123-1040: The naval Battle of the Eastern Solomons (also known as the Battle of the Stewart Islands and in Japanese sources as the Second Battle of the Solomon Sea ) took place on 24–25 August 1942 and was the third carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and the second major engagement fought between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during the Guadalcanal campaign . As at
246-681: A Short Improved S.27 biplane "S.38" of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) from the deck of the Royal Navy's pre-dreadnought battleship HMS Hibernia , thus providing the first practical demonstration of the aircraft carrier for naval operations at sea. Seaplane tender support ships came next, with the French Foudre of 1911. Early in World War I , the Imperial Japanese Navy ship Wakamiya conducted
369-518: A Short Type 184 seaplane, launched from the seaplane carrier HMS Ben-my-Chree . The first carrier-launched airstrike was the Tondern raid in July 1918. Seven Sopwith Camels were launched from the battlecruiser HMS Furious which had been completed as a carrier by replacing her planned forward turret with a flight deck and hangar prior to commissioning. The Camels attacked and damaged
492-498: A battleship , four cruisers , and 11 destroyers . Not all of the ships were U.S. warships; attached to TF 18 was TF 44 , commanded by Victor Alexander Charles Crutchley , which included the Royal Australian Navy cruisers HMAS Australia and Hobart . The overall commander of the three carrier task forces was Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher , who flew his flag on Saratoga . The aircraft from
615-462: A decisive battle . Attrition warfare does not include Blitzkrieg or using concentration of force and a decisive battle to win. The side that reinforces their army at a higher speed will normally win the war. Clausewitz called it the exhaustion of the adversary. A side that perceives itself to be at a marked disadvantage may deliberately seek out attrition warfare to neutralize its opponent's advantages over time. Sun Tzu has stated that there
738-698: A fleet (known as a carrier battle group ), as it allows a naval force to project seaborne air power far from homeland without depending on local airfields for staging aircraft operations . Since their inception in the early 20th century, aircraft carriers have evolved from wooden vessels used to deploy individual tethered reconnaissance balloons , to nuclear-powered supercarriers that carry dozens of fighters , strike aircraft , military helicopters , AEW&Cs and other types of aircraft such as UCAVs . While heavier fixed-wing aircraft such as airlifters , gunships and bombers have been launched from aircraft carriers, these aircraft have not landed on
861-475: A Catalina made the first sighting of the Ryūjō force. Later that morning, several more sightings by carrier and other U.S. reconnaissance aircraft followed, including Ryūjō and ships of Kondo's and Mikawa's forces. Throughout the morning and early afternoon, U.S. aircraft also sighted several Japanese scout aircraft and submarines, leading Fletcher to believe that the Japanese knew where his carriers were, which actually
984-405: A carrier due to flight deck limitations. The aircraft carrier, along with its onboard aircraft and defensive ancillary weapons , is the largest weapon system ever created. By their tactical prowess, mobility, autonomy and the variety of operational means, aircraft carriers are often the centerpiece of modern naval warfare , and have significant diplomatic influence in deterrence , command of
1107-555: A counteroffensive, with the goal of driving the Allies from Guadalcanal and Tulagi. The counteroffensive was called "Operation Ka", from the first syllable in the Japanese name for Guadalcanal. The naval forces had the additional objective of destroying Allied warship forces in the South Pacific Area, specifically the U.S. carriers. On 16 August, a Japanese convoy of three slow transport ships loaded with 1,411 soldiers from
1230-425: A definitive report on the location of the Japanese fleet carriers, the U.S. carriers' radar detected the first incoming wave of Japanese strike aircraft. Fifty-three F4F-4 Wildcat fighters from the two U.S. carriers were directed by radar control towards the attackers. Communication problems, limitations of the aircraft identification capabilities of the radar, primitive control procedures, and effective screening of
1353-550: A demonstrative retaliatory strike on the mainland, including the capital, Tokyo. However, the vulnerability of carriers compared to traditional capital ships was illustrated by the sinking of HMS Glorious by German battleships during the Norwegian campaign in 1940 . This new-found importance of naval aviation forced nations to create a number of carriers, in efforts to provide air superiority cover for every major fleet to ward off enemy aircraft. This extensive usage led to
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#17327723829751476-412: A difficult and dangerous manoeuver and Dunning was later killed when his airplane was thrown overboard while attempting another landing on Furious . HMS Furious was modified again when her rear turret was removed and another flight deck added over a second hangar for landing aircraft over the stern. Her funnel and superstructure remained intact however and turbulence from the funnel and superstructure
1599-422: A flat-top flight deck , which launches and recovers aircraft. Aircraft launch forward, into the wind, and are recovered from astern. The flight deck is where the most notable differences between a carrier and a land runway are found. Creating such a surface at sea poses constraints on the carrier. For example, the size of the vessel is a fundamental limitation on runway length. This affects take-off procedure, as
1722-404: A landing area angled off axis to allow aircraft who missed the arresting wires to "bolt" and safely return to flight for another landing attempt rather than crashing into aircraft on the forward deck. If the aircraft are VTOL-capable or helicopters, they do not need to decelerate and hence there is no such need. The arrested-recovery system has used an angled deck since the 1950s because, in case
1845-458: A larger, more "militarized" version of the escort carrier. Although with similar complement to escort carriers, they had the advantage of speed from their converted cruiser hulls. The UK 1942 Design Light Fleet Carrier was designed for building quickly by civilian shipyards and with an expected service life of about 3 years. They served the Royal Navy during the war, and the hull design was chosen for nearly all aircraft carrier equipped navies after
1968-401: A number of other ships to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry supplies, re-supply (Many carriers are self-sufficient and will supply their escorts) and perform other support services, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. The resulting group of ships is often termed a carrier strike group , battle group, carrier group, or carrier battle group . There is
