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138-517: Edwin Land was born to Jewish parents in Bridgeport, Connecticut , to Matie ( née  Goldfaden ) and Harry Land, a scrap-metal dealer from a village near Kyiv (Ukraine). Growing up, he was known to take apart household appliances, such as a mantel clock and the family's new gramophone , as well as blowing all the house's fuses when he was six years old. He was scolded by his father when taking apart

276-568: A 19-day strike due to deadlocked contract negotiations. A court order, as well as a state law that made strikes by public workers illegal in Connecticut, resulted in 274 teachers being arrested and jailed. In November 1978, a wave of arson passed through the city's East side , with the fire chief calling it as a microcosm of " the Bronx ". The city suffered from overall mismanagement, for which several city officials were convicted, contributing to

414-454: A Kodak developed integral instant film, similar to but incompatible with Polaroid's SX-70 film. The film was chemically similar to Polaroid's with the exception that the negative was exposed from the rear and the dye/developers diffused to the front of the photograph. This alleviated the need for a mirror to reverse the image before it struck the negative. Even so, Polaroid brought a patent-infringement lawsuit against Kodak, and eventually Kodak

552-611: A center of trade, shipbuilding, and whaling. The town was incorporated to subsidize the Housatonic Railroad and rapidly industrialized following the rail line's connection to the New York and New Haven railroad. The town was given its name because of the need for bridges over the Pequonnock River that provided a navigable port at the mouth of the river. Manufacturing was the mainstay of the local economy until

690-434: A chemically developed print shortly after taking the picture. Polaroid Corporation pioneered (and patented ) consumer-friendly instant cameras and film, and were followed by various other manufacturers. The invention of commercially viable instant cameras which were easy to use is generally credited to Edwin Land , the inventor of the model 95 Land Camera , widely considered the first commercial instant camera, in 1948,

828-589: A city. "Bridgeport grew up without a plan, or in spite of one". In 1800, the village became the Borough of Bridgeport, the first so incorporated in the state. It was named for the Newfield or Lottery Bridge across the Pequonnock, connecting the wharves on its east and west banks. Bridgeport Bank was established in 1806. In 1821, the township of Bridgeport became independent of Stratford. In 1821,

966-629: A cult of personality, and so, on his death, Land's family had a laboratory associate shred his personal papers and notes, a task that would take three years to complete. He is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Land was: Patents Bridgeport, Connecticut Bridgeport is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Connecticut and the fifth-most populous city in New England , with

1104-532: A family of financial means and agreed to fund the company. After a few early successes developing polarizing filters for sunglasses and photographic filters, Land obtained funding from a series of Wall Street investors for further expansion. The company was renamed the Polaroid Corporation in 1937. Land further developed and produced the sheet polarizers under the Polaroid trademark. Although

1242-402: A flash bulb or cube unit needed to be used with colour film indoors. The development of the film required the photographer pull two tabs, the second tab which pulled the positive/negative "sandwich" from the camera, where it developed outside the camera. If the temperature was below 15 °C (60 °F), the positive/negative "sandwich" was placed between two aluminum plates and placed either in

1380-521: A mini format camera built by Fuji branded as Polaroid 300 and the film is available with both the Polaroid name and as Fuji Instax mini which are interchangeable. Polaroid also invented and manufactured an instant movie camera system called Polavision . The kit included a camera, film, and a movie viewer. When the movie was shot, it would be taken out of the camera and then inserted into the viewer for development, then viewed after development. This format

1518-588: A model in different circumstances. John Reuter, the director of the Polaroid 20×24 camera studio, for years experimented with snapshot transfers. Andy Warhol also made use of instant cameras. Warhol began taking snapshots to use as sketches of his popular lithographs . In spite of this, their peculiar vision and the passage of time have turned these Polaroids into famous and interesting photographs from an artistic point of view. They are also part of pop art or pop culture . David Hockney also utilised polaroids within his work to create photo collages . Hockney

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1656-630: A new Retinex Theory of color vision. His popular demonstrations of color constancy raised much interest in the concept. He considered his leadership towards the development of integral instant color photography – the SX-70 film and camera – to be his crowning achievement. Although he led the Polaroid Corporation as a chief executive, Land was a scientist first and foremost, and as such made sure that he performed "an experiment each day". Despite holding no formal degree, employees, friends, and

1794-472: A particular set or character's appearance needs to be reset and shot again, or recalled later due to reshoots or the out-of-sequence shooting schedule of a film or television production. The fashion industry relied upon Polaroid prints as a record of models or potential models. Instant photography was also useful in conducting a study about the perception of vehicle accidents. The instant photos were used to document accidents to show medical professionals

