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129-580: Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton , PC (25 May 1803 – 18 January 1873), was an English writer and politician. He served as a Whig member of Parliament from 1831 to 1841 and a Conservative from 1851 to 1866. He was Secretary of State for the Colonies from June 1858 to June 1859, choosing Richard Clement Moody as founder of British Columbia. He was created Baron Lytton of Knebworth in 1866. Bulwer-Lytton's works were well known in his time. He coined famous phrases like "pursuit of

258-659: A "Salisbury Street, gentleman") patented Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849) for use in pavements in Britain, where he managed Sassenay's affairs, Claridge had seen Seyssel asphalt employed in France and Belgium when visiting with Frederick Walter Simms , who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain. In 1838, Claridge (listed as a gent of 8 Regent St., Middlesex) obtained patents in Scotland on 27 March, and Ireland on 23 April. In 1847, Claridge sold his interest in

387-507: A brief advertisement announcing the pending release of the book by "Richard T. Claridge, Esq.", with the announcement comprising the book's lengthy title, and noting "Observations on the recent political and social changes in Turkey and Greece." A second edition, with numerous additions, was published in 1839, which Claridge states was prompted by "very favourable reception" of the first edition. One review described it as appearing to convey, "in

516-459: A brief mention of Claridge and his works on the first page of her article. a. It is difficult to resolve the birth year discrepancies without access to a copy of original documents, although the IGI record looks specific, whereas the biographical sketch clearly includes indirect sources for some of its information (which does match collateral sources already cited in this article). However,

645-480: A company. The first asphalt patent in Britain was 'Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen' in 1834, and there was an unsuccessful attempt to use mastic pavement at Vauxhall by a competitor of Claridge. But it was Claridge's efforts that were to give the industry impetus. In France, Seyssel asphalt was being successfully implemented for paving by Count de Sassenay. On 25 November 1837, Richard Tappin Claridge (then

774-535: A concise manner, the necessary directions for a traveller to make a very interesting and instructive tour at the least possible expenditure of both time and money". The second edition incorporated a range of new material, including: in addition to the voyage down the Danube, and the tour of Constantinople, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, &c., the route from Paris to the Mediterranean, via Marseilles and Malta –

903-439: A copy of " Captain Claridge 's work on the " Water Cure ", as practised by Priessnitz , at Graefenberg" and, "making allowances for certain exaggerations therein", pondered the option of travelling to Graefenberg, but preferred to find something closer to home, with access to his own doctors in case of failure: "I who scarcely lived through a day without leech or potion!". After reading a pamphlet by Doctor James Wilson, who operated

1032-620: A decision was made to wind up Clarmac Roads and a liquidator duly appointed, and creditor's meeting called. In January 1916, R.T. Wilkinson retired from his position as a director of Claridge's Company, after an association of 63 years. The failure of Clarmac Roads had a flow-on effect to Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company, with a petition to wind it up lodged with the High Court on 2 November 1917 by company director William Allback. Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company finally ceased operating on 10 November 1917, after becoming insolvent following

1161-827: A few institutions in the United Kingdom . The Judicial Committee also hears very occasional appeals from a number of ancient and ecclesiastical courts. These include the Church Commissioners , the Arches Court of Canterbury , the Chancery Court of York , prize courts, the High Court of Chivalry , and the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports . This committee usually consists of members of

1290-438: A few medical practitioners, and several hydropathic establishments fully operational, Claridge declared that "the year 1842 may be considered as a new era in the mode of curing disease in this country". Claridge reports that his attention was first seriously drawn to the subject of hydropathy by an officer of marines at Venice, who "Seeing me attacked by rheumatism and head-ache, to both of which complaints I have been subject for

1419-503: A few weeks later after a public outcry. This she chronicled in a memoir, A Blighted Life (1880). She continued attacking her husband's character for several years. The death of Bulwer's mother in 1843 meant his "exhaustion of toil and study had been completed by great anxiety and grief," and by "about the January of 1844, I was thoroughly shattered." In his mother's room at Knebworth House , which he inherited, he "had inscribed above

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1548-422: A footnote, Graham states "This was no less of a Hydropathist than Captain Claridge". Nevertheless, Claridge and others continued their efforts, and the hydropathic movement gained considerable interest. When Hydropathy was first published in 1842, there were two prominent water-cure establishments. Ten years later, there were 24 establishments in Britain and Ireland, with many famous enough to be known simply by

1677-543: A hydropathic establishment with James Manby Gully at Malvern , he stayed there for "some nine or ten weeks", after which he "continued the system some seven weeks longer under Doctor Weiss, at Petersham ", then again at "Doctor Schmidt's magnificent hydropathic establishment at Boppart" (at the former Marienberg Convent at Boppard ), after developing a cold and fever upon his return home. The English Rosicrucian society, founded in 1867 by Robert Wentworth Little , claimed Bulwer-Lytton as their "Grand Patron", but he wrote to

1806-667: A lecture I gave in Edinburgh". Some other Englishmen preceded Claridge to Graefenberg, although not many. One of these was Dr. James Wilson, who himself, along with Dr James Manby Gully , operated a water cure establishment at Malvern . While acknowledging in an 1843 publication that Claridge did much to promote hydrotherapy, Wilson states that "I had been a considerable time at Graefenberg", and that Claridge "came to Graefenberg some time after I had been there". Nevertheless, in an earlier 1842 publication, Wilson wrote with some praise of Claridge, stating: I have read Mr Claridge's work on

1935-649: A letter to the New York Tribune , which was reproduced in New York's Water Cure Journal in May 1846. And in October 1845, Claridge was one of 124 signatories in an address to Arch-Duke Franz Carl , extolling the virtues of Vincent Priessnitz and his methods. He sent another letter from Graefenberg on 4 March 1846, this time to an American acquaintance. In this wide-ranging letter, amongst other things he commends

