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172-775: Eastern statistical region is divided into 11 municipalities: The current population of the Eastern Statistical Region is 150,234 citizens or 8.2% of the total population of the Republic of North Macedonia, according to the last population census in 2021. The largest ethnic group in the region are the Macedonians . 41°55′48″N 22°24′00″E  /  41.9300°N 22.4000°E  / 41.9300; 22.4000 Ethnic Macedonians Macedonians ( Macedonian : Македонци , romanized :  Makedonci [maˈkɛdɔnt͡si] ) are

344-583: A "Macedonian minority" and to refer to their native language as "Macedonian" . Since the late 1980s there has been an ethnic Macedonian revival in Northern Greece, mostly centering on the region of Florina . Since then ethnic Macedonian organisations including the Rainbow political party have been established. Rainbow first opened its offices in Florina on 6 September 1995. The following day,

516-637: A Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish , in which he wrote that the Macedonians are a separate nation and the place which is theirs is called Macedonia. In 1880, he published in Sofia a Grammar of the language of the Slavic Macedonian population , a work that is today known as the first attempt at a grammar of Macedonian. However, he alternately described his language as "Serbo-Albanian" and "Slavo-Macedonian" and himself as

688-559: A nation and a South Slavic ethnic group native to the region of Macedonia in Southeast Europe . They speak Macedonian , a South Slavic language . The large majority of Macedonians identify as Eastern Orthodox Christians , who share a cultural and historical "Orthodox Byzantine–Slavic heritage" with their neighbours. About two-thirds of all ethnic Macedonians live in North Macedonia ; there are also communities in

860-482: A "Mijak from Galičnik", a "Serbian patriot" and a "Bulgarian from the village of Galičnik", i.e. changing ethnicity multiple times during his lifetime. Therefore, his Macedonian self-identification is considered by historians to be inchoate and to resemble a regional phenomenon. In 1885, Theodosius of Skopje , a priest who held a high-ranking position within the Bulgarian Exarchate , was chosen as

1032-643: A Bulgarian national self-consciousness and a regional Macedonian identity similar to the Macedonian regional identity in Greek Macedonia . According to ethnic Macedonian political activist, Stoyko Stoykov, the number of Bulgarian citizens with ethnic Macedonian self-consciousness in 2009 was between 5,000 and 10,000. In 2000, the Bulgarian Constitutional Court banned UMO Ilinden-Pirin , a small Macedonian political party, as

1204-613: A Macedonian nation was internationalized and backed by the Comintern which issued in 1934 a resolution supporting the development of the entity . This action was attacked by the IMRO, but was supported by the Balkan communists. The Balkan communist parties supported the national consolidation of the ethnic Macedonian people and created Macedonian sections within the parties, headed by prominent IMRO (United) members. The sense of belonging to

1376-540: A bishop of the episcopacy of Skopje . In 1890 he renounced de facto the Bulgarian Exarchate and attempted to restore the Archbishopric of Ohrid as a separate Macedonian Orthodox Church in all eparchies of Macedonia , responsible for the spiritual, cultural and educational life of all Macedonian Orthodox Christians. During this time period Metropolitan Bishop Theodosius of Skopje made a plea to

1548-580: A key. The history of the Empire would have been profoundly different if the Church had remained as independent of the State as it had been before Constantine. But heresies and schisms and religious intolerance on one side, and the despotic instinct to control all social forces on the other, brought about a close union between State and Church which altered the character and spirit of the State, and constituted perhaps

1720-421: A large state by two independent but perfectly similar machines, controlled not from one centre but from two foci, without sacrificing its unity was an interesting and entirely new experiment. These bureaucratic machines worked moderately well, and their success might have been extraordinary if the monarchs who directed them had always been men of superior ability. Blots of course and defects there were, especially in

1892-506: A map of 1903 by Austrian cartographer Karl Peucker depicted Macedonia as a peculiar area, where zones of linguistic influence overlapped. In his first ethnographic map of 1906, Cvijic presented all Slavs of Serbia and Macedonia merely as "Slavs". In a pamphlet translated and circulated in Europe the same year, he elaborated his ostensibly impartial views and described the Slavs living south of

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2064-556: A more professional military leadership. The Masters were all ranked as illustres . To support the Masters of the Soldiers, the Empire established several Military Counts (" Comes rei militaris "). There were six such Military Counts throughout the Empire. The Military Counts were all ranked as spectabiles . The various Frontier Troops were under the command of Dukes (" duces limitis " or "border commanders"). These commanders were

2236-476: A national level, its best result being achieved in the 1994 European elections, with a total of 7,263 votes. Since 2004 it has participated in European Parliament elections and local elections, but not in national elections. A few of its members have been elected in local administrative posts. Rainbow has recently re-established Nova Zora , a newspaper that was first published for a short period in

2408-540: A national one. The vast majority of Macedonians live along the valley of the river Vardar , the central region of the Republic of North Macedonia. They form about 64.18% of the population of North Macedonia (1,297,981 people according to the 2002 census ). Smaller numbers live in eastern Albania , northern Greece, and southern Serbia , mostly abutting the border areas of the Republic of North Macedonia . A large number of Macedonians have immigrated overseas to Australia,

2580-407: A number of other countries . The concept of a Macedonian ethnicity, distinct from their Orthodox Balkan neighbours, is seen to be a comparatively newly emergent one. The earliest manifestations of an incipient Macedonian identity emerged during the second half of the 19th century among limited circles of Slavic-speaking intellectuals, predominantly outside the region of Macedonia. They arose after

2752-535: A religious policy aiming at religious unity, large scale monetary reforms, and the creation of an empire-wide civil bureaucracy. Although Diocletian is commonly thought of as creator of the Dominate, its origins lie in the innovations of earlier emperors, principally those undertaken by Aurelian (AD 270–275). Some reforms stretch back to the reigns of Gallienus (AD 253–268) and Trajan (AD 98–117), during whose reign " knights were given an escalating importance in

2924-484: A separate Macedonian nation gained credence during World War II when ethnic Macedonian communist partisan detachments were formed. In 1943 the Communist Party of Macedonia was established and the resistance movement grew up. On the other hand, due to the different trajectories of Macedonian Slavs in the three nation-states that ruled the region, the designation "Macedonian" acquired different meanings for them by

3096-684: A separate community with its own history, only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. This policy has continued in the new Republic of Macedonia after 1990, although with less intensity. Thus, the Bulgarian part of the identity of the Slavic-speaking population in Vardar Macedonia has died out. Following the collapse of Yugoslavia, the issue of Macedonian identity emerged again. Nationalists and governments alike from neighbouring countries, especially Greece and Bulgaria, espouse

3268-478: A separatist organization. Subsequently, activists attempted to re-establish the party but could not gather the required number of signatures. Significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the traditional immigrant-receiving nations, as well as in Western European countries. Census data in many European countries (such as Italy and Germany) does not take into account the ethnicity of émigrés from

3440-529: A special reserved seat in the nation's parliament. In 2002, they numbered 731. Dominate The Dominate , also known as the late Roman Empire , is the despotic form of imperial government of the late Roman Empire . It followed the earlier period known as the Principate . Until the empire was reunited in 313, this phase is more often called the Tetrarchy . It may begin with the commencement of

3612-414: A specific ethno-religious community under Graeco-Byzantine jurisdiction called Rum Millet . Belonging to this religious commonwealth was so important that most of the common people began to identify themselves as Christians . However ethnonyms never disappeared and some form of primary ethnic identity was available. This is confirmed from a Sultan's Firman from 1680 which describes the ethnic groups in