1932-513: A phonograph and he vowed that "nothing or nobody could stop me from carrying through the execution of an experiment" He had an elder sister named Helen who had a difficult time pronouncing Edwin's name, so she called him "Din" a nickname that stuck throughout the rest of his childhood and was used among his closest friends. Land attended the Norwich Free Academy at Norwich, Connecticut , a semi-private high school, and graduated in

2070-464: A photo and viewing one, into a singular past time. Because instant cameras were easy to use, didn't require a darkroom or sending out the film for processing, this allowed couples to take personal private photos without concerns about unwanted third parties viewing the photos. Edwin Land's original idea behind instant photography was to create a photographic system that was seamless and easy for anyone to use. The first roll film instant cameras required

2208-519: A picture of her. After she asked why she could not see the picture her father just took of her, within an hour he already had the idea for an instant film camera. His patent attorney, Donald Brown, was also there at the time visiting Santa Fe and he quickly approached him with this idea and Brown agreed on the idea. After this trip, research for the development of this idea began immediately. A little more than three years later, on February 21, 1947, Land demonstrated an instant camera and associated film to

2346-437: A polarizing substance, he could manufacture a film with millions of micron-sized polarizing crystals that were coaxed into perfect alignment with each other. Land returned to Harvard University after developing the polarizing film, but he did not finish his studies or receive a degree. Despite not receiving a college degree, he was still referred to from many as Dr. Land. According to biographer Peter Wensberg, once Land could see

2484-603: A population of 148,654 in 2020. Located in eastern Fairfield County at the mouth of the Pequonnock River on Long Island Sound , it is a port city 60 miles (97 km) from Manhattan and 40 miles (64 km) from The Bronx . It borders the towns of Trumbull to the north, Fairfield to the west, and Stratford to the east. Bridgeport and other towns in Fairfield County make up the Greater Bridgeport Planning Region , as well as

2622-799: A prominent early automobile manufacturer , producing a prototype of the Stanley Steamer and various luxury cars . The town was also the center of America's corset production, responsible for 19.9% of the national total, and became the headquarters of Remington Arms following its 1912 merger with the Union Metallic Cartridge Co. Around the time of the First World War , Bridgeport was also producing steam-fitting and heating apparatuses, brass goods, phonographs , typewriters , milling machines, brassieres , and saddles . Brideport's Italian immigrants settled in

2760-559: A proposal in 1995, Las Vegas developer Steve Wynn was to build a large casino , but that project failed due to traffic concerns. The project was opposed as rival Donald Trump feared a Bridgeport casino would harm his Atlantic City properties and proposed to build a theme park and potential casino on the same site. New waves of migrants from places such as Brazil , Jamaica, Vietnam , Laos , Cambodia, Mexico , and other nations arrived in Bridgeport. Immigrants from Brazil, after

2898-427: A rectangular format. Captiva, Joycam, and Popshots (single use) cameras used a smaller 500 series film in rectangular format. i-Zone cameras use a very small film format which was offered in a sticker format. Finally, Mio cameras used Polaroid Mio film which was Fuji Instax mini, branded as Polaroid and which is still available in 2015 as Fuji Instax Mini. This size produces a billfold sized photo. Polaroid still markets

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3036-414: A reputation for having an industrial character thanks to the factories located right along both sides of Interstate 95, and the city's lack of urban amities and its reputation as a "blue collar" city simply wasn't the image these companies wanted to identify with in order to attract top executives, Bridgeport was being farther from New York City than Stamford or White Plains with no immediate benefits, and

3174-416: A second run based on customer demand. All fifty-seven cameras and all of the film were sold on the first day of demonstrations. During his time at Polaroid, Land was notorious for his marathon research sessions. When Land conceived of an idea, he would experiment and brainstorm until the problem was solved with no breaks of any kind. He needed to have food brought to him and to be reminded to eat. He once wore

3312-648: A settlement in Unconway (today's Fairfield ), probably due to fears of the large Paugussett settlement at Golden Hill, which was a sacred site of theirs, so it is believed that they perhaps instead settled in sparsely populated land surrounding the village. In 1659, the general court in Hartford established the official borders of the Paugussett Reservation. Bridgeport's early years were marked by residents' reliance on fishing and farming . This