2064-446: A living. They had two children, Emily Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton (1828–1848), and (Edward) Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton (1831–1891) who became Governor-General and Viceroy of British India (1876–1880). His writing and political work strained their marriage and his infidelity embittered Rosina. In 1833, they separated acrimoniously and in 1836 the separation became legal. Three years later, Rosina published Cheveley, or

2193-423: A mistake in turning his talents to physic, and crying water about the streets; he had better have continued crying 'there is nothing like leather ', or 'there is nothing like aspalt ', or 'there is nothing like wood '. We do not feel called upon to notice his asphaltic squireship's aspersions on the character of the medical profession". e. To aid in finding information on Claridge's portrait, it

2322-415: A number of works, but his best known, and most widely cited publication was Hydropathy; or The Cold Water Cure, as practised by Vincent Priessnitz... . The work itself provides an indication of impact and popularity of hydropathy at the time. It was first published in 1842, with the preface to the first edition dated 21 January 1842. In his preface to the third edition, dated 23 May 1842, Claridge noted that

2451-453: A partnership as a boot and shoe-maker, with the partnership dissolving on 7 February 1824. And as a wine merchant, through at least May 1824 to August 1825, and where early on, he found himself as a potential creditor of a bankrupt. At this time, Claridge resided at 37 Wigmore Street, Marylebone . Claridge himself was declared bankrupt in 1826. However, it was another field where Claridge first became prominent, namely that of pioneering

2580-950: A quantity of continental lace belonging to Claridge's wife and daughter. The cook was indicted again for theft of other items on 14 February. Both cases were heard on 28 February 1842, and the cook was found not guilty. . Following his return to England, Claridge commenced promoting hydropathy in Britain, first in London in 1842, then with lecture tours in Ireland and Scotland in 1843. His 10-week tour in Ireland included Limerick, Cork, Wexford, Dublin and Belfast, over June, July and August 1843, with two subsequent lectures in Glasgow. Claridge states "The leading papers reviewed my work favourably; my lectures in England, Ireland, and Scotland met with serious attention; and baths and wash-houses resulted from

2709-654: A range of collateral information leaves no doubt that they refer to the same person. b. Hydropathy , Cold Water system , and Cold Water cure , were essentially synonymous in that era, with publications under those titles all referring to the same legacy, namely Priessnitz, and – for U.K. publications – often also Claridge. So searches for publications from that period would need to try all three variations to capture relevant works. c. The Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.) states that Claridge introduced hydropathy to England in 1840. However, Claridge describes himself as first paying attention to hydropathy in

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2838-739: A secretary of state. The Committee, which last met in 1988, is concerned with the design and usage of wafer seals . The Cabinet of the United Kingdom is the executive committee of the Privy Council and the senior decision-making body of British Government . The Judicial Committee serves as the final court of appeal for the Crown Dependencies , the British Overseas Territories , some Commonwealth countries, military sovereign base areas and

2967-625: A smaller working committee which evolved into the modern Cabinet . By the end of the English Civil War , the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber , the House of Commons , instituted a Council of State to execute laws and to direct administrative policy. The forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons;

3096-578: A substantial amount of funds in the new company, borrowing money to do so. Two products resulted, namely Clarmac , and Clarphalte , with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co., although Clarmac was more widely used. Scott's Lane, Beckenham ; Dorset Street, Marylebone; Lordswood Road, Birmingham ; Hearsall Lane, Coventry ; Valkyrie Avenue, Westcliff-on-Sea ; and Lennard Road, Penge were photographed as "some amongst many laid with 'Clarmac'" In 1915, Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. supplied asphalt for

3225-665: A subterranean race waiting to reclaim the surface of the Earth is an early science fiction theme. The book popularised the Hollow Earth theory and may have inspired Nazi mysticism. His term "vril" lent its name to Bovril meat extract. The book was also the theme of a fundraising event held at the Royal Albert Hall in 1891, the Vril-Ya Bazaar and Fete . "Vril" has been adopted by theosophists and occultists since

3354-696: A title which he only commenced using from the publication of Hydropathy in 1842 onwards. In 1839, Claridge was promoted from Gentleman to Lieutenant in the Royal Westminster Middlesex Regiment of Militia, then in 1842 he was promoted to captain, before eventually resigning on 24 June 1854. In the meantime, between his 1836 tour of the European Continent, and his hydropathic adventures from the 1840s onwards, Claridge embarked on some pioneering business ventures in asphalt pavement, obtaining some patents, and setting up

3483-558: A triumphant flapping with his wings, that we really expected he was going to shout "Priessnitz for ever!" But no such thing. He only cried, "Quack! Quack! Quack! One of the most critical reviews was in The Lancet medical journal of March 1842, in which Claridge was accused of ignorance and plagiarism, a criticism all the worse for his indulgence in antiquarian research. Moreover, in 1843, doctor Thomas J. Graham wrote somewhat triumphantly that after returning from Graefenberg, "one of

3612-613: A trustee and consulting engineer), gave an enormous impetus to the development of a British asphalt industry". Per response to a query on Claridge, "in 1839, the offices of the company were at Stangate, Westminster, as appears in an advertisement in the Athenaeum of 4 May 1838, p.342". Although asphalt use took off in the 1830s, The Mechanics' Magazine noted the existence of a pamphlet from 1621, by "a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys" stating he had discovered large quantities of asphaltum in

3741-414: A varied and prolific literary output, sometimes publishing anonymously. Bulwer-Lytton published Falkland in 1827, a novel which was only a moderate success. But Pelham brought him public acclaim in 1828 and established his reputation as a wit and dandy. Its intricate plot and humorous, intimate portrayal of pre-Victorian dandyism kept gossips busy trying to associate public figures with characters in

3870-567: A villa on the left bank of Paillon in Nice, married his second wife, Eliza Ann Morgan (née Beville) at Trinity Church, Marylebone . Eliza had herself been previously married to the late George Gould Morgan, of the Tredegar peerage. Eliza Morgan Claridge died sometime before 1866. Before his prominence as a hydropathy promoter, Claridge tried his hand in other fields: with which, indeed, some critics alluded he should have stuck. This included