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3784-486: A strict ethno-nationalistic meaning, rather, they were loose, often interchangeable terms which could simultaneously denote regional habitation, allegiance to a particular empire, religious orientation, membership in certain social groups. Similarly, a "Byzantine" was a Roman subject of Constantinople, and the term bore no strict ethnic connotations, Greek or otherwise. Overall, in the Middle Ages, "a person's origin

3956-534: A third group distinct from Bulgarians and Serbians, and part of them "under Greek influence". Envisioning a future agreement with Greece, Cvijic depicted the southern half of the Macedo-Slavs "under Greek unfluence", while leaving the rest to appear as a subset of the Serbo-Croats. Cvijić's view was reproduced without acknowledgement by Alfred Stead , with no effect on British opinion, but, reflecting

4128-771: A thriving economy based on mining, Paeonia became a constituent province of the Argead – Macedonian kingdom . In 310 BC, the Celts attacked deep into the south, subduing various local tribes, such as the Dardanians , the Paeonians and the Triballi . Roman conquest brought with it a significant Romanization of the region. During the Dominate period, ' barbarian ' foederati were settled on Macedonian soil at times; such as

4300-412: Is not supported by archaeology or other historical disciplines and also could marginalize the Macedonian identity. Surveys on the effects of the controversial nation-building project Skopje 2014 and on the perceptions of the population of Skopje revealed a high degree of uncertainty regarding the latter's national identity. A supplementary national poll showed that there was a great discrepancy between

4472-575: The Caesar ), but the caesar did not have access to the powers of the emperor, nor was he delegated any official authority. It was during the Crisis of the Third Century that the traditional imperial approach of a single imperial magistrate based at Rome became unable to cope with multiple and simultaneous invasions and usurpations that required the emperor to be everywhere at once. Further, it

4644-498: The illustres , spectabiles and clarissimi , all of whom were automatically members of the senatorial order. The heads of the great central civil ministries, the magistri militum and other high level military commanders as well as the Praepositus sacri cubiculi were all graded as illustres , the highest of the new senatorial ranks. The second class ( spectabiles ) was assigned to a large group of civil servants, including

4816-587: The 1876 Conference of Constantinople included all of present-day North Macedonia (except for the Debar region) and parts of present-day Greek Macedonia. The borders of new Bulgarian state, drawn by the 1878 Treaty of San Stefano , also included Macedonia, but the treaty was never put into effect and the Treaty of Berlin (1878) "returned" Macedonia to the Ottoman Empire. For Christian Slav peasants, however,

4988-567: The 2021 census (roughly 0.31% from the Slavic population). The Bulgarian side does not accept these results as completely objective, citing as an example the census has counted less than 20,000 people with Bulgarian citizenship in the country, while in fact they are over 100,000. The national name derives from the Greek term Makedonía , related to the name of the region , named after the ancient Macedonians and their kingdom . It originates from

5160-512: The Babuna and Plačkovica mountains as "Macedo-Slavs" arguing that the appellation "Bugari" meant simply "peasant" to them, that they had no national consciousness and could become Serbs or Bulgarians in the future. Cvijić thus transformed the political character of the IMRO 's appeals to "Macedonians" into an ethnic one. Bulgarian cartographer Anastas Ishirkov countered Cvijić's views, pointing to

5332-703: The Bulgarian Empire , where Khan Boris I of Bulgaria ( r.  852–889 ) welcomed them. As part of his efforts to limit Byzantine influence and assert Bulgarian independence, he adopted Slavic as official ecclesiastical and state language and established the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School , which taught Slavonic liturgy and the Glagolitic and subsequently the Cyrillic alphabet . The success of Boris I's efforts

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5504-717: The Entente approached victory in the First World War , a number other maps and atlases, including those produced by the Allies replicated Cvijić's ideas, especially its depiction of the Macedo-Slavs. The prevalence of the Yugoslav point of view, obliged Georgios Sotiriades , a professor of History at the University of Athens , to map the Macedo-Slavs as a distinct group in his work of 1918, that mirrored Greek views of

5676-695: The Exarchate and on account of the free (and, occasionally, even subsidized) provision of education in Bulgarian schools. Alignment of the Slavs of Macedonia with the Bulgarian, the Greek or sometimes the Serbian national camp did not imply adherence to different national ideologies: these camps were not stable, culturally distinct groups, but parties with national affiliations, described by contemporaries as "sides", "wings", "parties" or "political clubs". The first expressions of Macedonian nationalism occurred in

5848-472: The Fall of Rome , non-Patrician Roman citizens themselves would find themselves displaced and would become serfs. Diocletian and his augusti colleagues and successors openly displayed the naked face of Imperial power. They ceased using the more modest title of princeps ; they adopted the veneration of the potentates of ancient Egypt and Persia ; and, they started wearing jeweled robes and shoes in contrast to

6020-479: The First World War and especially during the 1930s, and thus were consolidated by Communist Yugoslavia's governmental policy after the Second World War . The formation of the ethnic Macedonians as a separate community has been shaped by population displacement as well as by language shift , both the result of the political developments in the region of Macedonia during the 20th century. Following

6192-531: The Greek Helsinki Monitor estimated that the number of people identifying as ethnic Macedonians numbered somewhere between 10,000 and 30,000, Macedonian sources generally claim the number of ethnic Macedonians living in Greece at somewhere between 200,000 and 350,000. The ethnic Macedonians in Greece have faced difficulties from the Greek government in their ability to self-declare as members of

6364-582: The Masters of the Soldiers for military affairs and the Imperial Chancellor for central civilian administration. These reforms were the result of both the lack of officials suitable for the prefect's wide-ranging tasks, and of the desire to reduce the potential challenge to the Emperor's authority posed by a powerful Prefect. The next reforms were undertaken by Constantine I, who reorganised

6536-568: The Proconsuls , vicarii , the military governors in the provinces and the magistri scriniorum . The entry level class, clarissimus , was the minimum qualification for membership of the Senate. It was automatically awarded as part of the governorship of a province, and to a myriad of other lesser officers. It was held by a large number of junior imperial public servants, as well as being awarded to them after their retirement. The generosity of

6708-474: The Republic of North Macedonia . According to the 2011 Bulgarian census, there were 561 ethnic Macedonians (0.2%) in the Blagoevgrad Province , the Bulgarian part of the geographical region of Macedonia , out of a total of 1,654 Macedonians in the entire country. Also, a total of 429 citizens of the Republic of North Macedonia resided in the province. In 1998, Krassimir Kanev, chairman of

6880-689: The Roman Republic and the fiction that the emperor was simply the princeps or first citizen, whose authority was granted by the Senate . This role was almost always filled by a single individual, and the date that the Potestas tribunicia was conferred onto that person was the point when imperial authority could be exercised. Over the course of the Principate, it became common for the emperor (or Augustus ) to nominate an heir (referred to as

7052-703: The Sarmatians settled by Constantine the Great (330s AD) or the (10 year) settlement of Alaric I 's Goths . In contrast to 'frontier provinces', Macedonia (north and south) continued to be a flourishing Christian, Roman province in Late Antiquity and into the Early Middle Ages . Linguistically, the South Slavic languages from which Macedonian developed are thought to have expanded in

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7224-485: The Slavs of Macedonia as Bulgarians or as Macedonian Slavs, while their association with Bulgaria was almost universally accepted. Original manuscript versions of population data mentioned "Macedonian Slavs", though the term was changed to "Bulgarians" in the official printing. Western publications usually presented the Slavs of Macedonia as Bulgarians, as happened, partly for political reasons, in Serbian ones. Prompted by

