reasoning that pervades Oakland politics and city programs to this day. Poor Blacks are pushed out of
19564-551: Was also a consideration. This was because they did not want their children to grow up in a school where they were a minority, and wanted them to be in a good environment for learning the Swedish language. For centuries, London was the destination for refugees and immigrants from continental Europe. Although all the immigrants were European, neighborhoods showed ethnic succession over time, as older residents moved out and new immigrants moved in, an early case of white flight (though
19710-476: Was built during the early 1900s. It later had a home-building boom during World War II in response to the influx of workers needed for the war industries, on land which had been zoned for industrial uses. In the 1990s, the neighborhood held an annual summer get-together called the Never Worry Picnic as a contrast to a crime rate that is 191% higher than the national average. East Oakland experiences
19856-709: Was considered one of the best miners in the state. Some of the oldest African American churches in California are the Saint Andrews African Methodist Episcopal Church of Sacramento (founded in 1850, formerly known as Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church), the Third Baptist Church in San Francisco (founded in 1852), Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church (Bethel AME Church) in San Francisco (founded in 1852), African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AME Zion Church) in San Francisco (founded in 1852), and
20002-411: Was considered one of the highest priorities and came second to shelter. The participants claim that they knew how to eat healthy and about the importance of a nutritious diet, but the availability and cost of the food outweighed potential health outcomes. The people were more concerned about getting enough food that they would not starve rather than focusing on the nutrition of what they were eating. With
20148-504: Was home to numerous black and tan clubs (interracial clubs that often highlighted African American culture). African Americans migrated during the Second Great Migration from the Southern United States (places like Arkansas , Louisiana , Oklahoma and Texas ) to the Northeast , Midwest and West to escape Jim Crow laws , between 1940 and 1970. They also migrated to the state for better job opportunities, with many working in
20294-581: Was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof seemingly required for policy makers to consider taking action. Also instrumental were new statistical methods developed by Emerson Seim for disentangling deceptive counter-effects that had resulted when numerous cities reacted to departures of a wealthier tax base by annexation. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, such that families that had departed from inner cities were not even being counted as having moved from
20440-406: Was pioneered in East Oakland. Elmhurst was originally a separate town, it was annexed by Oakland in 1909, and today is considered part of East Oakland. Although it was historically a white working-class neighborhood, it became predominantly African American after World War II, and today, Latinos now form about half of Elmhurst's population. Elmhurst was the site of one of the large carbarns for
20586-573: Was push back from the Apartment House Owners Association and the Real Estate Board to build more housing so there were only five hundred public housing units built which also resulted in the destruction of other temporary housing units which displaced a large number of immigrants who had been living in them. Immigrants were forced to live in overcrowded quarters and even started sleeping on the streets because
20732-494: Was reserved for middle-class and working-class white people, facilitated by their increased wages incurred by the war effort and by subsequent federally guaranteed mortgages (VA, FHA, HOLC) available only to whites to buy new houses, such as those created by the Federal Housing Administration . In 1948, the Supreme Court ruled that racially restrictive covenants could not constitutionaly be enforced by
20878-604: Was the 1950 census. But original processing of this data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau, failed to attain any approved level of statistical proof. It was rigorous reprocessing of the same raw data on a UNIVAC I , led by Donald J. Bogue of the Scripps Foundation and Emerson Seim of the University of Chicago , that scientifically established the reality of white flight. It
21024-532: Was the first high school for African American students in the state, it opened in 1861 as a private boarding school and closed in the mid-1870s when the state public schools were no longer segregated. The funding and support for the Phoenixonian Institute initially came from the California State Convention of Colored Citizens and the African American community on the West Coast . In 1874,
21170-421: Was the victim of police brutality when he was beaten by three Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officers during his arrest. The Rodney King beating was caught on videotape, and after the police acquittal verdict the event was followed by the 1992 Los Angeles riots . After the 1992 riots some 50 people were murdered, an estimated 2,000 people were injured and 8,000 people were arrested. Affirmative action
21316-602: Was unconstitutional. Many southern jurisdictions mounted massive resistance to the policy. In some cases, white parents withdrew their children from public schools and established private religious schools instead. These schools, termed segregation academies , sprung up in the American South between the late 1950s and mid-1970s and allowed parents to prevent their children from being enrolled in racially mixed schools. Upon desegregation in 1957 in Baltimore, Maryland ,
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