3450-700: A small community of remaining Golden Hill Pauguasett Natives, along with free blacks and runaway slaves was established in the South End along Main Street known as Little Liberia , with its own churches, schools and hotels, and served as a stop in the underground railroad. Many remaining Paugusset Indians also lived there. The West India trade died down around 1840, but by that time the Bridgeport Steamship Company (1824) and Bridgeport Whaling Company (1833) had been incorporated and

3588-595: A small group of Connecticut business people and officials at the Playhouse on the Green in 2006. President Barack Obama also spoke at the Harbor Yard arena in 2010 to gain support for the campaign of Democratic Governor Dan Malloy . Bridgeport lies along Long Island Sound at the mouth of the Pequonnock River . Instant camera An instant camera is a camera which uses self-developing film to create

3726-474: A street in Cambridge, Massachusetts , was later named in his memory. The street is at one end of Memorial Drive , in Cambridge, where the Polaroid company headquarters building was located (over a mile west on Memorial Drive from Land Blvd.). Polaroid occupied several buildings in various places in Cambridge. In the early 1970s, starting with the previously known phenomenon of color constancy , Land developed

3864-561: A vintage twin-lens reflex -looking instant camera that used Fuji Instax Mini film. In 2016, it launched the SLR670-S. It has the look of a Polaroid SX-70, but with an ISO 640 system and manual shutter options. These are built from vintage cameras with new electronics. In 2019, it introduced the InstantKon RF70, a rangefinder camera that uses Fuji instax wide film. Two years later in 2021, it introduced another rangefinder camera,

4002-487: A year after he unveiled instant film in New York City. In February 2008, Polaroid filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection for the second time and announced it would discontinue production of its instant films and cameras, shut down three manufacturing facilities, and lay off 450 workers. Sales of analog film by all makers dropped by at least 25% per year in the first decade of the 21st century. In 2009, Polaroid

4140-501: Is in place. In 2017, MGM had announced plans to build a waterfront casino and shopping center in the city, awaiting approval by the state government. If built, the development would have created 2,000 permanent jobs and about 5,779 temporary jobs. After a legal battle with the Mohegan and Pequot tribes on the right to build a casino in Connecticut, the project "appears to be dead", and tenants such as Bridgeport Boatworks now occupy

4278-403: Is used with SX-70 Time Zero film and it allows the photographer to draw on or distort an image by applying pressure to it while it is developing. With an emulsion lift, it is possible to separate the image from the medium it developed on, and transfer it to a different one. Image transfers are used with peel-apart film, like packfilm, to develop the instant image into a different material by peeling

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4416-603: The American Revolution , Newfield Harbor was a center of privateering . By the time of the State of Connecticut 's ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781, many of the local farmers held shares in vessels trading at Newfield Harbor or had begun trading in their own name. Newfield initially expanded around the coasting trade with Boston , New York , and Baltimore and the international trade with

4554-567: The Bridgeport–Stamford–Norwalk–Danbury metropolitan statistical area , the second largest metropolitan area in Connecticut. The Bridgeport–Stamford–Norwalk–Danbury metropolis forms part of the New York metropolitan area . Inhabited by the Paugussett Native American tribe until English settlement in the 1600s, Bridgeport was incorporated in 1821 as a town, and as a city in 1836. Showman P. T. Barnum

4692-552: The Hollow . Having come to the US to escape the famine , they arrived in town during the 1830s to build the railroad. They mostly lived in wooden four to six family tenements , often subdivided homes. In 1842, showman P.T. Barnum spent a night in Bridgeport, and there met Charles Stratton , a local dwarf . He soon became part of Barnum's act and a star under the name " General Tom Thumb ". Barnum moved to Bridgeport and built four houses in

4830-589: The Housatonic Railroad chartered (1836). The HRRC ran upstate along the Housatonic Valley , connecting with Massachusetts 's Berkshire Railroad at the state line. Bridgeport was chartered as Connecticut's fifth city in 1836 in order to enable the town council to secure funding (ultimately $ 150,000) to provide to the HRRC and ensure that it would terminate in Bridgeport. The Naugatuck Railroad —connecting Bridgeport to Waterbury and Winsted along

4968-605: The Naugatuck River —was chartered in 1845 and began operation four years later. The same year, the New York and New Haven Railroad began operation, connecting Bridgeport to New York and the other towns along the north shore of the Long Island Sound . Now a major junction, the city began to industrialize. The city's first immigrants were Irish Catholics who settled in the Sterling Hill section of

5106-470: The Polaroid . In 1905, Bridgeport was already "the largest industrial center in the state, $ 49,381,348 was invested in manufacturing and the products being valued at $ 44,586,519." The city was a port of entry with its imports being valued at around $ 656,271 in 1908. The Singer factory joined Wheeler & Wilson in producing sewing machines and the Locomobile Company of America was