7396-595: The ancient Greek adjective makednos , meaning "tall", which shares its roots with the adjective makrós , meaning the same. The name is originally believed to have meant either "highlanders" or "the tall ones", possibly descriptive of these ancient people . In the Late Middle Ages the name of Macedonia had different meanings for Western Europeans and for the Balkan people. For the Westerners it denoted

7568-726: The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire , the decisive point in the ethnogenesis of the South Slavic ethnic group was the creation of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia after World War II, a state in the framework of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . This was followed by the development of a separate Macedonian language and national literature, and the foundation of a distinct Macedonian Orthodox Church and national historiography. In antiquity, much of central-northern Macedonia (the Vardar basin )

7740-581: The illustres , all of the highest state officials were regraded to this rank. Under the Principate, provinces that contained legions were under the proconsular authority of the emperor, who managed those provinces through designated legates ( Legatus Augusti pro praetore ), while the units stationed at Rome were under the authority of the Praetorian Prefect . During the Crisis of the Third Century, greater authority over imperial military matters

7912-432: The quaestorship , a role which had acted as a form of apprenticeship for an ambitious senator during the Principate, it was downgraded during the Dominate and assigned to the sons of senators, with the legal qualifying age lowered to sixteen. This was followed by a suffect consulship and/or a praetorship . The office of Praetor had also lost much of its influence, as it had been stripped of its legal functions, so that during

8084-545: The 1920s led to some failed attempts by the Communists to use the Macedonian Question as a political weapon. In the 1920 Yugoslav parliamentary elections, 25% of the total Communist vote came from Macedonia, but participation was low (only 55%), mainly because the pro-Bulgarian IMRO organised a boycott against the elections. In the following years, the communists attempted to enlist the pro-IMRO sympathies of

8256-556: The 1989 census. Bulgarians are considered most closely related to the neighboring Macedonians, and it is sometimes claimed that there is no clear ethnic difference between them. A total of 1,143 people officially declared themselves to be ethnic Macedonians in the last Bulgarian census in 2021. During the same year, there were five times as many Bulgarian residents born in North Macedonia, 5,450. Most of them held Bulgarian citizenship, with only 1,576 of them being citizens of

8428-508: The 2011 census recorded 93,570 people of Macedonian ancestry. An estimated 45,000 people in Brazil are of Macedonian ancestry. The Macedonians can be primarily found in Porto Alegre , Rio de Janeiro , São Paulo and Curitiba . The Canadian census in 2001 records 37,705 individuals claimed wholly or partly Macedonian heritage in Canada, although community spokesmen have claimed that there are actually 100,000–150,000 Macedonians in Canada. A significant Macedonian community can be found in

8600-425: The 3-year period of solitary rule by Theodosius I from AD 392–395, this approach would last until the overthrow of the last western emperor in AD 476. While each augustus was autonomous within each portion of the empire they managed, all laws that were introduced by any emperor were valid across the entirety of the empire. During the Roman Republic , the office of Consul was the highest elected magistracy in

8772-419: The 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger. As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators – the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to

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8944-454: The 7th century. Yet at the same time, sources attest numerous Slavic tribes in the environs of Thessaloniki and further afield, including the Berziti in Pelagonia. Apart from Slavs and late Byzantines, Kuver 's " Sermesianoi " – a mix of Byzantine Greeks , Bulgars and Pannonian Avars – settled the "Keramissian plain" ( Pelagonia ) around Bitola in the late 7th century. Later pockets of settlers included "Danubian" Bulgars in

9116-431: The 9th century; Magyars (Vardariotai) and Armenians in the 10th–12th centuries, Cumans and Pechenegs in the 11th–13th centuries, and Saxon miners in the 14th and 15th centuries. Vlachs (Aromanians) and Arbanasi (Albanians) also inhabited this area in the Middle ages and mingeled with the local Slavic-speakers. Having previously been Byzantine clients, the Sklaviniae of Macedonia switched their allegiance to

9288-413: The Ancient Macedonians. Slaveikov, himself with Macedonian roots, started in 1866 the publication of the newspaper Makedoniya . Its main task was "to educate these misguided [sic] Grecomans there", who he called also Macedonists . In a letter written to the Bulgarian Exarch in February 1874 Petko Slaveykov reports that discontent with the current situation "has given birth among local patriots to

9460-412: The Balkan territories of the Empire as follows: Greeks, Albanians, Serbs, Vlachs and Bulgarians. Throughout the Middle Ages and Ottoman rule up until the early 20th century the Slavic-speaking population majority in the region of Macedonia were more commonly referred to (both by themselves and outsiders) as Bulgarians . However, in pre-nationalist times, terms such as "Bulgarian" did not possess

9632-404: The Bulgarian influx, thereby promoting Serbian interests there. The local educator Kuzman Shapkarev concluded that since the 1870s this foreign ethnonym began to replace the traditional one Bulgarians . At the dawn of the 20th century the Bulgarian teacher Vasil Kanchov marked that the local Bulgarians and Koutsovlachs call themselves Macedonians, and the surrounding people also call them in

9804-414: The Bulgarians with their incorporation into the Bulgarian Empire in the mid-800s. In the 860s, Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius , created the Glagolitic alphabet and Slavonic liturgy based on the Slavic dialect around Thessaloniki for a mission to Great Moravia . After the demise of the Great Moravian mission in 886, exiled students of the two apostles brought the Glagolitic alphabet to

9976-505: The Bulgarians, or to describe a separate Slavic group with no ethnic, national or political affiliation. The differentiation of ethnographic maps representing rival national views produced to satisfy the curiosity of European audience for the inhabitants of Macedonia, after the Ilinden uprising of 1903, indicated the complexity of the issue. Influenced by the conclusions of the research of young Serb Jovan Cvijić , that Macedonia's culture combined Byzantine influence with Serbian traditions,

10148-401: The Dominate its purpose was primarily to organise the Ludi Romani . The most prestigious post that a senator could hold under the Dominate was that of Praefectus urbi ; during this period the office gained in effective power, as the imperial court was removed from the city of Rome, meaning that the prefects were no longer under the emperor's direct supervision. The most significant change

10320-410: The Dominate was the downgrading of Rome from its status as the official residence of the emperor . This precedent had already been established by Gallienus in 260, who moved the imperial court to Mediolanum in response to a suspected future attack by the usurper Postumus as well as defending Italy from the ravages of the Alamanni . Rome was increasingly seen to be too distant a residence for

10492-407: The Emperor's approval. The only civilian officials not under the direct oversight of the Praetorian Prefects were the proconsular governors of Africa , Achaea and Asia , along with the Urban Prefects . The increasing administrative machinery surrounding the emperor resulted in an explosion of bureaucratic offices. These state officials were paid originally both in food and with money, but over

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10664-431: The Empire's borders (" limes "). Recruited from the ranks of the Field Armies were the Palace Troops units (" Palatini "), who accompanied the Emperor as he travelled around the Empire, functioning as the successor to the Principate's Praetorian Guard . Around the same time, Constantine established the new military roles of the Master of the Soldiers (" Magister Militum "), who were the supreme military commanders of

10836-416: The European Union rather than to assert Bulgarian identity. This phenomenon is called placebo identity . Some Macedonians view the Bulgarian policy as part of a strategy to destabilize the Macedonian national identity. As a nation engaged in a dispute over its distinctiveness from Bulgarians, Macedonians have always perceived themselves as threatened by their neighbor. Bulgaria insists its neighbor admit

11008-522: The Greek Patriarchate of Constantinople to allow a separate Macedonian church, and ultimately on 4 December 1891 he sent a letter to the Pope Leo XIII to ask for a recognition and a protection from the Roman Catholic Church, but failed. Soon after, he repented and returned to pro-Bulgarian positions. In the 1880s and 1890s, Isaija Mažovski designated Macedonian Slavs as "Macedonians" and "Old Slavic Macedonian people", and also distinguished them from Bulgarians as follows: "Slavic-Bulgarian" for Mažovski