2091-421: A place in modern asymmetric warfare , like the gunboat diplomacy of the past. Carriers also facilitate quick and precise projections of overwhelming military power into such local and regional conflicts. Lacking the firepower of other warships, carriers by themselves are considered vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines, or missiles. Therefore, an aircraft carrier is generally accompanied by
2214-585: A radio report, and this caused the Japanese to strongly suspect that U.S. carriers were in the immediate area. The U.S. forces were unaware of the disposition and strength of the approaching Japanese surface warship forces. At 09:50 on 23 August, a U.S. PBY Catalina flying boat operating out of Ndeni in the Santa Cruz Islands initially sighted Tanaka's convoy. By late afternoon, with no further sightings of Japanese ships, two aircraft strike forces from Saratoga and Henderson Field took off to attack
2337-423: A relatively small area called an island , a feature pioneered on HMS Hermes in 1923. While the island is usually built on the starboard side of the flight deck, the Japanese aircraft carriers Akagi and Hiryū had their islands built on the port side. Very few carriers have been designed or built without an island. The flush deck configuration proved to have significant drawbacks, primary of which
2460-610: A series of battles of attrition along the Isonzo River between June 1915 and November 1917. Attritional warfare in World War I has been shown by historians such as Hew Strachan to have been used as a post hoc ergo propter hoc excuse for failed offensives. Contemporary sources disagree with Strachan's view on this. While the Christmas Memorandum is a post-war invention, the strategy of attritional warfare
2583-421: A shorter runway length of the deck requires that aircraft accelerate more quickly to gain lift. This either requires a thrust boost, a vertical component to its velocity, or a reduced take-off load (to lower mass). The differing types of deck configuration, as above, influence the structure of the flight deck. The form of launch assistance a carrier provides is strongly related to the types of aircraft embarked and
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#17327723829752706-482: A significant factor in warfare, driven by the superior range, flexibility and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance, and along with, carrier designs also increased in size and ability. Some of these larger carriers, dubbed by the media as "supercarriers", displacing 75,000 tons or greater, have become the pinnacle of carrier development. Some are powered by nuclear reactors and form
2829-501: A single medium-sized carrier. The US also has nine similarly sized Amphibious Warfare Ships. There are five small light carriers in use capable of operating both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters; Japan and Italy each operate two, and Spain one. Additionally there are eighteen small carriers which only operate helicopters serving the navies of Australia (2), Brazil (1), China (2), Egypt (2), France (3), Japan (4), South Korea (2), Thailand (1) and Turkey (1). Kalaat Béni Abbès (L-474)
2952-412: A ski-jump ramp for launching lightly loaded conventional fighter aircraft but recover using traditional carrier arresting cables and a tailhook on their aircraft. The disadvantage of the ski-jump is the penalty it exacts on aircraft size, payload, and fuel load (and thus range); heavily laden aircraft cannot launch using a ski-jump because their high loaded weight requires either a longer takeoff roll than
3075-417: A strategic option for combatants possessing greater resources or asymmetric advantages over their adversaries, it also carries considerable drawbacks. Perhaps the most common reason for failure of attrition warfare is related to the time required to fulfill one's war goals. The geopolitical and strategic situation may shift dramatically over long periods of time, potentially giving the opponent an edge if victory
3198-432: A strategic result. The difference between war of attrition and other forms of war is somewhat artificial since even a single battle normally contains an element of attrition. A strategy of attrition is an attempt to cause the enemy great losses in a single stroke (such as by encirclement and capture). Attrition warfare also tries to increase the friction in a war for the opponent. While attrition warfare might appear to be
3321-545: A tactical and strategic advantage. Japan's losses were greater and included dozens of aircraft and their experienced aircrews . Also, Japanese reinforcements intended for Guadalcanal were delayed and eventually delivered by warships rather than transport ships, giving the Allies more time to prepare for the Japanese counteroffensive and preventing the Japanese from landing heavy artillery, ammunition, and other supplies. On 7 August, Allied forces, consisting mainly of U.S. Marine Corps units, landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and
3444-528: A view among some military pundits that modern anti-ship weapons systems, such as torpedoes and missiles, or even ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads have made aircraft carriers and carrier groups too vulnerable for modern combat. Carriers can also be vulnerable to diesel-electric submarines like the German U24 of the conventional 206 class which in 2001 "fired" at the Enterprise during
3567-658: Is a military strategy consisting of belligerent attempts to win a war by wearing down the enemy to the point of collapse through continuous losses in personnel , materiel and morale . The word attrition comes from the Latin root atterere , meaning "to rub against", similar to the "grinding down" of the opponent's forces in attrition warfare. Attrition warfare represents an attempt to grind down an opponent's ability to make war by destroying their military resources by any means including guerrilla warfare , people's war , scorched earth and all types of battles apart from
3690-572: Is a textbook example of attrition warfare, where Russia interfered with Napoleon's military logistics and won the war without a decisive battle . One of the best visual representations of the Russian attrition warfare strategies was created by Charles Joseph Minard . It shows the steady decrease of the number of soldiers of the French Grande Armée during the course of the war. One commonly known example of attrition warfare might be on
3813-640: Is an amphibious transport dock of the Algerian National Navy with two deck-landing spots for helicopters. The Royal Australian Navy operates two Canberra -class landing helicopter docks . The two-ship class, based on the Spanish vessel Juan Carlos I and built by Navantia and BAE Systems Australia , represents the largest ships ever built for the Royal Australian Navy. Attrition warfare Attrition warfare