3999-446: Is a formal body of advisers to the sovereign of the United Kingdom . Its members, known as privy counsellors , are mainly senior politicians who are current or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords . The Privy Council formally advises the sovereign on the exercise of the royal prerogative . The King-in-Council issues executive instruments known as Orders in Council . The Privy Council also holds

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4128-584: Is known to have been created, by painter James John Hill. It was exhibited in 1844 at the Royal Society of British Artists , at Suffolk Street, Pall Mall, and titled Portrait of Captain Claridge, Author of Hydropathy, or the Cold-Water Cure . In 1836, prior to his involvement in the promotion of hydropathy, Claridge journeyed through Europe, making notes along the way, from which he published his first known work in 1837, titled A Guide Along

4257-447: Is little more than nine months since the first announcement of the work appeared; and during that brief period of time, five editions, of one thousand copies each, and eight editions of an Abstract, have passed through the press; besides which, several unauthorised publications, in the form of pamphlets, extracted from the work, have been sold in great numbers". With growing popularity among the public, some favourable publications written by

4386-458: Is noted that at the time (1844), artist James John Hill was residing at 58 Newman Street, as listed in Johnson's book, and was still there in 1848, per Graves (1908). f.' Indeed, a search for material for the section on Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. brings up increasing reference to the case as the range of search terms is both expanded and refined. g. The preface to

4515-504: Is only necessary to state that at Graefenberg, at this moment, there are amongst the visitors some of the leading nobles of England, Russia, Poland, Austria and Italy". A 1997 review of the hydropathic movement states: "At the peak of the movement in the late nineteenth century there were over fifty hydropathic hotels in Britain, of which the best-known were Smedley's at Matlock in Derbyshire and Ben Rhydding near Leeds. Scotland, however,

4644-770: Is that he is a little enthusiastic in these matters – a little enthusiasm does a great deal of good sometimes, when the motives are such as Mr Claridge's. Similarly, Sir John E. Eardley-Wilmot , in his Tribute to Hydropathy , praised Claridge "for his strenuous exertions in the cause", to which every hydropathist "owes a deep debt of gratitude". But not everyone wrote favourably, or even kindly, about Claridge and his promotion of hydropathy. One satirical review of Claridge's Hydropathy , playing on both German and English language (e.g. bad= bath in German, but bad in English – see image of hydropathic applications at Graefenberg), summed up

4773-653: The Cabinet . With the creation of the United Kingdom on 1 January 1801, a single Privy Council was created for Great Britain and Ireland, although the Privy Council of Ireland continued to exist until 1922, when it was abolished upon the creation of the Irish Free State as an independent Dominion outside the United Kingdom, but within the British Empire . The Privy Council of Northern Ireland

4902-494: The Chancellor's Gold Medal for English verse. In the following year he took his BA degree and printed for private circulation a small volume of poems, Weeds and Wild Flowers . He purchased an army commission in 1826, but sold it in 1829 without serving. In August 1827, he married Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802–1882), a noted Irish beauty, but against the wishes of his mother, who withdrew his allowance, forcing him to work for

5031-619: The Corn Laws , he stood for Hertfordshire as a Conservative . Bulwer-Lytton held that seat until 1866, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton of Knebworth in the County of Hertford. In 1858, he entered Lord Derby 's government as Secretary of State for the Colonies , thus serving alongside his old friend Benjamin Disraeli . He was comparatively inactive in the House of Lords . "Just prior to his government's defeat in 1859

5160-474: The House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975 ). The Crown-in-Council was formerly the supreme appellate court for the entire British Empire , but a number of Commonwealth countries have now abolished the right to such appeals. The Judicial Committee continues to hear appeals from several Commonwealth countries, from British Overseas Territories , Sovereign Base Areas and Crown Dependencies . The Judicial Committee had direct jurisdiction in cases relating to

5289-665: The Scotland Act 1998 , the Government of Wales Act 1998 and the Northern Ireland Act 1998 , but this was transferred to the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in 2009. The Scottish Universities Committee considers proposed amendments to the statutes of Scotland's four ancient universities . Captain R. T. Claridge Richard Tappin Claridge was born in Farnborough, a village or parish in

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5418-960: The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and senior judges of the Commonwealth of Nations who are Privy Counsellors. Within the United Kingdom, the Judicial Committee hears appeals from ecclesiastical courts , the Admiralty Court of the Cinque Ports, Prize Courts and the Disciplinary Committee of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons , appeals against schemes of the Church Commissioners and appeals under certain Acts of Parliament (e.g.,

5547-721: The almighty dollar ", " the pen is mightier than the sword ", " dweller on the threshold ", "the great unwashed", and the opening phrase " It was a dark and stormy night ." The sardonic Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest , held annually since 1982, claims to seek the "opening sentence of the worst of all possible novels". Bulwer was born on 25 May 1803 to General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling , Norfolk, and Elizabeth Barbara Lytton , daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth House , Hertfordshire. He had two older brothers, William Earle Lytton Bulwer (1799–1877) and Henry (1801–1872; later Baron Dalling and Bulwer). His father died and his mother moved to London when he

5676-420: The final court of appeal for the entire British Empire (other than for the United Kingdom itself). It continues to hear judicial appeals from some other independent Commonwealth countries , as well as Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories . The Privy Council of the United Kingdom, created on 1 January 1801, was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland , the Privy Council of England , and

5805-426: The 'Cold Water Cure', and I think I ought to notice it. As a non-professional man, it does him infinite credit; he has collected a considerable body of evidence from the works of professional as well as non-professional men, and it will always be read with interest by the advocates of this system. Such men as Mr Claridge ought not to be abused, for he could have no pocket motive in its production; all that can be said