11180-473: The Macedonian Slavs as Bulgarians when Austria-Bulgaria relations ameliorated, only to renege and employ the designation "Macedonian Slavs" when Bulgaria changed its foreign policy and Austria turned to envisaging an autonomous Macedonia under Austrian influence within the Murzsteg process . The term "Macedonian Slavs" was used either as a middle solution between conflicting Serbian and Bulgarian claims, to denote an intermediary grouping of Slavs, associated with

11352-446: The Macedonians." However after the failure of the Ilinden Uprising, Sarafov wanted to keep closer ties with Bulgaria, supporting the Bulgarian aspirations towards the area. Gyorche Petrov , another IMRO member, stated Macedonia was a "distinct moral unit" with its own "aspirations", while describing its Slavic population as Bulgarian. In 1903, Krste Misirkov published in Sofia his book On Macedonian Matters , wherein he laid down

11524-437: The Principate from which it emerged. The modern term dominate is derived from the Latin dominus , which translates into English as lord or master . Dominus , traditionally used by Roman slaves to address their masters, was sporadically used in addressing emperors throughout the Principate, usually in the form of excessive flattery (or political invective) when referring to the emperor. Augustus actively discouraged

11696-459: The Principate, and saw a gradual movement from the collegiate model of government that existed prior to AD 235 to a more formally autocratic version that begins after AD 285. In broad terms, it saw the gradual exclusion of the senatorial elite from high military commands and the parallel elevation of the equestrian orders , the reorganisation of the armed forces and the creation of mobile field armies, changes in imperial dress and ceremonial displays,

11868-472: The Republic of North Macedonia. Most Macedonians can be found in Buenos Aires , the Pampas and Córdoba . An estimated 30,000 Macedonians can be found in Argentina. The official number of Macedonians in Australia by birthplace or birthplace of parents is 83,893 ( 2001 ). The main Macedonian communities are found in Melbourne, Geelong , Sydney, Wollongong , Newcastle , Canberra and Perth . The 2006 census recorded 83,983 people of Macedonian ancestry and

12040-474: The Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration – only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome. Consequently, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors. It

12212-418: The Roman state, with two consuls elected annually. With the arrival of the Principate, although all real power was invested in the emperor, the consuls were still in theory the head of state, and the calendar year was identified by the two ordinary consuls who began in office at the start of the year. Throughout the Principate, the imperial consulate was an important position, albeit as the method through which

12384-704: The United States, Canada, New Zealand and to many European countries: Germany, Italy, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Austria among others. The existence of an ethnic Macedonian minority in Greece is rejected by the Greek government. The number of people speaking Slavic dialects has been estimated at somewhere between 10,000 and 250,000. Most of these people however do not have an ethnic Macedonian national consciousness, with most choosing to identify as ethnic Greeks or rejecting both ethnic designations and preferring terms such as "natives" instead. In 1999

12556-1005: The United States. The official number of Macedonians in the US is 49,455 ( 2004 ). The Macedonian community is located mainly in Michigan , New York, Ohio , Indiana and New Jersey There are an estimated 61,000 citizens of North Macedonia in Germany (mostly in the Ruhrgebiet ) ( 2001 ). There are 74,162 citizens of North Macedonia in Italy ( Foreign Citizens in Italy ). In 2006 the Swiss Government recorded 60,362 Macedonian Citizens living in Switzerland. Macedonians are an officially recognised minority group in Romania. They have

12728-671: The World War II ethnic Macedonian institutions were created in the three parts of the region of Macedonia, then under communist control, including the establishment of the People's Republic of Macedonia within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRJ). The available data indicates that despite the policy of assimilation, pro-Bulgarian sentiments among the Macedonian Slavs in Yugoslavia were still sizable during

12900-456: The administration of Rome and the empire." Not all the changes that produced the 'Dominate' were completed by the time of Diocletian's abdication in AD 305; many changes were either introduced or modified by Constantine I . Consequently, just as the Principate emerged over the period 31 BC through to 14 AD, it is only by AD 337 that the reforms that resulted in the Dominate were largely complete. In

13072-447: The ancient heritage of modern Balkan countries is not "the mutually exclusive property of one specific nation" but "the shared inheritance of all Balkan peoples". A more radical and uncompromising strand of Macedonian nationalism has recently emerged called "ancient Macedonism", or " Antiquisation ". Proponents of this view see modern Macedonians as direct descendants of the ancient Macedonians. This view faces criticism by academics as it

13244-567: The appearance of Slavs in Macedonia, and throughout the Balkans in general, as part of a broad and complex process of transformation of the cultural, political and ethnolinguistic Balkan landscape before the collapse of Roman authority. The exact details and chronology of population shifts remain to be determined. What is beyond dispute is that, in contrast to "barbarian" Bulgaria, northern Macedonia remained Roman in its cultural outlook into

13416-416: The autocephalous Archbishopric of Ohrid should be restored; and the Slavic people of Macedonia should be recognized as a separate ethnic community, when the necessary historical circumstances would arise. However, throughout the book, Misirkov lamented that "no local Macedonian patriotism exists" and stated that the Slavic Macedonian population had always called itself "Bulgarian". He also claimed that it

13588-402: The capital of the eastern provinces throughout the period of the Dominate. In the west, Mediolanum continued to be the imperial residence until the repeated invasions by Alaric I forced the western emperor Honorius to relocate to the strongly fortified city of Ravenna in 402. Ravenna remained the western imperial capital until the loss of Italy in 476. Although Rome was reincorporated into

13760-483: The case of the Macedonians, merely declaring their national identity as Bulgarian is enough to gain a citizenship. By making the procedure simpler, Bulgaria stimulates more Macedonian citizens (of Slavic origin) to apply for a Bulgarian citizenship. However, many Macedonians who apply for Bulgarian citizenship as Bulgarians by origin , have few ties with Bulgaria. Further, those applying for Bulgarian citizenship usually say they do so to gain access to member states of

13932-530: The choice between the Patriarchate and the Exarchate was not tainted with national meaning, but was a choice of Church or millet. Thus adherence to the Bulgarian national cause was attractive as a means of opposing oppressive Christian chiflik owners and urban merchants, who usually identified with the Greek nation, as a way to escape arbitrary taxation by Patriarchate bishops, via shifting allegiance to

14104-588: The claims of Romantic nationalists, modern, territorially bound and mutually exclusive nation-states have little in common with their preceding large territorial or dynastic medieval empires, and any connection between them is tenuous at best. In any event, irrespective of shifting political affiliations, the Macedonian Slavs shared in the fortunes of the Byzantine commonwealth and the Rum millet and they can claim them as their heritage. Loring Danforth states similarly,

14276-738: The closest in function to the Imperial Legates of the Principate. Most Dukes were given command of forces in a single province, but a few controlled more than one province. In the East, the Dukes reported to the Master of the Soldiers of their district whereas in the West they reported to their respective Military Count. The Dominate saw enormous changes in the official religion of the empire from its pantheistic Principate origins. Its principal feature

14448-402: The common historical roots of their languages and nations, a view Skopje continues to reject. As a result, Bulgaria blocked the official start of EU accession talks with North Macedonia. Despite sizable number of Macedonians that have acquired Bulgarian citizenship since 2002 (ca. 9.7% of the Slavic population), only 3,504 citizens of North Macedonia declared themselves as ethnic Bulgarians in