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3936-467: Is mirrored. Non-VTOL or conventional aircraft cannot decelerate on their own, and almost all carriers using them must have arrested-recovery systems (-BAR, e.g. CATOBAR or STOBAR) to recover their aircraft. Aircraft that are landing extend a tailhook that catches on arrestor wires stretched across the deck to bring themselves to a stop in a short distance. Post-World War II Royal Navy research on safer CATOBAR recovery eventually led to universal adoption of
4059-416: Is most commonly used on US Navy fleet carriers as it allows the deployment of heavy jets with full load-outs, especially on ground-attack missions. STOVL is used by other navies because it is cheaper to operate and still provides good deployment capability for fighter aircraft . Due to the busy nature of the flight deck, only 20 or so aircraft may be on it at any one time. A hangar storage several decks below
4182-437: Is no country that has benefitted from prolonged warfare, but Russia in 1812 won the war with attrition warfare against Napoleon . When attritional methods have worn down the enemy sufficiently to make other methods feasible, attritional methods are often complemented or even abandoned by other strategies. World War I military commanders on both sides ineffectively relied on attrition warfare, which resulted in casualties without
4305-503: Is not achieved soon enough. Additionally, the attrition strategies gives opponents time to adjust tactics and strategy. Although the strategy is typically victorious for the more well-resourced nation, it may eventually fail due to operational and geopolitical mishaps, such as Athens during the Peloponnesian War , or due to strategic miscalculations, such as Germany during the Battle of Britain . The French invasion of Russia
4428-496: Is not included as this would eliminate one or more helicopter landing areas; this flat deck limits the loading of Harriers but is somewhat mitigated by the longer rolling start provided by a long flight deck compared to many STOVL carriers. The US Navy has the largest fleet of carriers in the world, with eleven supercarriers currently in service. China and India each have two STOBAR carriers in service. The UK has two STOVL carriers in service. The navies of France and Russia each operate
4551-493: Is possible on a carrier deck, or assistance from a catapult or JATO rocket. For example, the Russian Sukhoi Su-33 is only able to launch from the carrier Admiral Kuznetsov with a minimal armament and fuel load. Another disadvantage is on mixed flight deck operations where helicopters are also present, such as on a US landing helicopter dock or landing helicopter assault amphibious assault ship. A ski jump
4674-455: Is sometimes combined with the aiming of jet thrust partly downward. This allows heavily loaded and fueled aircraft a few more precious seconds to attain sufficient air velocity and lift to sustain normal flight. Without a ski-jump, launching fully-loaded and fueled aircraft such as the Harrier would not be possible on a smaller flat deck ship before either stalling out or crashing directly into
4797-476: The Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway , the ships of the two adversaries were never within sight of each other. Instead, all attacks were carried out by carrier-based or land-based aircraft. After several damaging air attacks , the naval surface combatants from both America and Japan withdrew from the battle area. Although neither side secured a clear victory, the U.S. and its allies gained
4920-940: The Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases to threaten supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and secure the islands as launching points for a campaign with an eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign . The Allied landings were directly supported by three U.S. aircraft carrier task forces (TFs): TF 11 centered around USS Saratoga ; TF 16 based on USS Enterprise ; and TF 18 formed around USS Wasp ; their respective air groups ; and supporting surface warships, including
5043-529: The Ryūjō aircraft, the Rabaul aircraft had encountered severe weather and returned to their base at 11:30. The Ryūjō aircraft were detected on radar by Saratoga as they flew toward Guadalcanal, further fixing the location of their ship for the impending U.S. attack. The Ryūjō aircraft arrived over Henderson Field at 14:23 and tangled with the Cactus Air Force based at Henderson while they bombed
Battle of the Eastern Solomons - Misplaced Pages Continue
5166-473: The Shortland Islands . Both the Japanese and the U.S. elected to completely withdraw their warships from the area, ending the battle. The Japanese naval forces lingered near the northern Solomons, out of range of the U.S. aircraft based at Henderson Field, before finally returning to Truk on 5 September. The battle is generally considered to be a tactical and strategic victory for the U.S. because
5289-619: The Turkish Straits between the Soviet Black Sea bases and the Mediterranean Sea . These ships, while sized in the range of large fleet carriers, were designed to deploy alone or with escorts. In addition to supporting fighter aircraft and helicopters, they provide both strong defensive weaponry and heavy offensive missiles equivalent to a guided-missile cruiser. Aircraft carriers today are usually divided into
5412-874: The United Kingdom and India each currently operate two STOBAR / STOVL aircraft carriers with ski-jump flight decks, with China in the process to commission a third carrier with catapult capabilities, and France and Russia each operate a single aircraft carrier with a capacity of 30 to 60 fighters. Italy operates two light V/STOL carriers and Spain operates one V/STOL aircraft-carrying assault ship. Helicopter carriers are also operated by Japan (4, two of which are being converted to operate V/STOL fighters), France (3), Australia (2, previously also owned 3 light carriers ), Egypt (2), South Korea (2), China (3), Thailand (1) and Brazil (1). Future aircraft carriers are under construction or in planning by China, France, India, Italy, Russia, South Korea, Turkey and
5535-540: The Western Front during World War I . Both military forces found themselves in static defensive positions in trenches running from Switzerland to the English Channel . For years, without any opportunity for maneuvers, the only way the commanders thought that they could defeat the enemy was to repeatedly attack head on and grind the other down. One of the most enduring examples of attrition warfare on
5658-525: The pennant numbers used by the Royal Navy, Commonwealth countries, and Europe, along with the hull classification symbols used by the US and Canada . The 1903 advent of the heavier-than-air fixed-wing airplane with the Wright brothers ' first flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina , was closely followed on 14 November 1910, by Eugene Burton Ely 's first experimental take-off of a Curtiss Pusher airplane from