5244-485: The Rowland Institute for Science where he found a vacant lot besides Charles River at Kendall Square. Land died on March 1, 1991, in Cambridge, Massachusetts , at the age of 81. Land's family, his wife, Helen, and two daughters, Jennifer and Valerie declined to disclose the cause of his death. Land himself disliked being written about, wanting to leave behind a legacy of published scientific work, rather than

5382-694: The West Indies . The commercial activity of the village was clustered around the wharves on the west bank of the Pequonnock, while the churches were erected inland on Broad Street. In 1787, the Fairfield County Court ordered the laying out and widening of what is now State Street and Main Street in downtown Bridgeport, along the Pequannock River then Newfield. It was assumed before the Revolution that this land would grow into

5520-477: The assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, he led Polaroid to the forefront of the affirmative action movement. He had an artistic vision. In his laboratory, he built giant studio cameras the size of bedroom closets that produced large format (20 x 24 inch) prints. He gave photographers free access to these cameras in return for some of the prints they produced. This practice was continued by

5658-468: The state's only zoo . Bridgeport is officially nicknamed "Park City", due to its 35 public parks taking up 1,300 acres, including two large ones. Although none are headquartered within the city itself, more than a dozen Fortune 500 companies are based in its metropolitan area , which it shares with Stamford . Bridgeport by various sites has been consistently ranked as among the 25 most ethnically and culturally diverse American cities. Bridgeport

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5796-596: The " Central End ", today's Little Italy, and the city was the 3rd most Italian in the state by 1910. Their newspapers were the weekly La Tribuna de Connecticut (1906–1908) and later La Sentinella (1920–1948) The West End along Wordin Avenue, known as "Hunktown", grew into one of the largest Hungarian communities in the US. It was visited by Hungarian republicans trying to take down the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, in order to garner support. The West Side nearby

5934-629: The 117-unit Citytrust bank building on Main Street. The recession halted, at least temporarily, two major mixed-use projects including a $ 1-billion waterfront development at Steel Point, but other redevelopment projects have proceeded, such as the condominium conversion project in Bijou Square. In 2009, the City Council under Mayor Finch approved a new master plan for development, designed both to promote redevelopment in selected areas and to protect existing residential neighborhoods. The plan

6072-464: The 12-story 855 Main Street (People's Savings Bank building), and 18-floor Park City Plaza , (State National Bank building) built 1972. The plan for three identical towers never materialized, due to the Oil Crisis and corporate vacancies. Bridgeport was largely bypassed by the New York City companies fleeing Manhattan for suburban Fairfield County locations for various reasons; the city developed

6210-468: The 1970s. The first documented European settlement within the present city limits of Bridgeport took place in 1644, centered at Black Rock Harbor and along North Avenue between Park and Briarwood Avenues. The place was called Pequonnock ( Quiripi for "Cleared Land"), after a band of the Paugussett , an Algonquian-speaking Native American people who occupied this area. One of their sacred sites

6348-535: The 52-acre (21 ha) State Street redevelopment project, demolishing 52 acres of State Street, clearing the land for development. Replaced with modern high-rise office buildings, parking, the Route 8/25 expressway towards Waterbury and Newtown , and a shopping mall at its core. Large parts of Main Street were demolished in what was called the Congress Street Renewal project, nothing was built on

6486-597: The 8×10 inch format. Other brands such as Lomography, Leica, Fujifilm, and others have designed new models and features in their own takes on instant cameras. Many different models of Polaroid and non-Polaroid instant cameras were introduced in the mid to late 20th century. They can be categorized by the film type. The first roll film camera was the Polaroid Model 95, followed by subsequent models containing various new features. Roll film came in two rolls (positive/developing agent and negative) which were loaded into

6624-563: The Cuban population continued to decrease. "There has been a big shift in ethnic groups. Just look at the restaurants that have opened in the last few years—Mexican, Brazilian, Chilean and Jamaican." an interviewee, local chamber of council president Paul Timpanelli stated in 2000 according to the Connecticut Post . In 1999, city-owned Sikorsky Memorial Airport ceased its commercial regional flight offerings. In 2003, Mayor Ganim

6762-614: The East Side of Bridgeport (occasionally spelled "Eastside"). In 1863, during the Civil War , the Bridgeport Standard ran a series of articles encouraging the creation of a public park in the city. This led wealthy residents P.T. Barnum , William Noble and Nathaniel Wheeler to purchase the land on Long Island Sound and donating the land to the city in 1864. The land on the shore became Seaside Park . A second park