14620-552: The course of the Dominate, the annona (or food ration) was converted into money. Their salaries therefore consumed a considerable chunk of the imperial budget. Although precise numbers are not available, it has been speculated that the state bureaucracy in the Praetorian prefecture of the East and the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum , including the diocesan and provincial governor's staffs, would have consisted of somewhere around 10,000 individuals. This figure did not include

14792-607: The delimitation of frontiers. A Balkan committee of experts rejected Cvijić's concept of the Macedo-Slavs in 1914. However, Bulgaria's entry into World War I on the side of the Central Powers in 1915, after the Allies failed to convince Serbia to hand over the ‘ Uncontested Zone ’ in Macedonia to Bulgaria, precipitated a complete turnaround in the Allies' opinion of Macedonian ethnography, and several British and French maps echoing Cvijić were released within months. Thus, as

14964-508: The descendants of economic migrants who left the Socialist Republic of Macedonia in the 1950s and 1960s. The Macedonians in Serbia are represented by a national council and in recent years Macedonian has begun to be taught. The most recent census recorded 22,755 Macedonians living in Serbia. Macedonians represent the second largest ethnic minority population in Albania . Albania recognises

15136-433: The detriment of pagans. This did not begin to immediately hamper the advancement of pagan courtiers after the defeat of Maxentius in 312, as the full effects were not visible until paganism was prohibited at the end of the 4th century. Ultimately, however, as a result of the imperial patronage of Constantine and especially his sons, Christianity rapidly emerged as the official religion of the empire, although many vestiges of

15308-503: The disastrous idea of working independently on the advancement of their own local dialect and what's more, of their own, separate Macedonian church leadership." The activities of these people were also registered by the Serbian politician Stojan Novaković , who promoted the idea to use the Macedonian nationalism in order to oppose the strong pro-Bulgarian sentiments in the area. The nascent Macedonian nationalism, illegal at home in

15480-548: The division of the region of Macedonia amongst the Kingdom of Greece , the Kingdom of Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Serbia , the idea of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation was further spread among the Slavic-speaking population. The suffering during the wars, the endless struggle of the Balkan monarchies for dominance over the population increased the Macedonians' sentiment that the institutionalization of an independent Macedonian nation would put an end to their suffering. On

15652-411: The early 19th century, after the foundation of the modern Greek state with its Western Europe-derived obsession with Ancient Greece . As a result of the rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire , massive Greek religious and school propaganda occurred, and a process of Hellenization was implemented among Slavic-speaking population of the area. In this way, the name Macedonians was applied to

15824-604: The emperor that formed part of the imperial cult. In an attempt to appeal to both Christians and pagans, Constantine adopted two new religious symbols into the imperial iconography, in the form of the Chi Rho and the Labarum . By the time of Constantine's death in AD 337, this process was largely complete, with Constantine being baptized on his deathbed. At the Imperial court, Christians began indiscernibly to rise in favour, to

15996-588: The emperor when troubles could erupt along any of the borders of the empire. In the west, Mediolanum was seen to be a much better strategic city for the emperor to be based at, as it gave good access through the Alps northwards to both the Danubian provinces in the east as well as the Rhine provinces and Gaul to the west. Further, it was well positioned to guard against incursions through the alpine passes. This decision

16168-467: The emperor's official titulature, forming part of Diocletian's radical reforms. The Dominate system of government emerged as a response to the 50 years of chaos that is referred to as the Crisis of the Third Century . The stresses and strains of those years (chronic usurpations, military insurrections, simultaneous military conflicts across multiple frontiers) exposed the weaknesses in the Roman state under

16340-415: The emperors in bestowing the clarissimus witnessed the gradual erosion in its value. As a consequence, the emperors began to raise many clarissimi graded officials to the rank of spectabiles , which in turn cheapened the highest rank of illustres . This inflationary pressure resulted in the creation of a new senatorial rank before the middle of the 6th century, that of gloriosi . Higher in grading than

16512-673: The empire by Justinian I in 540, it was Ravenna which was selected as the official residence of the Exarch , the governor who represented the emperor in Italy. Ravenna would retain this position until 751, when the Byzantine Empire finally lost the central Italian provinces to the Lombards . Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers to provide labor. The status of these tenant farmers, eventually known as coloni , steadily eroded. Because

16684-503: The empire. Beginning with the head of the foot troops, the magister peditum ("Master of the Foot"), and one for the more prestigious horse troops, the magister equitum ("Master of the Horse"), these were established in each of the four Praetorian Prefectures . Over time, the numbers and types of Masters would vary across the empire. The establishment of solely military officials provided for

16856-477: The equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor. All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by time of the Dominate, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded. One of

17028-673: The existence of a Macedonian minority within the Mala Prespa region, most of which is comprised by Pustec Municipality . Macedonians have full minority rights within this region, including the right to education and the provision of other services in Macedonian . There also exist unrecognised Macedonian populations living in the Golo Brdo region, the "Dolno Pole" area near the town of Peshkopi , around Lake Ohrid and Korce as well as in Gora . 4,697 people declared themselves Macedonians in

17200-468: The fields of economy and finance. The political creation of the Illyrian Emperors was not unworthy of the genius of Rome. Under the Principate , the position of emperor saw the concentration of various civil and military offices within a single magistracy . Augustus and his successors usually took great care to disguise the autocratic nature of the office by hiding behind the institutions of

17372-612: The first time in 1932 the existence of a separate ethnic Macedonian nation. In 1933 the Communist Party of Greece , in a series of articles published in its official newspaper, the Rizospastis , criticizing Greek minority policy towards Slavic-speakers in Greek Macedonia, recognized the Slavs of the entire region of Macedonia as forming a distinct Macedonian ethnicity and their language as Macedonian. The idea of

17544-461: The functions carried out by the old aristocratic senatorial families acting collegially with the emperor in the running of the empire was offset by the rise of an expanded imperial bureaucracy who served the emperor in a subordinate role. Interposed between the governors and the emperors was the Vicarius and, above him, the Praetorian Prefect , both of which were civilian (non-military) roles. Gone

17716-645: The historical territory of the Ancient Macedonia , but for the Balkan Christians, it covered the territories of the former Byzantine province of Macedonia , situated around modern Turkish Edirne . With the conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans in the late 14th century, the name of Macedonia disappeared as a geographical designation for several centuries. The name was revived just during

17888-521: The imperial cult took some time to pass (such as the Emperors still assuming the role of Pontifex Maximus , chief priest of the pagan cults, until AD 381). By the time of Theodosius I , the organisation of the Imperial Church had aligned to the civil administration of the empire. Every city had a bishop , every province had a metropolitan , and every civil diocese had an exarch . At

18060-538: The imperial power. This original power sharing model lasted from AD 289 through to AD 324, being undone during the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy . With Constantine I 's death in AD 337, the empire was again shared between multiple augusti , lasting until AD 350. The model became a permanent feature of the empire in AD 364 with the accession of Valentinian I , who shared the imperial office with his brother Valens . Barring

18232-420: The increasing local influence of the bishops. Finally, bishops were given the same role as the defensor civitatis , who was responsible for protecting the poor against exploitation by government officials and defending them from other powerful individuals, during the course of which the bishop could bring cases of illegality directly to the emperor. One of the most visible signs of the changes brought about by

18404-471: The interwar period. However, if the Yugoslavians would recognize the Slavic inhabitants of Vardar Macedonia as Bulgarians, it would mean that the area should be part of Bulgaria. Practically in post-World War II Macedonia, Yugoslavia's state policy of forced Serbianisation was changed with a new one — of Macedonization . The codification of Macedonian and the recognition of the Macedonian nation had