5781-514: The 28th "Ichiki" Infantry Regiment, as well as several hundred naval troops from the 5th Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Force , departed the major Japanese base at Truk Lagoon ( Chuuk ) and headed towards Guadalcanal. The transports were guarded by the light cruiser Jintsū , eight destroyers, and four patrol boats, with the escort force commanded by Rear Admiral Raizō Tanaka , who flew his flag in Jintsū . Also departing from Rabaul to help protect
5904-578: The German airbase at Tondern, Germany (modern day Tønder , Denmark), and destroyed two zeppelin airships . The first landing of an airplane on a moving ship was by Squadron Commander Edwin Harris Dunning , when he landed his Sopwith Pup on HMS Furious in Scapa Flow , Orkney on 2 August 1917. Landing on the forward flight deck required the pilot to approach round the ship's superstructure,
6027-495: The Japanese carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku , the light carrier Ryūjō , and a screening force of one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers, commanded by Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo in Shōkaku . The " vanguard force" consisted of two battleships, three heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and six destroyers, commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe . The "advanced force" contained five heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, five destroyers,
6150-576: The Japanese dive bombers by their escorting Zeros, prevented all but a few of the U.S. fighters from engaging the D3A dive bombers before they began their attacks on the U.S. carriers. Just before the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks, Enterprise and Saratoga cleared their decks for the impending action by launching the aircraft that they had been holding ready in case the Japanese fleet carriers were sighted. These aircraft were told to fly north and attack anything they could find, or else to circle outside
6273-541: The Japanese lost more ships, aircraft, and aircrew, and Japanese troop reinforcements for Guadalcanal were delayed. Summing up the significance of the battle, historian Richard B. Frank states: The Battle of the Eastern Solomons was unquestionably an American victory, but it had little long-term result, apart from a further reduction in the corps of trained Japanese carrier aviators. The [Japanese] reinforcements that could not come by slow transport would soon reach Guadalcanal by other means. The U.S. lost only seven aircrew in
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#17327723829756396-409: The Japanese surface forces, Nagumo's carriers would immediately launch a strike force to destroy them. With the U.S. carriers destroyed or disabled, Abe's "vanguard" and Kondo's "advanced" forces would close with and destroy the remaining Allied naval forces in a warship surface action. This would then allow Japanese naval forces the freedom to neutralize Henderson Field through bombardment while covering
6519-503: The Marines, protect Henderson Field, engage the enemy and destroy any Japanese naval forces that arrived to support Japanese troops in the land battle on Guadalcanal. Both Allied and Japanese naval forces continued to converge on 22 August, and both sides conducted intense aircraft scouting efforts, but neither side spotted its adversary. At least one Japanese scouting aircraft was shot down by aircraft from Enterprise before it could send
6642-510: The Royal Navy's HMS Ark Royal , that had a length of 800 feet (244 m), a displacement of 22,000 tons and was designed to carry 72 aircraft. Since then, aircraft carriers have consistently grown in size, both in length and displacement, as well as improved capabilities; in defense, sensors, electronic warfare, propulsion, range, launch and recovery systems, number and types of aircraft carried and number of sorties flown per day. China ( type 004 aircraft carrier ), France ( PANG ) and
6765-524: The Shortlands on 23 August and became tangentially involved, dropping bombs on Henderson Field during the following nights with their float planes. Tanaka planned to land the troops from his convoy on Guadalcanal on 24 August. On 21 August, the rest of the Japanese Ka naval force departed Truk, heading for the southern Solomons. These ships were divided into three groups. The "main body" contained
6888-549: The South Pacific on 24 October, just in time for the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and her rematch with Shōkaku and Zuikaku . Aircraft carrier An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase , equipped with a full-length flight deck and hangar facilities for supporting, arming, deploying and recovering shipborne aircraft . Typically it is the capital ship of
7011-440: The U.S. carrier aircraft launched just before the first wave of Japanese aircraft attacked failed to find any targets, but two SBD Dauntlesses from Saratoga sighted Kondo's advanced force and attacked the seaplane tender Chitose , scoring two near-misses which heavily damaged the unarmored ship. The U.S. carrier aircraft either landed at Henderson Field or were able to return to their carriers after dusk. The U.S. ships retired to
7134-415: The U.S. naval forces undetected, as well as to help provide protection and cover for Tanaka's convoy. Most of the aircraft on Shōkaku and Zuikaku were readied to launch on short notice if the U.S. carriers were located. Between 05:55 and 06:30, the U.S. carriers, mainly Enterprise , augmented by PBY Catalinas from Ndeni, launched their own scout aircraft to search for the Japanese naval forces. At 09:35,
7257-711: The United Kingdom all have carriers in service or under construction with displacements ranging from 65,000 to 85,000 tons and lengths from 280 to 320 meters (920 to 1,050 ft) which have been described as "supercarriers". The largest "supercarriers" in service as of 2022, however, are with the US Navy, with displacements exceeding 100,000 tons, lengths of over 337 meters (1,106 ft), and capabilities that match or exceed those of any other class. Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers and related types of ship have been used. These include
7380-544: The United States. Some of the types listed here are not strictly defined as aircraft carriers by some sources. A fleet carrier is intended to operate with the main fleet and usually provides an offensive capability. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds. By comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried. Most were built from mercantile hulls or, in
7503-588: The Western Front is the Battle of Verdun , which took place throughout most of 1916. Erich von Falkenhayn later claimed that his tactics at Verdun were designed not to take the city but rather to destroy the French Army in its defense. Falkenhayn is described as wanting to "bleed France white" and thus the attrition tactics were employed in the battle. Soldiers on the Italian Front fought