5934-594: The 1849 Water-Cure Journal . Light-hearted satire about the water cure was also engaged in by a theatrical group. j. Munde operated the Florence Water-Cure, at Florence, Massachusetts (see preface in his 1857 book, p.vi). He previously migrated from Germany at an unknown date. However, in his text, he does cite a case he dealt with in Dresden in the winter of 1845–46. His own familiarity with Priessnitz's methods date back to circa 1836, when he

6063-760: The 1870s and became closely associated with the ideas of an esoteric neo-Nazism after 1945. His play Money (1840) was first produced at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket , London, on 8 December 1840. The first American production was at the Old Park Theater in New York on 1 February 1841. Subsequent productions include the Prince of Wales's Theatre 's in 1872 and as the inaugural play at the new California Theatre in San Francisco in 1869. Among Bulwer-Lytton's lesser-known contributions to literature

6192-481: The 1870s, Claridge's company took over asphalt production at Pyrimont Wharf, in Cubitt Town . "The manufacturing process employed at Cubitt Town involved the heating of bituminous limestone in six large uncovered cauldrons, producing vapours considered offensive by many local residents. The material was employed predominantly for covering and protecting the foundations of buildings. It was employed, for example, at

6321-602: The 1880s, and in Italy until 1910. Harold, the Last of the Saxons (1848) provided character names (but little else) for Verdi's opera Aroldo (1857). Shortly after their first publication, The Last Days of Pompeii , Rienzi , and Ernest Maltravers all received successful stage performances in New York. The plays were written by Louisa Medina, one of the most successful playwrights of the 19th century. The Last Days of Pompeii had

6450-468: The Bastenne company, were in production". Indeed, in 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity over asphalt, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also be used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, with these latter themselves proliferating in the 1800s. On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to

6579-611: The Civil Service (Amendment) Order in Council 1997, permitted the Prime Minister to grant up to three political advisers management authority over some Civil Servants. In the 1960s, the Privy Council made an order to evict an estimated 1,200 to 2,000 inhabitants of the 55-island Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, in preparation for the establishment of a joint United States–United Kingdom military base on

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6708-478: The Council — which later became the Court of the Star Chamber — was during the 15th century permitted to inflict any punishment except death, without being bound by normal court procedure . During Henry VIII 's reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation. The legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIII's death. By 1540

6837-821: The Court of Appeal were persuaded by this argument, but in 2007 the Law Lords of the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords found the original decision to be flawed and overturned the ruling by a 3–2 decision, thereby upholding the terms of the Order in Council. As of 2023, negotiations between the Mauritian and UK governments that included the sovereignty of the Chagossians were still ongoing. The Privy Council has committees: The Baronetage Committee

6966-690: The Crisis . Lord Melbourne , the Prime Minister , offered him a lordship of the Admiralty , which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author. Bulwer was created a baronet , of Knebworth House in the County of Hertford, in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom , in 1838. In 1841, he left Parliament and spent much of his time in travel. He did not return to politics until 1852, when, having differed from Lord John Russell over

7095-734: The Danube... , for which he wrote the preface on 1 May 1837, at Venice. This was a tour guide for travel down the Danube, made possible by recent socio-political developments and "the establishment of steam navigation throughout the entire length of the Danube, the Black Sea, the Bosphorous, the Arhipeligo, and the Adriatic", which "converted what was hitherto a journey of toil and danger into one of unmixed pleasure and enjoyment". On 10 June 1837, Bent's Monthly Literary Advertiser carried

7224-402: The King-in-Council, although in practice its actual work of hearing and deciding upon cases is carried out day-to-day by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council . The Judicial Committee consists of senior judges appointed as privy counsellors: predominantly justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and senior judges from the Commonwealth . The Privy Council formerly acted as

7353-402: The Lord Protector, subject to Parliament's approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy , the Protector's Council was abolished. King Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. The formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 combined the Privy Councils of England and Scotland,

7482-407: The Man of Honour (1839), a near-libellous fiction satirising her husband's alleged hypocrisy. In June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she denounced him at the hustings . He retaliated by threatening her publishers, withholding her allowance and denying her access to their children. Finally he had her committed to a mental asylum, but she was released

7611-474: The Pacific". Lytton desired to send to the colony "representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police force", sought men who possessed "courtesy, high breeding and urbane knowledge of the world", and decided to send Moody, whom the Government considered to be the archetypal "English gentleman and British Officer" at the head of the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment , to whom he wrote an impassioned letter. The former HBC Fort Dallas at Camchin ,

7740-432: The Power of the Coming Race and Zanoni in her own books. Bulwer-Lytton's name lives on in the annual Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest , in which contestants think up terrible openings for imaginary novels, inspired by the first line of his 1830 novel Paul Clifford : It was a dark and stormy night ; the rain fell in torrents – except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up

7869-398: The Privy Council of Great Britain (1708–1800). Its continued existence has been described as "more or less a constitutional and historical accident". The key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below: In Anglo-Saxon England , the Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England . During the reigns of the Norman monarchs , the English Crown

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7998-451: The Secretary of State for the Colonies, Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, notified Sir George Ferguson Bowen of his appointment as Governor of the new colony to be known as 'Queen's Land'." The draft letter was ranked #4 in the 'Top 150: Documenting Queensland' exhibition when it toured to venues around Queensland from February 2009 to April 2010. The exhibition was part of Queensland State Archives ' events and exhibition program which contributed to

8127-406: The Strand offices of the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand. In July 1915, Clarmac Roads was in financial difficulties owing to the First World War , and the Claridge Company directors, believing those difficulties to be temporary, deposited a large amount of debentures with the Clarmac Company's bankers to secure an overdraft. However, the Clarmac Company never recovered. On 16 October 1915,

8256-516: The Tobacco Stores at the Victoria Docks." By 1914, Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company had many contracts in hand, including 70,000 feet of asphalte roofing at HM Stationery Office; damp courses, floors and roofs at British American Tobacco Company's warehouse and W.H. Smith & Sons new printing works. Their expanding business necessitated moving to bigger premises, with their new offices at No. 3 Central Buildings, Westminster. "They also entered another business – that of tarred slag macadam – under