18576-471: The involvement of Macedonian Slavs in Bulgarian nationalist uprisings and the Macedonian origins of Bulgarian nationalists before 1878. Although Cvijic's arguments attracted the attention of Great Powers, they did not endorse at the time his view on the Macedo-Slavs. Cvijić further elaborated the idea that had first appeared in Peucker's map and in his map of 1909 he ingeniously mapped the Macedonian Slavs as

18748-460: The key changes in the management of the empire during the Dominate was the large scale removal of old-style senatorial participation in administrative and military functions. The process began with the reforms of Gallienus, who removed senators from military commands, placing them in the hands of the Equites . Under Diocletian, the military equestrian transformation was taken a stage further, with

18920-576: The level of the Praetorian Prefectures sat the five Patriarchates . The Bishop of Rome 's authority extended over the whole western or Latin half of the Empire, and included the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum . The Patriarchate of Constantinople had oversight over the civil dioceses of Thrace, Pontus, and Asia. The Patriarchate of Alexandria corresponded to the Diocese of Egypt. The Patriarchate of Antioch had jurisdiction over

19092-550: The linguistic researches of Vatroslav Jagić and Aleksandar Belić , and the Serb features of their customs, such as the zadruga . For Cvijić, the Macedo-Slavs were a transitional population, with any sense of nationality they displayed being weak, superficial, externally imposed and temporary. Despite arguing that they should be considered neutral, he postulated their division into Serbs and Bulgarians based on dialectical and cultural features in anticipation of Serbian demands regarding

19264-564: The local Slavs, aiming to stimulate the development of close ties between them and the Greeks , linking both sides to the ancient Macedonians , as a counteract against the growing Bulgarian cultural influence into the region. Although the local intellectuals initially rejected the Macedonian designation as Greek, since the 1850s some of them, adopted it as a regional identity, and this name began to gain popularity. Serbian politics then, also encouraged this kind of regionalism to neutralize

19436-492: The local language had its own identifying characteristics compared to Bulgarian and Serbian. He wrote in a Saint Petersburg newspaper that the Macedonians should be recognized by Russia in a full national sense. Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization leader Boris Sarafov in 1901 stated that Macedonians had a unique "national element" and, the following year, he stated "We the Macedonians are neither Serbs nor Bulgarians, but simply Macedonians... Macedonia exists only for

19608-616: The main goal: finally to ban any Bulgarophilia among the Macedonians and to build a new consciousness, based on identification with Yugoslavia. As a result, Yugoslavia introduced again an abrupt de-Bulgarization of the people in the PR Macedonia , such as it already had conducted in the Vardar Banovina during the Interwar period . Bulgarian sources claim around 100,000 pro-Bulgarian elements were imprisoned for violations of

19780-433: The majority of the Praetorian prefecture of the East , while the smaller Patriarchate of Jerusalem dominated the three Palestinian provinces. The emperors had, over time, conceded many privileges to the clergy and the churches. Firstly, all clergy, like the holders of the pagan religious offices, were exempted from taxation. There were no restrictions placed on churches receiving bequests through wills, and they were given

19952-671: The majority of the Slavic-speaking population in today's Republic of North Macedonia (the second anti-Greek revolt was in Skopje) to have a separate " Bulgarian Millet ", finally bore fruit in 1870 when a firman for the creation of the Bulgarian Exarchate was issued. In September 1872, the Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimus VI declared the Exarchate schismatic and excommunicated its adherents, accusing them of having “surrendered Orthodoxy to ethnic nationalism”, i.e., " ethnophyletism " ( Greek : εθνοφυλετισμός ). At

20124-688: The members was also Krste Misirkov. In 1905 the Society published Vardar , the first scholarly, scientific and literary journal in the central dialects of Macedonia, which later would contribute in the standardization of Macedonian language . In 1913, the Macedonian Literary Society submitted the Memorandum of Independence of Macedonia to the British Foreign Secretary and other European ambassadors, and it

20296-826: The mid-1990s, with reportedly 20,000 copies being distributed free of charge. Within Serbia , Macedonians constitute an officially recognised ethnic minority at both a local and national level. Within Vojvodina , Macedonians are recognised under the Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina , along with other ethnic groups. Large Macedonian settlements within Vojvodina can be found in Plandište , Jabuka , Glogonj , Dužine and Kačarevo . These people are mainly

20468-414: The most striking difference between the early and the later Empire. The origins of the change began in the reign of Aurelian , who promoted the worship of Sol Invictus as the supreme deity of the empire. Although the worship of Sol Invictus did not remove the veneration towards the traditional Roman gods, it was seen as a mark of imperial favouritism, and the emperors linked his cult to the well-being of

20640-609: The non-governmental organization Bulgarian Helsinki Committee , claimed that there were 15,000–25,000 ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria (see here ). In the same report, Macedonian nationalists (Popov et al., 1989) claimed that 200,000 ethnic Macedonians lived in Bulgaria. However, according to the Bulgarian Helsinki Committee, the vast majority of the Slavic-speaking population in Pirin Macedonia had

20812-586: The offices had been broken into and had been ransacked. Later Members of Rainbow had been charged for "causing and inciting mutual hatred among the citizens" because the party had bilingual signs written in both Greek and Macedonian . On 20 October 2005, the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) ordered the Greek government to pay penalties to the Rainbow Party for violations of 2 ECHR articles. Rainbow has seen limited success at

20984-415: The old Italian aristocracy, both senatorial and equestrian, from the political and military power that they had monopolised for many centuries was largely complete. The Senate became politically insignificant, although it retained great prestige. Constantine I, however, re-introduced a limited form of senatorial career , basing the magistracies on previous offices but with changed functions. Beginning with

21156-402: The opinion of the historian John Bagnall Bury , the system of government constructed with the most careful attention to details, was a solution of the formidable problem of holding together a huge heterogeneous empire, threatened with dissolution and bankruptcy, an empire which was far from being geographically compact and had four long, as well as several smaller, frontiers to defend. To govern

21328-437: The palatine life and that suggested intimate relationship with royalty eventually developed connotations of power, such as the offices of Chamberlain and Constable . The titles of Senator and Consul , after the loss of every residue of political power they had had in the Principate, became mere honorifics in the later Empire. Historian David Potter describes the transformation of government under Diocletian when describing

21500-554: The population in their cause. In the context of this attempt, in 1924 the Comintern organized the filed signing of the so-called May Manifesto , in which independence of partitioned Macedonia was required. In 1925 with the help of the Comintern, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (United) was created, composed of former left-wing Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) members. This organization promoted for

21672-466: The population's sentiment and the narrative the state sought to promote. Additionally, during the last two decades, tens of thousands of citizens of North Macedonia have applied for Bulgarian citizenship. In the period since 2000 more than 100,000 acquired it, while ca. 50,000 applied and are still waiting. Bulgaria has a special ethnic dual-citizenship regime which makes a constitutional distinction between ethnic Bulgarians and Bulgarian citizens . In

21844-665: The positions he espoused in On Macedonian Matters . Later in his life, Misirkov oscillated between a pro-Macedonist and Greater Bulgarian stance, including controversially claimed that all Macedonian and Torlakian dialects were, in fact, Bulgarian . Another major figure of the Macedonian awakening was Dimitrija Čupovski , one of the founders of the Macedonian Literary Society , established in Saint Petersburg in 1902. One of

22016-404: The post upon which the state functioned. Under the Dominate, the loss of many pre-consular functions and the encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls. This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by

22188-405: The practice, and Tiberius in particular is said to have reviled it as sycophancy . Domitian encouraged its use, but none of the emperors used the term in any semi-official capacity until the reign of Aurelian in AD 274, where coins were issued bearing the inscription deus et dominus natus ('born god and master'). It was only under Diocletian that the term dominus was adopted as part of