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#17327723829757626-462: The aircraft does not catch the arresting wire, the short deck allows easier take off by reducing the number of objects between the aircraft and the end of the runway. It also has the advantage of separating the recovery operation area from the launch area. Helicopters and aircraft capable of vertical or short take-off and landing ( V/STOL ) usually recover by coming abreast of the carrier on the port side and then using their hover capability to move over
7749-543: The airfield. In the resulting engagement, three B5N level bombers, three Zeros, and three U.S. fighters were shot down, and no significant damage was done to Henderson Field. Almost simultaneously, at 14:25 a Japanese scout aircraft from the cruiser Chikuma sighted the U.S. carriers. Although the aircraft was shot down, its report was transmitted in time, and Nagumo immediately ordered his strike force launched from Shōkaku and Zuikaku . The first wave of aircraft, consisting of 27 Aichi D3A 2 dive bombers and 15 Zeros under
7872-430: The area, Fletcher detached Wasp , which was getting low on fuel, and the rest of TF 18 for the two-day trip south toward Efate Island to refuel. Thus, Wasp and her escorting warships missed the upcoming battle. At 01:45 on 24 August, Nagumo ordered Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara , commanding the light carrier Ryūjō , the heavy cruiser Tone and the destroyers Amatsukaze and Tokitsukaze , to proceed ahead of
7995-484: The attack on Enterprise to attack the battleship USS North Carolina , but all were shot down by anti-aircraft fire or U.S. fighters. The attack was over at 16:48, and the surviving Japanese aircraft reassembled in small groups and returned to their ships. Both sides thought that they had inflicted more damage than was the case. The U.S. claimed to have shot down 70 Japanese aircraft, even though there were only 37 aircraft in all. Actual Japanese losses—from all causes—in
8118-431: The battle zone, until it was safe to return. At 16:29, the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks. Although several attempted to set up to attack Saratoga , they quickly shifted back to the nearer carrier, Enterprise . Thus, Enterprise was the target of almost the entire Japanese air attack. In a desperate attempt to disrupt their attacks, several Wildcats followed the D3A dive bombers into their attack dives, despite
8241-642: The battle. The Japanese lost 61 veteran aircrew, who were difficult for the Japanese to replace because of an institutionalized limited capacity in their naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves. The troops in Tanaka's convoy were later loaded onto destroyers at the Shortland Islands and delivered piecemeal to Guadalcanal without most of their heavy equipment, beginning on 29 August. The Japanese claimed considerably more damage than they had inflicted, including that Hornet —not in
8364-653: The battle—had been sunk, thus avenging her part in the Doolittle Raid . Emphasizing the strategic value of Henderson Field, in a separate reinforcement effort, the Japanese destroyer Asagiri was sunk and two other Japanese destroyers heavily damaged on 28 August, 70 nmi (81 mi; 130 km) north of Guadalcanal in New Georgia Sound by U.S. aircraft based at the airfield. The damaged Enterprise traveled to Pearl Harbor for extensive repairs, which were completed on 15 October. She returned to
8487-538: The beginning of the effective and highly mobile aircraft strikes. This operation in the shallow water harbor incapacitated three of the six anchored battleships at a cost of two torpedo bombers. World War II in the Pacific Ocean involved clashes between aircraft carrier fleets. The Japanese surprise attack on the American Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor naval and air bases on Sunday, 7 December 1941,
8610-506: The carrier has varied over history and among navies , to cater to the various roles that global climates have demanded from naval aviation . Regardless of size, the ship itself must house their complement of aircraft, with space for launching, storing, and maintaining them. Space is also required for the large crew, supplies (food, munitions, fuel, engineering parts), and propulsion. US aircraft carriers are notable for having nuclear reactors powering their systems and propulsion. The top of
8733-513: The carrier is the flight deck, where aircraft are launched and recovered. On the starboard side of this is the island, where the funnel , air-traffic control and the bridge are located. The constraints of constructing a flight deck affect the role of a given carrier strongly, as they influence the weight, type, and configuration of the aircraft that may be launched. For example, assisted launch mechanisms are used primarily for heavy aircraft, especially those loaded with air-to-ground weapons. CATOBAR
8856-525: The case of merchant aircraft carriers , were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet but of smaller size with reduced aircraft capacity. The Soviet aircraft carrier Admiral Kusnetsov was termed a "heavy aircraft-carrying cruiser". This was primarily a legal construct to avoid the limitations of the Montreux Convention preventing 'aircraft carriers' transiting
8979-416: The command of Lieutenant Commander Mamoru Seki , was in the air by 14:50 and on its way toward Enterprise and Saratoga . About this same time, two U.S. scout aircraft finally sighted the main Japanese force, but because of communication problems these sighting reports never reached Fletcher. Before leaving the area, the two U.S. scout aircraft attacked Shōkaku , causing negligible damage but forcing five of
9102-541: The construction of new heavy surface combat ships, most early aircraft carriers were conversions of ships that were laid down (or had served) as different ship types: cargo ships, cruisers, battlecruisers, or battleships. These conversions gave rise to the USS ; Langley in 1922, the US Lexington -class aircraft carriers (1927), Japanese Akagi and Kaga , and British Courageous class (of which Furious
9225-417: The convoy was a "close cover force" of four heavy cruisers from the 8th Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa . These were the same, relatively old, heavy cruisers that had defeated an Allied naval surface force in the earlier Battle of Savo Island , less Kako , which had been sunk by an American submarine on her journey from that battle to her base. The four heavy cruisers of Mikawa's group left
9348-517: The convoy. Tanaka, knowing that an attack would be forthcoming following the PBY sighting, reversed course once it had departed the area and eluded the strike aircraft. After Tanaka reported to his superiors his loss of time by turning north to avoid the expected Allied airstrike, the landings of his troops on Guadalcanal was pushed back to 25 August. By 18:23 on 23 August, with no Japanese carriers sighted and no new intelligence reporting of their presence in
9471-453: The core of a fleet designed to operate far from home. Amphibious assault ships, such as the Wasp and Mistral classes, serve the purpose of carrying and landing Marines, and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as "commando carriers" or "helicopter carriers", many have the capability to operate VSTOL aircraft. The threatening role of aircraft carriers has