8385-498: The antiquity of hydropathy, Claridge addresses some of his critics, stating that "we are not urging its novelty , but its UTILITY" (p. 2, emphases in original text), and praises Priessnitz for bringing it to the fore again. This list comprises known publications by Claridge. Apart from the Spanish translation and the Abstract of Hydropathy , the primary sources here are Metcalfe, who lists all of Claridge's publications so far referred to in this article, and Browne, who gives

8514-448: The body was headed by Oliver Cromwell , de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector , and the Council was reduced to between thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs. The Council became known as the Protector's Privy Council ; its members were appointed by

8643-405: The book had "excited considerable attention". It reached its third edition "in the short space of three months", and in that time, "several imperfect extracts in the form of Pamphlets" appeared, and the Hydropathic Society was formed, on 17 March 1842, "at the rooms of the Society of Arts, Adelphi". The fifth edition contains an advertisement (which remained in subsequent editions), stating "it

8772-421: The book. Pelham resembled Benjamin Disraeli's first novel Vivian Grey (1827). The character of the villainous Richard Crawford in The Disowned , also published in 1828, borrowed much from that of banker and forger Henry Fauntleroy , who was hanged in London in 1824 before a crowd of some 100,000. Bulwer-Lytton admired Disraeli's father Isaac D'Israeli , himself a noted author. They began corresponding in

8901-439: The confluence of the Thompson and the Fraser Rivers , was renamed in his honour by Governor Sir James Douglas in 1858 as Lytton, British Columbia . Bulwer-Lytton's literary career began in 1820 with the publication of a book of poems and spanned much of the 19th century. He wrote in a variety of genres, including historical fiction, mystery, romance, the occult and science fiction. He financed his extravagant way of life with

9030-588: The county of Warwickshire , and administered by the Stratford-on-Avon District Council . Claridge, a member of the Arcadian Academy at Rome , was the elder and only surviving son of James and Hannah Claridge, and a descendant of church minister and subsequent Quaker , Richard Claridge. Rev. James Claridge was himself a curate in the Established, or Episcopal Church. The Rev. James Claridge died by accident, leaving Richard an orphan at age eight. Claridge married twice. On 28 June 1822, at St George's, Hanover Square , he married Elizabeth Ann Aldsworth Green, who

9159-606: The dates of bank holidays . The Privy Council formerly had sole power to grant academic degree-awarding powers and the title of university , but following the Higher Education and Research Act 2017 these powers have been transferred to the Office for Students for educational institutions in England. Before the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010 the Civil Service was governed by powers of royal prerogative . These powers were usually delegated to ministers by Orders in Council , and were used by Margaret Thatcher to ban GCHQ staff from joining trade unions. Another,

9288-466: The delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. It advises the sovereign on the issuing of royal charters , which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, and city or borough status to local authorities. Otherwise, the Privy Council's powers have now been largely replaced by its executive committee, the Cabinet of the United Kingdom . Certain judicial functions are also performed by

9417-503: The deluge, to gaze upon the boisterous sea, which foamed and bellowed for admittance into the proud towers and marble palaces. Who would have thought of passions so fierce in that calm water that slumbers all day long? At a slight alabaster stand, trembling beneath the ponderous tomes which it supported, sat the hero of our story. Several of Bulwer-Lytton's novels were made into operas. One of them, Rienzi, der Letzte der Tribunen (1842) by Richard Wagner , eventually became more famous than

9546-476: The enthusiastic promotion of Priessnitz's water cure thus: it has been our good fortune, since reading Claridge on Hydropathy, to see a sick drake avail himself of the "Cold Water Cure" at the dispensary in St. James's-park. First in waddling in, he took a Fuss-Bad; then he took a Sitz-bad, and then, turning his curly tail up into the air, he took a Kopf-Bad. Lastly, he rose almost upright on his latter end, and made such

9675-510: The exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s", including in such uses as school flooring. In 1847, Claridge's company promoted itself as producing "the only impervious and permanent covering for arches and roofs, and lining of reservoirs, gutters, & c" In

9804-412: The fabric on one side for dry applications, or both sides "for roofs and other surfaces exposed to wet and damp". At time of this patent, Claridge was described as living at Weymouth Street , in the County of Middlesex . Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company was formed for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France", and "laid one of

9933-456: The failure of the joint venture entered into in 1914. The sequel to this was legal action by the liquidator to recover lost funds from Allback, who had played a prominent role in the promotion of Clarmac Roads and investment of funds therein. This case itself is sometimes cited in corporate law, as an early example of exemption from legal liability where the directors of a company sought and obtained legal advice in good faith. Claridge wrote

10062-402: The fifth and eighth editions are that the fifth includes two additions at either end of the book, not affecting the pagination. These are, the inclusion of a hand-written letter at the front, and at the back, "Critical notices of Captain Claridge's Hydropathy." i. At least some hydropathy proponents appreciated the humour in this, as evidenced it being quoted in the humour section of

10191-482: The first asphalt pavements in Whitehall". Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks, "and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park". "The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company (with a distinguished list of aristocratic patrons, and Marc and Isambard Brunel as, respectively,

10320-427: The first edition remained in all known subsequent editions, including the third (which had its own additional preface), the fifth, and the eighth (both of which contain only the preface from the first edition) h. The pagination for the text of the fifth and eighth editions are the same, so where practical, citations will be from the eighth, since that is available online. The only visible differences between

10449-461: The greater part of my life, my friend strongly advised me, in the winter of 1840, to follow his example", and go to Priessnitz's establishment at Graefenberg. This he did, but not before being confined to his bed "for nearly two months", after arriving at Florence in Rome. He stayed at Graefenberg for three months, "during which time the health of that part of my family who were subjected to the treatment