22360-468: The previous decades, a majority of Christian Slavs inhabiting Greek and Vardar Macedonia used the collective name "Macedonians" to describe themselves, either as a nation or as a distinct ethnicity. The 1928 Greek census recorded 81,844 Slavo-Macedonian speakers, distinct from 16,755 Bulgarian speakers. In 1924 the Politis–Kalfov Protocol was signed between Greece and Bulgaria, concerning

22532-437: The principles of the modern Macedonian nationhood and language. This book, written in the standardized central dialect of Macedonia , is considered by ethnic Macedonians as a milestone of the process of Macedonian awakening. Misirkov argued that the dialect of central Macedonia (Veles-Prilep-Bitola-Ohrid) should be adopted as a basis for a standard Macedonian literary language, in which Macedonians should write, study, and worship;

22704-518: The protection of the Bulgarian minority In Greece. However, it was not ratified by the Greek side, because public opinion stood against the recognition of any “Bulgarian” minority". Prior to the 1930s, "it seems to have been acceptable" for Greeks to refer to Slavophones of Macedonia as Macedonians and their language as Macedonian. Ion Dragoumis had argued this viewpoint. The consolidation of an international Communist organization (the Comintern ) in

22876-419: The publication of a Serbian map by Spiridon Gopčević claiming the Slavs of Macedonia as Serbs , a version of a Russian map, published in 1891, in a period of deterioration of Bulgarian-Russian relations , first presented Macedonia inhabited not by Bulgarians, but by Macedonian Slavs. Austrian-Hungarian maps followed suit in an effort to delegitimize the ambitions of Russophile Bulgaria, returning to presenting

23048-412: The question of whether they were Serbs or Bulgarians, the people more often started answering: "Neither Bulgar, nor Serb... I am Macedonian only, and I'm sick of war." Stratis Myrivilis noted a specific instance of a Slav-speaking family wanting to be referred to, not as "Bulgar, Srrp, or Grrts" , but as "Makedon ortodox" . By the 1920s, following a negative reaction to the national proselytization of

23220-416: The region during the post-Roman period, although the exact mechanisms of this linguistic expansion remains a matter of scholarly discussion. Traditional historiography has equated these changes with the commencement of raids and 'invasions' of Sclaveni and Antes from Wallachia and western Ukraine during the 6th and 7th centuries. However, recent anthropological and archaeological perspectives have viewed

23392-749: The reign of Diocletian in AD 284, following the Third Century Crisis of AD 235–284, and end in the west with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476, while in the Eastern Roman Empire its end is disputed, with the majority of opinions placing it around the transition between the Justinian and Heraclian dynasties, between the years 565 and 641. In form, the Dominate is considered to have been more authoritarian, less collegial and more bureaucratic than

23564-489: The religious transformation began to take its late Dominate shape, initially with Constantine officially favouring the worship of a single deity in the shape of Sol Invictus. During the course of his reign, the identification of Sol Invictus as the principal god began to merge with the Christian god. To avoid offending Christians, Constantine abandoned the emperor's formal claim to divinity and ceased to demand sacrifices to

23736-504: The removal of hereditary senators from most administrative, as well as military, posts (such as the Legatus legionis ). Hereditary senators were limited to administrative jobs in Italy and a few neighbouring provinces (Sicily, Africa, Achaea and Asia), despite the fact that senior administrative posts had been greatly multiplied by the tripling of the number of provinces and the establishment of dioceses (or super-provinces). The exclusion of

23908-425: The reorientation of Serbian aims towards dividing Macedonia with Greece, Cvijić eliminated the Macedo-Slavs from a subsequent edition of his map. However, in 1913, before the conclusion of the Treaty of Bucharest he published his third ethnographic map distinguishing the Macedo-Slavs between Skopje and Salonica from both Bulgarians and Serbo-Croats , on the basis of the transitional character of their dialect per

24080-408: The same rights as the pagan temples had in granting asylum to any who requested it. Bishops were permitted to act as judges in civil cases when both parties had agreed, and no appeal was permitted once the Bishop had made their ruling. The state made increasing use of the ecclesiastical authorities in local administration due to the decline in the civic life of the urban communities, which coincided with

24252-438: The same way. During the interbellum Bulgaria also supported to some extent the Macedonian regional identity , especially in Yugoslavia. Its aim was to prevent the Serbianization of the local Slavic speakers, because the very name Macedonia was prohibited in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Ultimately the designation Macedonian, changed its status in 1944, and went from being predominantly a regional, ethnographic denomination, to

24424-447: The second half of the 19th century mainly among intellectuals in Belgrade , Sofia , Thessaloniki and St. Petersburg . Since the 1850s some Slavic intellectuals from the area adopted the Greek designation Macedonian as a regional label, and it began to gain popularity. In the 1860s, according to Petko Slaveykov , some young intellectuals from Macedonia were claiming that they are not Bulgarians, but rather Macedonians, descendants of

24596-521: The shifts in imagery the Emperor used to display his power (in this case the building of a huge new palace at Sirmium ): The style of Government so memorably described by Marcus, whereby the emperor sought to show himself as a model of correct aristocratic deportment, had given way to a style in which the emperor was seen to be distinct from all other mortals. His house could no longer be a grander version of houses that other people might live in: it, like him, had to be different. The adoption of Dominus as

24768-414: The simple toga praetexta used by Emperors of the Principate. Emperors inhabited luxurious palaces (the ruins of Diocletian's enormous palace in Dalmatia survive to this day; see Diocletian's Palace ) and were surrounded by a court of individuals who, only due to the favor and proximity of the Emperor, attained the highest honorific titles and bureaucratic functions. In fact, many offices associated with

24940-452: The special Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honour , and over 1,200 were allegedly killed. In this way generations of students grew up educated in a strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment which during the times of Communist Yugoslavia , increased to the level of state policy . Its main agenda was a result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarians and the new Macedonian nation, because Macedonians could confirm themselves as

25112-404: The staff of the military commanders, or the financial and other central ministries, and contrasts with the estimated 300 state bureaucrats that were employed across all the provinces during the period of the Julio-Claudian emperors. Among the most important offices under the Dominate were the All important offices automatically carried with them admission into the Senate, thereby further eroding

25284-450: The standing of the traditional aristocratic Senatorial families of the Principate under the Dominate. This resulted in a senatorial body of around 2,000 members during the reign of Constantine, and these numbers only increased when there were two senatorial bodies in existence, one at Rome and one at Constantinople. All the higher officials in the imperial bureaucracy belonged to one of the three classes or ranks introduced by Constantine I –

25456-400: The state and on-going military victories of the empire. Next, it was during Diocletian's reign that emperor worship was fully adopted by the emperors, as a method of expressing loyalty to the state. Previously, deceased emperors had been worshiped as divus across the empire. Living emperors had been worshiped as gods in the eastern half of the empire since the time of Augustus , but this

25628-432: The supreme military command. Two significant parts of the reform are apparent: the separation of military commanders from civil administration and the division of the army into two classes: the Field Armies (" comitatenses ") and the Frontier Troops (" limitanei "). The Field Armies served as the Empire's strategic reserve to respond to crisis where it may arise whereas the Frontier Troops were permanently stationed along

25800-477: The tax system implemented by Diocletian (reigned 284–305) assessed taxes based both on land and on the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where the census counted them. Starting in 332 AD, Emperor Constantine issued legislation that greatly restricted the rights of the coloni and tied them to the land. Coloni and lower-ranking plebeians were no longer allowed to change their occupation. Ultimately, with