9594-452: The crippled Ryūjō but caused no additional damage. The crew abandoned the heavily damaged Japanese carrier at nightfall, and she sank soon after. Amatsukaze and Tokitsukaze rescued Ryūjō ' s survivors and the aircrews from her returning strike force, who ditched their aircraft in the ocean nearby. After the rescue operations were complete, both Japanese destroyers and Tone rejoined Nagumo's main force. At 16:02, still waiting for
9717-543: The deck of a United States Navy ship, the cruiser USS Birmingham anchored off Norfolk Navy Base in Virginia . Two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss Pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay . On 9 May 1912, the first take off of an airplane from a ship while underway was made by Commander Charles Samson flying
9840-467: The design of the carrier itself. There are two main philosophies to keep the deck short: add thrust to the aircraft, such as using a Catapult Assisted Take-Off (CATO-); and changing the direction of the airplanes' thrust, as in Vertical and/or Short Take-Off (V/STO-). Each method has advantages and disadvantages of its own: On the recovery side of the flight deck, the adaptation to the aircraft load-out
9963-417: The development and construction of 'light' carriers. Escort aircraft carriers , such as USS Bogue , were sometimes purpose-built but most were converted from merchant ships as a stop-gap measure to provide anti-submarine air support for convoys and amphibious invasions. Following this concept, light aircraft carriers built by the US, such as USS Independence (commissioned in 1943), represented
10086-434: The difference between the relative speeds of the aircraft and ship. Since the early 1950s on conventional carriers it has been the practice to recover aircraft at an angle to port of the axial line of the ship. The primary function of this angled deck is to allow aircraft that miss the arresting wires, referred to as a bolter , to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked forward. The angled deck allows
10209-421: The engagement were 25 aircraft, with most of the crews of the lost aircraft not being recovered or rescued. The Japanese, for their part, mistakenly believed that they had heavily damaged two U.S. carriers, instead of just one. The U.S. lost six aircraft in the engagement, along with five pilots. Although Enterprise was heavily damaged and on fire, her damage-control teams were able to make sufficient repairs for
10332-594: The exercise JTFEX 01-2 in the Caribbean Sea by firing flares and taking a photograph through its periscope or the Swedish Gotland which managed the same feat in 2006 during JTFEX 06-2 by penetrating the defensive measures of Carrier Strike Group 7 which was protecting USS Ronald Reagan . Carriers are large and long ships, although there is a high degree of variation depending on their intended role and aircraft complement . The size of
10455-690: The first-wave Zeros to give chase, thus aborting their mission. At 16:00 a second wave of 9 Zeros and 27 D3A dive bombers, under the command of Lieutenant Sadamu Takahashi , was launched by the Japanese carriers and headed south toward the U.S. carriers. Abe's "Vanguard" force also surged ahead in anticipation of meeting the U.S. ships in a surface action after nightfall. Also at this time, the Saratoga strike force arrived and attacked Ryūjō , hitting and heavily damaging her with three to five bombs and perhaps one torpedo, and killing 120 of her crew. Also during this time, several U.S. B-17 heavy bombers attacked
10578-421: The flight deck and land vertically without the need for arresting gear. Carriers steam at speed, up to 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) into the wind during flight deck operations to increase wind speed over the deck to a safe minimum. This increase in effective wind speed provides a higher launch airspeed for aircraft at the end of the catapult stroke or ski-jump, as well as making recovery safer by reducing
10701-457: The flight deck is where most aircraft are kept, and aircraft are taken from the lower storage decks to the flight deck through the use of an elevator. The hangar is usually quite large and can take up several decks of vertical space. Munitions are commonly stored on the lower decks because they are highly explosive. Usually this is below the waterline so that the area can be flooded in case of emergency. As "runways at sea", aircraft carriers have
10824-404: The flight deck of a US aircraft carrier, the sailors wear colored shirts that designate their responsibilities. There are at least seven different colors worn by flight deck personnel for modern United States Navy carrier air operations . Carrier operations of other nations use similar color schemes. The superstructure of a carrier (such as the bridge , flight control tower ) are concentrated in
10947-424: The flight deck. This was first developed to help launch short take off vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft take off at far higher weights than is possible with a vertical or rolling takeoff on flat decks. Originally developed by the Royal Navy, it since has been adopted by many navies for smaller carriers. A ski-jump ramp works by converting some of the forward rolling movement of the aircraft into vertical velocity and
11070-454: The following four categories based on the way that aircraft take off and land: The appellation "supercarrier" is not an official designation with any national navy, but a term used predominantly by the media and typically when reporting on larger and more advanced carrier types. It is also used when comparing carriers of various sizes and capabilities, both current and past. It was first used by The New York Times in 1938, in an article about
11193-412: The handler, and the air boss. Shooters are naval aviators or naval flight officers and are responsible for launching aircraft. The handler works just inside the island from the flight deck and is responsible for the movement of aircraft before launching and after recovery. The "air boss" (usually a commander ) occupies the top bridge (Primary Flight Control, also called primary or the tower ) and has
11316-438: The installation of one or two "waist" catapults in addition to the two bow cats. An angled deck also improves launch and recovery cycle flexibility with the option of simultaneous launching and recovery of aircraft. Conventional ("tailhook") aircraft rely upon a landing signal officer (LSO, radio call sign 'paddles') to monitor the aircraft's approach, visually gauge glideslope, attitude, and airspeed, and transmit that data to
11439-458: The intense anti-aircraft artillery fire from Enterprise and her screening warships. As many as four Wildcats were shot down by U.S. anti-aircraft fire, as well as several D3A dive bombers. Because of the effective anti-aircraft fire from the U.S. ships, plus evasive maneuvers, the bombs from the first nine D3A dive bombers missed Enterprise . The second division, which was led by Lieutenant Keiichi Arima , managed to score three hits. Initially,