10578-601: The horror story The Haunted and the Haunters; or, The House and the Brain (1859). Another novel with a supernatural theme was A Strange Story (1862), which was an influence on Bram Stoker 's Dracula . Bulwer-Lytton wrote many other works, including Vril: The Power of the Coming Race (1871) which drew heavily on his interest in the occult and contributed to the early growth of the science fiction genre. Its story of

10707-541: The largest island in the archipelago, Diego Garcia . In 2000, the High Court of Justice ruled that the inhabitants had a right to return to the archipelago. In 2004, the Privy Council, under Jack Straw 's tenure, overturned the ruling. In 2006, the High Court of Justice found the Privy Council's decision to be unlawful. Justice Kentridge stated that there was no known precedent "for the lawful use of prerogative powers to remove or exclude an entire population of British subjects from their homes and place of birth", and

10836-490: The late 1820s and met for the first time in March 1830, when Isaac D'Israeli dined at Bulwer-Lytton's house. Also present that evening were Charles Pelham Villiers and Alexander Cockburn . The young Villiers had a long parliamentary career, while Cockburn became Lord Chief Justice of England in 1859. Bulwer-Lytton reached his height of popularity with the publication of England and the English , and Godolphin (1833). This

10965-462: The latter body coming to an end in 1708. Under King George I , even more power transferred to a small committee of the Council, which began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the Sovereign; the role passed to a committee of the Council, now known as

11094-539: The longest continuous stage run in New York at the time with 29 straight performances. In addition to his political and literary work, Bulwer-Lytton became the editor of the New Monthly in 1831, but he resigned the following year. In 1841, he started the Monthly Chronicle , a semi-scientific magazine. During his career he wrote poetry, prose, and stage plays; his last novel was Kenelm Chillingly , which

11223-427: The mantelpiece a request that future generations preserve the room as his beloved mother had used it." It remains hardly changed to this day. On 20 February 1844, in accordance with his mother's will, he changed his surname from Bulwer to Bulwer-Lytton and assumed the arms of Lytton by royal licence. His widowed mother had done the same in 1811. His brothers remained plain "Bulwer". By chance, Bulwer-Lytton encountered

11352-598: The methods employed, from his discussions with Priessnitz and other patients. He also collected statistics on patient numbers and break-down by nationality, up to the beginning of September 1841. Claridge and his family returned to England in November 1841, and stayed at a hotel in Thames Street, until they found lodgings in Weymouth St., where, on 6 January 1842, the cook at the house was alleged to have stolen

11481-426: The most zealous Hydropathists in this country – a gentleman who in his common conversation speaks most contemptuously of everything but cold water as a remedy for disease", sought his advice for mouth ulcers and bronchial complaints "from which his favourite Cold Water Cure could not deliver him!." Dr Graham "prescribed for him a vegetable alternative, and was favoured thereby to cure him perfectly within six weeks". In

11610-571: The necessity of personal cleanliness in order to ensure perfect health". Metcalfe notes that it was the attention drawn by the publication of Claridge's work "followed by others", that drew attention to hydropathy, "and gave a further stimulus to the movement which resulted in the passing of the Baths and Washhouses Act of Sir George Grey , in 1846, himself a zealous advocate of hydropathy". A series of statutes followed, which became known collectively as "The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896". This

11739-428: The nineteen-member council had become a new national institution, most probably the creation of Thomas Cromwell , without there being exact definitions of its powers. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became a primarily administrative body. In 1553 the Council consisted of forty members÷, whereas Henry VII swore over a hundred servants to his council. Sovereigns relied on

11868-606: The nomination in view of Moody's military record, his success as Governor of the Falkland Islands, and the distinguished record of his father, Colonel Thomas Moody, Knight at the Colonial Office. Moody was charged to establish British order and transform the newly established Colony of British Columbia into the British Empire's "bulwark in the farthest west" and "found a second England on the shores of

11997-472: The novel. Leonora (1846) by William Henry Fry , the first European-styled "grand" opera composed in the United States, is based on Bulwer-Lytton's play The Lady of Lyons , as is Frederic Cowen 's first opera Pauline (1876). Verdi rival Errico Petrella 's most successful opera, Jone (1858), was based on Bulwer-Lytton's The Last Days of Pompeii , and was performed all over the world until

12126-473: The original Craven Cottage , today the site of their stadium. Bulwer-Lytton had long suffered from a disease of the ear, and for the last two or three years of his life lived in Torquay nursing his health. After an operation to cure deafness , an abscess formed in the ear and burst; he endured intense pain for a week and died at 2 am on 18 January 1873, just short of his 70th birthday. The cause of death

12255-479: The owner's name. Surveying the publications on hydropathy from 1820 up to 1850, Metcalfe lists 69 authors of English works, and two Water-cure journals – one in London (from 1847) and one in America (from 1845). He also listed 136 authors of German works, 48 of French works, 43 of Latin works, and nine in other languages. Hydropathic establishments also flourished. In Europe, hydropathy was already well established at

12384-499: The patents to the trustees of his company, who in 1851 sought to extend the duration of all three patents, although unsuccessfully. Apart from the asphalt patents, on 26 April 1842, a six-month patent was granted for a composition called "oropholithe" to Claridge and two others, namely Richard Hodgson, and Raoul Armand Joseph Jean Comte de la Chatre (patent #9331). This was a composition used "in preparing fabrics for covering floors, roofs, and other surfaces", which involved coating

12513-660: The pen is mightier than the sword He popularized the phrase "pursuit of the almighty dollar " from his novel The Coming Race , and he is credited with " the great unwashed ", using this disparaging term in his 1830 novel Paul Clifford : He is certainly a man who bathes and "lives cleanly", (two especial charges preferred against him by Messrs. the Great Unwashed). The writers of theosophy were among those influenced by Bulwer-Lytton's work. Annie Besant and especially Helena Blavatsky incorporated his thoughts and ideas, particularly from The Last Days of Pompeii , Vril,