25972-428: The theocratic Ottoman Empire, and illegitimate internationally, waged a precarious struggle for survival against overwhelming odds: in appearance against the Ottoman Empire, but in fact against the three expansionist Balkan states and their respective patrons among the great powers. The first known author that overtly speaks of a Macedonian nationality and language was Georgi Pulevski , who in 1875 published in Belgrade

26144-483: The throne through force, and then he reorganized both of them. During the Tetrarchy, the Praetorian Prefects were the Emperor's top administrators, ranking just below the Emperor himself in dignity. While initially serving as the Emperor's second in command in all matters of imperial administration (military, civil, judicial, taxation, etc.), during the course of the Dominate the Prefects gradually had portions of their authority stripped from them and given to other offices:

26316-427: The time and was used as an official document to advocate for Greece's positions in the Paris peace conference . After World War I, Cvijić's map became the point of reference for all Balkan ethnographic maps, while his concept of Macedo-Slavs was reproduced in almost all maps, including German maps, that acknowledged a Macedonian nation. After the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and the World War I (1914–1918), following

26488-452: The time of its creation, the only Vardar Macedonian bishopric included in the Exarchate was Veles . However, in 1874, the Christian population of the bishoprics of Skopje and Ohrid were given the chance to participate in a plebiscite, where they voted overwhelmingly in favour of joining the Exarchate (Skopje by 91%, Ohrid by 97%) Referring to the results of the plebiscites, and on the basis of statistical and ethnological indications,

26660-419: The time of the National Liberation War of Macedonia in the 1940s. According to historian Ivan Katardžiev those who came from the Bulgarian part or were members of the IMRO (United) practically felt themselves as Bulgarians, while those who had experienced Serbian rule and had interacted with the Croatian and Slovenian national movements within Yugoslavia had developed a stronger Macedonian consciousness. After

26832-438: The view that the Macedonian ethnicity is a modern, artificial creation. Such views have been seen by Macedonian historians to represent irredentist motives on Macedonian territory. Moreover, some historians point out that all modern nations are recent, politically motivated constructs based on creation "myths", that the creation of Macedonian identity is "no more or less artificial than any other identity", and that, contrary to

27004-425: Was Serbia and Bulgaria's conflict over Macedonia, which according to Misirkov would eventually lead to its partition. Therefore, he argued, it would be better for both Macedonians and Bulgarians if there was a united Macedonian Macedonia than a partitioned Bulgarian one, where Bulgaria would not be allowed to go any further than the left bank of the Vardar. In 1905, he returned to a pro-Bulgarian stance and renounced

27176-452: Was a major factor in making the Slavs in Macedonia—and the other Slavs within the First Bulgarian State —into Bulgarians and transforming the Bulgar state into a Bulgarian state. Subsequently, the literary and ecclesiastical centre in Ohrid became a second cultural capital of medieval Bulgaria. After the final Ottoman conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans in the 14/15th century, all Eastern Orthodox Christians were included in

27348-420: Was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others. If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in

27520-429: Was based at Augusta Treverorum , while Galerius sited his residence at Sirmium . After the collapse of the Tetrachy, Constantine I at first placed his imperial capital at Ulpia Serdica before erecting a new imperial capital on the site of the old Greek city of Byzantium . Naming it Constantinople , it finally replaced Nicomedia as the site of the emperor's residence in the east in 330. Constantinople would remain

27692-445: Was ceded to the Praetorian Prefects, while the imperial legates took advantage of weakened centralised authority to use the troops under their command to rebel against the emperor and claim the imperial title for themselves. It was Diocletian who initially divided the military administrative apparatus and the civil administration in order to mitigate the risk that future imperial governors or Praetorian Prefects might attempt to seize

27864-416: Was confirmed when Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, and his colleague Maximian informally established Mediolanum as the senior western emperor's official residence. Diocletian, conscious that the Persian threat to the eastern provinces required a continuous imperial presence, placed his eastern capital in the city of Nicomedia . Meanwhile, the Caesars also had imperial residences – Constantius Chlorus

28036-423: Was distinctly regional", and in Ottoman era , before the 19th-century rise of nationalism , it was based on the corresponding confessional community . The rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century brought opposition to this continued situation. At that time, the classical Rum Millet began to degrade. The coordinated actions, carried out by Bulgarian national leaders and supported by

28208-407: Was first the Byzantine Greeks who starting calling the local Slavs "Bulgarians" because of their alliance with the Bulgars , during the incessant Byzantine–Bulgarian conflict which in the eyes of the Byzantine Greeks eventually forged both Slavs and Bulgars into one people with a Bulgarian name and a Slavonic language. Misirkov's primary motivation for a separate Macedonian nationhood and language

28380-423: Was inhabited by Paionians who expanded from the lower Strymon basin. The Pelagonian plain was inhabited by the Pelagones and the Lyncestae , ancient Greek tribes of Upper Macedonia ; whilst the western region (Ohrid-Prespa) was said to have been inhabited by Illyrian tribes, such as the Enchelae . During the late Classical Period, having already developed several sophisticated polis -type settlements and

28552-400: Was not officially encouraged during the Principate, and it was not introduced into Italy. It was Diocletian who altered this to have the worship of the living emperors as an official part of the religious framework of the entire empire. To facilitate this, Diocletian was linked to the god Jupiter , while his colleague Maximian was associated with Hercules . It was under Constantine I that

28724-446: Was printed in many European newspapers. In the period 1913–1914, Čupovski published the newspaper Македонскi Голосъ ( Macedonian Voice ) in which he and fellow members of the Saint Petersburg Macedonian Colony propagated the existence of a Macedonian people separate from the Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs, and sought to popularize the idea for an independent Macedonian state. From 1878 until 1918, most independent European observers viewed

28896-515: Was synonymous with "Macedonian", while only "Bulgarian" was a designation for the Bulgarians in Bulgaria. In 1890, Austrian researcher of Macedonia Karl Hron reported that the Macedonians constituted a separate ethnic group by history and language. Within the next few years, this concept was also welcomed in Russia by linguists including Leonhard Masing , Pyotr Lavrov , Jan Baudouin de Courtenay , and Pyotr Draganov . Draganov, of Bulgarian descent, conducted research in Macedonia and determined that

29068-462: Was the division between provinces under the jurisdiction of the Senate and those under the authority of the emperor during the Principate. Now all provinces , dioceses , and the Praetorian prefecture were under the authority of the emperor. The Praetorian Prefects had wide-ranging administrative, financial, judicial and legislative powers. The provincial governors were appointed at his recommendation, and with him rested their dismissal, subject to

29240-428: Was the elevation of a supreme deity that all peoples in the empire were to worship. According to John Bagnall Bury while in all ancient monarchies religion and sacerdotalism were a political as well as a social power, the position of the Christian Church in the Roman Empire was a new thing in the world, presenting problems of a kind with which no ruler had hitherto been confronted and to which no past experience offered

29412-484: Was the return of provincial government to the senatorial order, with the larger or more important provinces handed over to those senators who had held an ordinary consulship. However, unlike the time of the Principate, the role of governor was much reduced, being a purely civil magistrate with no military functions, and with provinces greatly reduced in size, and the number increasing from the roughly fifty pre-existing provinces to approximately one hundred. The decline in

29584-547: Was their absence which caused usurpations to occur in response to a local or provincial crisis that traditionally would have been dealt with by the emperor. Under the Dominate, the burden of the imperial position was increasingly shared between colleagues, referred to as the Consortium imperii . It was Diocletian who introduced this form of government, under a system called the Tetrarchy , which originally consisted of two co-emperors ( augusti ) and two respectively subordinate junior emperors ( caesars ), each of whom shared in

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