11562-404: The landing of the Japanese army troops to retake Guadalcanal and Tulagi. In response to an unanticipated land battle fought between U.S. Marines and Japanese forces on Guadalcanal on 19–20 August, the U.S. carrier task forces under Fletcher reversed towards Guadalcanal from their positions 400 nautical miles (460 mi; 740 km) to the south on 21 August. The U.S. carriers were to support
11685-414: The lead D3A dive bomber, piloted by Petty Officer Kiyoto Furuta , scored a hit with a 250-kilogram (551 lb) semi-armor-piercing , delayed-action " ordinary " bomb that penetrated the flight deck near the aft elevator and passed through three decks before detonating below the waterline , killing 35 men and wounding 70 more. Incoming seawater caused Enterprise to develop a slight list, but it
11808-639: The local airspace. In fact, Henderson Field and the aircraft based there were able to limit the movement of Japanese forces in the Solomon Islands and assist in the attrition of Japanese air forces in the South Pacific Area. Allied control of Henderson Field became the key factor in the entire battle for Guadalcanal. Surprised by the Allied offensive in the Solomons, Japanese naval forces, commanded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , and army forces prepared
11931-427: The main Japanese force and send an aircraft attack force against Henderson Field at daybreak. The Ryūjō mission was most likely in response to a request from the naval commander at Rabaul, Nishizō Tsukahara , for help from the combined fleet in neutralizing Henderson Field. The mission may also have been intended by Nagumo as a feint maneuver to divert U.S. attention, allowing the rest of the Japanese force to approach
12054-436: The movement of supply ships aiding Guadalcanal; and engaging and destroying any Japanese warships that came within range. Between 15 and 20 August, the U.S. carriers covered the delivery of fighter and bomber aircraft to the newly opened Henderson Field on Guadalcanal. This small, hard-won airfield was a critical point in the entire island chain, and both sides considered that control of the airbase offered potential control of
12177-466: The nearby gun crews and starting a large fire. About a minute later, at 16:46, a third and last bomb (also a 241-kilogram (531 lb) "land" bomb), dropped by Petty Officer Kazumi Horie, hit Enterprise on the flight deck forward of where the first two bombs hit. This bomb exploded on contact, creating a 10-foot (3 m) hole in the deck but causing no further damage. Seven D3A dive bombers—three from Shokaku and four from Zuikaku —then broke off from
12300-498: The need for land use authorizations from third-party countries, reduces the times and transit logistics of aircraft and therefore significantly increases the time of availability on the combat zone. There is no single definition of an "aircraft carrier", and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, and sometimes as distinct types of aviation-capable ships. Aircraft carriers may be classified according to
12423-541: The overall responsibility for controlling launch, recovery and "those aircraft in the air near the ship, and the movement of planes on the flight deck, which itself resembles a well-choreographed ballet". The captain of the ship spends most of his time one level below primary on the Navigation Bridge. Below this is the Flag Bridge, designated for the embarked admiral and his staff. To facilitate working on
12546-408: The pilot. Before the angled deck emerged in the 1950s, LSOs used colored paddles to signal corrections to the pilot (hence the nickname). From the late 1950s onward, visual landing aids such as the optical landing system have provided information on proper glide slope , but LSOs still transmit voice calls to approaching pilots by radio. Key personnel involved in the flight deck include the shooters,
12669-603: The sea and air supremacy . Since the Second World War , the aircraft carrier has replaced the battleship in the role of flagship of a fleet, and largely transformed naval battles from gun barrages to beyond-visual-range air strikes . In addition to tactical aptitudes, it has great strategic advantages in that, by sailing in international waters , it does not need to interfere with any territorial sovereignty and thus does not risk diplomatic complications or conflict escalation due to trespassing, and obviates
12792-494: The sea. Although STOVL aircraft are capable of taking off vertically from a spot on the deck, using the ramp and a running start is far more fuel efficient and permits a heavier launch weight. As catapults are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce weight, complexity, and space needed for complex steam or electromagnetic launching equipment. Vertical landing aircraft also remove the need for arresting cables and related hardware. Russian, Chinese, and Indian carriers include
12915-602: The seaplane carrier Chitose , and a "covering group" consisting of the battleship Mutsu and three destroyers, commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō . Finally, a force of about 100 IJN land-based bombers, fighters, and reconnaissance aircraft at Rabaul and nearby islands were positioned for operational support. Nagumo's main body positioned itself behind the "vanguard" and "advanced" forces in an attempt to more easily remain hidden from U.S. reconnaissance aircraft. The Ka plan dictated that once U.S. carriers were located, either by Japanese scout aircraft or an attack on one of
13038-471: The ship to resume flight operations at 17:46, only one hour after the engagement ended. At 18:05, the Saratoga strike force returned from sinking Ryūjō and landed without major incident. The second wave of Japanese aircraft approached the U.S. carriers at 18:15 but was unable to locate the U.S. formation because of communication problems and had to return to their carriers without attacking any U.S. ships. It lost five aircraft from operational mishaps. Most of
13161-523: The size of capital ships including carriers. Since World War II, aircraft carrier designs have increased in size to accommodate a steady increase in aircraft size. The large, modern Nimitz class of US Navy carriers has a displacement nearly four times that of the World War II–era USS ; Enterprise , yet its complement of aircraft is roughly the same—a consequence of the steadily increasing size and weight of individual military aircraft over
13284-704: The south to get out of range of any approaching Japanese warships. In fact, Abe's "vanguard force" and Kondō's "advanced force" were steaming south to try to catch the U.S. carrier task forces in a surface battle, but they turned around at midnight without having made contact with the U.S. warships. Nagumo's main body, having taken heavy aircraft losses in the engagement and being low on fuel, also retreated northward. Believing that two U.S. carriers had been taken out of action with heavy damage, Tanaka's reinforcement convoy again headed toward Guadalcanal, and by 08:00 on 25 August they were within 150 nmi (170 mi; 280 km) of their destination. At this time, Tanaka's convoy