12642-445: The power to grant royal assent to legislation, are a form of primary legislation, while orders made under statutory powers are a form of secondary legislation. Orders of Council , distinct from Orders in Council, are issued by members of the Privy Council without requiring the approval of the sovereign. Like Orders in Council, they can be made under statutory powers or royal prerogative. Orders of Council are most commonly used for

12771-450: The present age". Claridge himself was an early advocate, dating back to a lecture he gave in Edinburgh in 1843. Claridge's Scottish lecture tours highlight overlap of yet another movement with that of hydropathy, namely that of the temperance movement, with both the temperance and hydropathy movements feeding off each other. Claridge revisited Graefenberg, from where in July 1845, he wrote

12900-551: The progress of the Water-Cure in America, and describes the progress in Great Britain, including the growth of washhouses. He also comments on some of the criticism against him and other hydropathy proponents, and discusses a book by Dr Erasmus Wilson. He also acknowledges the antiquity of hydropathy, and the work of his predecessors, such as "Dr Sir John Floyer" , and his work Febrifugum Magnum , and Dr James Currie . On

13029-513: The regulation of public institutions and regulatory bodies. The sovereign also grants royal charters on the advice of the Privy Council. Charters bestow special status to incorporated bodies ; they are used to grant chartered status to certain professional, educational or charitable bodies, and sometimes also city and borough status to towns. The Privy Council therefore deals with a wide range of matters, which also includes university and livery company statutes, churchyards , coinage and

13158-512: The route from Paris to Ancona, via Geneva and Milan – the routes from Paris to Munich, via Nancy, Strasbourg, Badenbaden; and via Metz and Frankfort – the route from Munich to Venice and Trieste, via the Tyrol – the routes from London to the Rhine and the Danube – and the route from Alexandria to Cairo, &c., on the way to India. In these publications, Claridge was not yet known as captain,

13287-472: The society complaining that he was "extremely surprised" by their use of the title, as he had "never sanctioned such." Nevertheless, a number of esoteric groups have continued to claim Bulwer-Lytton as their own, chiefly because some of his writings – such as the 1842 book Zanoni – have included Rosicrucian and other esoteric notions. According to the Fulham Football Club , he once resided in

13416-744: The state's Q150 celebrations, marking the 150th anniversary of the separation of Queensland from New South Wales. When news of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush reached London, Bulwer-Lytton, as Secretary of State for the Colonies, requested that the War Office recommend a field officer, "a man of good judgement possessing a knowledge of mankind", to lead a Corps of 150 (later increased to 172) Royal Engineers, who had been selected for their "superior discipline and intelligence". The War Office chose Richard Clement Moody , and Lord Lytton, who described Moody as his "distinguished friend", accepted

13545-458: The streets (for it is in London that our scene lies), rattling along the housetops, and fiercely agitating the scanty flame of the lamps that struggled against the darkness. Entrants in the contest seek to capture the rapid changes in point of view, the florid language, and the atmosphere of the full sentence. The opening was popularized by the Peanuts comic strip, in which Snoopy 's sessions on

13674-474: The suburb of Lytton , the town of Bulwer on Moreton Island (Moorgumpin) and the neighbourhood (former island) of Bulwer Island are named after him. The township of Lytton, Quebec (today part of Montcerf-Lytton ) was named after him as was Lytton, British Columbia , and Lytton, Iowa . Lytton Road in Gisborne, New Zealand , was named after the novelist. Later a state secondary school, Lytton High School ,

13803-452: The supreme legislature of the kingdom. Nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, rather than on the advice of Parliament, were accepted as valid. Powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. For example, a committee of

13932-478: The time of Claridge's first visit: In his Hydropathy book, he listed 47 known establishments as at 1840. By October 1845, Claridge noted that "in Germany, there are at least fifty; France, Switzerland, the Tyrol, Hungary, Russia, Ireland, Scotland, all have their institutions, and England counts at least twenty, besides private individuals who are introducing it into their practice; and to show its dissemination, it

14061-425: The title of Clarmac Roads, Ltd", with offices at the same address. Clarmac Roads was a subsidiary company promoted by Claridge's Asphalte Co to manufacture the materials and registered on 14 September 1914. With increasing motor traffic, the directors of Claridge's Asphalte Co thought there was a future for the construction of roads using the tar-bound macadam method, (now commonly known as tarmac ) and invested

14190-592: The typewriter usually began with " It was a dark and stormy night ". The same words also form the first sentence of Madeleine L'Engle's Newbery Medal –winning novel A Wrinkle in Time . Similar wording appears in Edgar Allan Poe's 1831 short story " The Bargain Lost ", although not at the very beginning. It reads: It was a dark and stormy night. The rain fell in cataracts; and drowsy citizens started, from dreams of

14319-623: The use of asphalt paving in the United Kingdom, which he embarked on after returning from a tour of Europe in 1836. He also served with the Middlesex Militia , attaining the rank of captain, before resigning in 1854. At the end of his life, Claridge was still living in Nice and died in Castellammare di Stabia on 5 August 1857, and a copy of his will is held at The National Archives, Kew . At least one portrait of Claridge

14448-485: The vicinity of Neufchâtel, and that prior to his discovery, asphaltum was only known to exist in the Dead Sea. Mechanics Magazine added "we wonder, by-the-bye, no 'Dead Sea Asphalt Company' has yet made its appearance in the market", and wondering whether the lack of such a market take-off in two centuries hinted at limitations of the product. Nevertheless, "By the end of 1838, at least two other companies, Robinson's and

14577-426: The winter of 1840, following which he was confined to bed for nearly two months before proceeding to Graefenberg, where he stayed for three months. From his comments on page 81, it is evident that he was at Graefenberg sometime around September 1841. Claridge himself cites 1842 as the year in which "a new era" commenced. d. The Lancet review states (p. 833): "Mr Claridge will probably find that he made