13407-525: The three carriers provided close air support for the invasion forces and defended against Japanese air attacks from Rabaul. After a successful landing, they remained in the South Pacific Area charged with four main objectives: guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo ; giving support to Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against possible Japanese counteroffensives; covering
13530-514: The type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope , RN, former First Sea Lord (head) of the Royal Navy , has said, "To put it simply, countries that aspire to strategic international influence have aircraft carriers." Henry Kissinger , while United States Secretary of State , also said: "An aircraft carrier is 100,000 tons of diplomacy." As of November 2024, there are 47 active aircraft carriers in
13653-402: The war, until the 1980s. Emergencies also spurred the creation or conversion of highly unconventional aircraft carriers. CAM ships were cargo-carrying merchant ships that could launch (but not retrieve) a single fighter aircraft from a catapult to defend the convoy from long range land-based German aircraft. Before World War II, international naval treaties of 1922 , 1930 , and 1936 limited
13776-583: The world operated by fourteen navies. The United States has 11 large nuclear-powered CATOBAR fleet carriers — each carrying around 80 fighters — the largest in the world, with the total combined deck space over twice that of all other nations combined. In addition, the US Navy has nine amphibious assault ships used primarily as helicopter carriers , although these also each carry up to 20 vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) jetfighters and are similar in size to medium-sized fleet carriers. China ,
13899-669: The world's first successful ship-launched air raid: on 6 September 1914, a Farman aircraft launched by Wakamiya attacked the Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth and the Imperial German gunboat Jaguar in Jiaozhou Bay off Qingdao ; neither was hit. The first attack using an air-launched torpedo occurred on 2 August, when a torpedo was fired by Flight Commander Charles Edmonds from
14022-455: The years. Today's aircraft carriers are so expensive that some nations which operate them risk significant economic and military impact if a carrier is lost. Some changes were made after 1945 in carriers: Modern navies that operate such aircraft carriers treat them as capital ships of fleets, a role previously held by the galleons, ships-of-the-line and battleships . This change took place during World War II in response to air power becoming
14145-439: Was a clear illustration of the power projection capability afforded by a large force of modern carriers. Concentrating six carriers in a single unit turned naval history about, as no other nation had fielded anything comparable. In the " Doolittle Raid ", on 18 April 1942, the US Navy carrier USS Hornet sailed to within 650 nautical miles (1,200 km) of Japan and launched 16 B-25 Mitchell medium bombers from her deck in
14268-412: Was also hit and eventually sank. Just as the destroyer Mutsuki pulled alongside Kinryu Maru to rescue her crew and embarked troops, she was attacked by four U.S. B-17s from Espiritu Santo, which landed five bombs on or around Mutsuki , sinking her immediately. An uninjured but shaken Tanaka transferred to the destroyer Kagerō , sent Jintsu back to Truk, and took the convoy to the Japanese base in
14391-616: Was becoming a significant factor in warfare. The advent of aircraft as focal weapons was driven by the superior range, flexibility, and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. They had greater range and precision than naval guns, making them highly effective. The versatility of the carrier was demonstrated in November 1940, when HMS Illustrious launched a long-range strike on the Italian fleet at their base in Taranto , signalling
14514-454: Was joined by five destroyers( Mutsuki -class destroyers Mutsuki and Yayoi , Kagerou -class destroyers Kagerō and Isokaze , and Shiratsuyu -class destroyer Kawakaze ) which had shelled Henderson Field the night before, causing slight damage. At 08:05, 18 U.S. aircraft from Henderson Field attacked Tanaka's convoy, causing heavy damage to Jintsu , killing 24 crewmen, and knocking Tanaka unconscious. The troop transport Kinryu Maru
14637-415: Was management of the exhaust from the power plant. Fumes coming across the deck were a major issue in USS Langley . In addition, lack of an island meant difficulties managing the flight deck, performing air traffic control, a lack of radar housing placements and problems with navigating and controlling the ship itself. Another deck structure that can be seen is a ski-jump ramp at the forward end of
14760-423: Was not a major breach of hull integrity. Just 30 seconds later, the next D3A dive bomber, piloted by Petty Officer Tamotsu Akimoto, planted its 241-kilogram (531 lb) high-explosive " land " bomb only 15 feet (4.6 m) away from where the first bomb hit. The resulting detonation ignited a large secondary explosion from one of the nearby 5-inch (127 mm) guns' ready powder casings, killing 35 members of
14883-658: Was not yet the case. Still, Fletcher hesitated to order a strike against the Ryūjō group until he was sure there were no other Japanese carriers in the area. Finally, with no firm word on the presence or location of other Japanese carriers, at 13:40 Fletcher launched a strike of 38 aircraft from Saratoga to attack Ryūjō . He kept aircraft in reserve on both U.S. carriers in case any Japanese fleet carriers were sighted. Meanwhile, at 12:20, Ryūjō launched six Nakajima B5N 2 bombers and 15 A6M3 Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field in conjunction with an attack by 24 Mitsubishi G4M 2 bombers and 14 Zero fighters from Rabaul. Unknown to
15006-656: Was one). Specialist carrier evolution was well underway, with several navies ordering and building warships that were purposefully designed to function as aircraft carriers by the mid-1920s. This resulted in the commissioning of ships such as the Japanese Hōshō (1922), HMS Hermes (1924, although laid down in 1918 before Hōshō ), and Béarn (1927). During World War II , these ships would become known as fleet carriers . The aircraft carrier dramatically changed naval warfare in World War II, because air power
15129-478: Was severe enough that only three landing attempts were successful before further attempts were forbidden. This experience prompted the development of vessels with a flush deck and produced the first large fleet ships. In 1918, HMS Argus became the world's first carrier capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft. As a result of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, which limited
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