14706-435: Was "completely philanthropic. Having gained my own health and saved the life of my daughter at Graefenberg, and having witnessed most astounding cures there", he wanted to promote this system. Elizabeth died on 24 August 1842. Claridge spent some time in Italy, from where around 1847 he continued promoting hydropathy by petition and a letter written at Bagni de Lucco on 12 May 1847. On 7 January 1854, Claridge, now residing at

14835-400: Was advised by a royal court or curia regis , which consisted of magnates , ecclesiastics and high officials . The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration and justice. Later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice , while Parliament became

14964-408: Was an important milestone in the improvement of sanitary conditions and public health in those times, with early, strong support for the promotion of public baths and washhouses from prominent advocates of sanitary reform such as Erasmus Wilson , who applauded the establishment of Public Baths and Wash-houses, as "amongst the noblest of the institutions...as they are one of the greatest discoveries of

15093-483: Was created in 1922, but became defunct in 1972, when the Parliament of Northern Ireland was closed down. The sovereign may make Orders in Council upon the advice of the Privy Council. Orders in Council, which are drafted by the government rather than by the sovereign, are forms of either primary or secondary legislation , depending on the power they are made under. Orders made under prerogative powers, such as

15222-659: Was established by a 1910 Order in Council, during Edward VII 's reign, to scrutinise all succession claims (and thus reject doubtful ones) to be placed on the Roll of Baronets . The Committee for the Affairs of Jersey and Guernsey recommends approval of Channel Islands legislation. The Committee for the purposes of the Crown Office Act 1877 consists of the Lord Chancellor and Lord Privy Seal as well as

15351-667: Was followed by The Pilgrims of the Rhine (1834), The Last Days of Pompeii (1834), Rienzi, Last of the Roman Tribunes about Cola di Rienzo (1835), Ernest Maltravers; or, The Eleusinia (1837), Alice; or, The Mysteries (1838), Leila; or, The Siege of Granada (1838), and Harold, the Last of the Saxons (1848). The Last Days of Pompeii was inspired by Karl Briullov 's painting The Last Day of Pompeii , which Bulwer-Lytton saw in Milan . His New Timon lampooned Tennyson , who responded in kind. Bulwer-Lytton also wrote

15480-522: Was founded in the road. Also in New Zealand, Bulwer is a small locality in Waihinau Bay in the outer Pelorus Sound, New Zealand. It can be reached by 77 km of winding, mostly unsealed, road from Rai Valley. A weekly mail boat service delivers mail and also offers passenger services. In London, Lytton Road in the suburb of Pinner , where the novelist lived, is named after him. Bulwer-Lytton

15609-512: Was four years old. When he was 15, a tutor named Wallington, who tutored him at Ealing , encouraged him to publish an immature work: Ishmael and Other Poems . Around this time, Bulwer fell in love, but the woman's father induced her to marry another man. She died about the time that Bulwer went to Cambridge and he stated that her loss affected all his subsequent life. In 1822 Bulwer-Lytton entered Trinity College, Cambridge , where he met John Auldjo , but soon moved to Trinity Hall . In 1825 he won

15738-565: Was in course of publication in Blackwood's Magazine at the time of his death in 1873. Bulwer-Lytton's works of fiction and non-fiction were translated in his day and since then into many languages, including Serbian (by Laza Kostic ), German, Russian, Norwegian, Swedish, French, Finnish, and Spanish. In 1879, his Ernest Maltravers was the first complete novel from the West to be translated into Japanese. In Brisbane , Queensland , Australia,

15867-514: Was over-represented with over twenty", while Ireland had one. There were a number of efforts towards sanitary reform in the nineteenth century, and the hydropathy movement is credited with contributing to this. "There can be no doubt that the Bath and Washhouse Movement received a great stimulus through the introduction of Hydropathy into this country, and the consequent dissemination of the curative virtues of water appliances, and sanitary reformers saw

15996-458: Was perfectly established; we acquired the habit of living more moderately, of taking more exercise, of drinking more water, and of using it more freely in external ablutions than we were accustomed to; and, I may add, that we have learned how to allay pain". During his time at Graefenberg, Claridge made notes, which would form the foundation of his 1842 Hydropathy book, from his own experiences, his observations of other patients' experiences, and of

16125-667: Was portrayed by the actor Brett Usher in the 1978 television serial Disraeli . Privy Council (United Kingdom) King Charles III [REDACTED] William, Prince of Wales [REDACTED] Charles III ( King-in-Council ) [REDACTED] Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) [REDACTED] Charles III [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee The Privy Council (formally His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council )

16254-540: Was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat in Parliament for that city for nine years. He spoke in favour of the Reform Bill and took the lead in securing the reduction, after he had vainly supported the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties . His influence was perhaps most keenly felt after the Whig Party 's dismissal from office in 1834, when he issued a pamphlet entitled A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on

16383-421: Was that he convinced Charles Dickens to revise the ending of Great Expectations to make it more palatable to the reading public, as in the original version of the novel, Pip and Estella remain apart. Bulwer-Lytton's works had an influence in a number of fields. Bulwer-Lytton's most famous quotation is " The pen is mightier than the sword " from his play Richelieu : beneath the rule of men entirely great,

16512-445: Was the only child of the late William Green, of Bolton Street, Piccadilly, and of Kew, Surrey. In April 1824 they had a daughter named Emma Green, who later married Marie Etienne Charles Henri, Marquis de St. Aignan, and subsequently resided in Nice . Claridge was a man of independent means, who in 1841 attended Priessnitz's establishment at Graefenberg along with his wife and daughter. He claimed that his promotion of hydropathy

16641-494: Was unclear but it was thought the infection had affected his brain and caused a fit. Rosina outlived him by nine years. Against his wishes, Bulwer-Lytton was honoured with a burial in Westminster Abbey . His unfinished history Athens: Its Rise and Fall was published posthumously. Bulwer began his political career as a follower of Jeremy Bentham . In 1831 he was elected member for St Ives , Cornwall, after which he

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