6900-590: The East Side). Built in 1915, it had 13 separate buildings, each of them 5 stories, connected by a long corridor half a mile long. The purpose of the building was to fulfil a company order from the Russian tzar for a million rifles and 100 million rounds of ammunition. The construction site was protected by the National Guard to prevent Bolshevik arson. The factory by 1916 employed 16,000 people and led to

7038-583: The Genetrix balloon borne cameras, the U-2 program , Corona and Samos photographic satellites, and the Manned Orbiting Laboratory . He was a frequent advisor to President Dwight D. Eisenhower on photographic reconnaissance matters. In the 1950s, James G. Baker , Land, and his team helped design the optics of the revolutionary Lockheed U-2 spy plane. He also contributed to the design of

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7176-673: The Impossible Project) produces instant film for Polaroid cameras. In spring 2016, as Impossible Project they released their own instant camera, the Impossible I-1 that uses the company's 600-type and I-Type films. In September 2017, now renamed Polaroid Originals, it announced the Polaroid OneStep 2 that also uses its 600-type and I-Type films. In 2015, MiNT Camera released the InstantFlex TL70,

7314-619: The InstantKon SF70, that uses Fuji instax square film. In 2014, Lomography funded the creation of a new instant camera, the Lomo'Instant, by raising over US $ 1,000,000 on Kickstarter . Like Fujifilm's Instax Mini camera, the Lomo'Instant uses Instax Mini film. The following year, the company released the Lomo'Instant Wide, a variation on the original Lomo'Instant which shot larger photos using Fujifilm's Instax Wide film. These images are more similar in size to original Polaroid film. In

7452-585: The Kodak EK4 being somewhat successful and only being able to load one picture at a time in a darkroom. In more recent years, Fujifilm introduced a line of instant cameras and film in Japanese and Asian markets. Fujifilm called their instant camera line Fotorama. Starting in the early 1980s the F series of cameras include the F-10, F-50S and F-62AF. In the mid-1980s it introduced the 800 series with models such as

7590-517: The MX800, 850E, and Mr Handy collapsible. The ACE cameras were introduced in the mid-1990s with film identical to the 800 film but with a different cartridge. The integral films are based on the Kodak line of instant camera films. The instant films FI-10/PI-800/ACE series are somewhat compatible with the Kodak line of instant cameras, with minor modifications to the cartridge to make it fit. The F series film

7728-645: The Optical Society of America. Called the Land Camera , it was in commercial sale less than two years later. Polaroid originally manufactured sixty units of this first camera. Fifty-seven were put up for sale at the Jordan Marsh department store in Boston before the 1948 Christmas holiday. Polaroid marketers incorrectly guessed that the camera and film would remain in stock long enough to manufacture

7866-532: The Pronto, Sun 600, and One600 used 600 type film which was four times faster than SX-70 film. 600 series cameras were almost all plastic bodied, except for the SLR 680 and 690 models, which resembled SX-70 type cameras, but most came with an electronic flash. This was followed by other various plastic cameras based on Spectra, Captiva, and i-Zone film. Polaroid Spectra cameras used Polaroid Spectra film which went back to

8004-788: The Ráckόczi Hungarian Aid Association in Bridgeport in 1887 and the American Hungarian Immigrant Aid Society in 1892. They established themselves in the West End. In 1894, Bridgeport's Slavic immigrants played a major role in the development of the Orthodox Christian faith in America when they met with Fr Alexis Toth (now Saint Alexis) and founded Holy Ghost Russian Orthodox Church in the city's Eastside. This parish became

8142-486: The Savoy Hotel. The Poli Palace theatre (built by Sylvester Poli ) was the largest theatre in the state of Connecticut, with gilded hand-carved moldings and vaulted ceilings. The Ritz Ballroom was opened in 1923. In 1928, the city bought an 800-acre (320 ha) racetrack and landing field in Lordship to construct Bridgeport Airport . Spanish immigration in 1920 and 1921 brought hundreds of migrants from Spain, particularly from Pedreguer , Valencia , where "practically

8280-467: The Society. The other Foreign Member of the Royal Society who also signed the book on the same occasion was Ed Purcell , the discoverer of nuclear magnetic resonance and a friend of Edwin Land. It is reputed that the only other times that the book (or in this case a page of it) of the Royal Society was taken outside its house in London was when it was signed by Sigmund Freud and Winston Churchill, both in their homes in London. In his later years, Land founded

8418-543: The advent of VHS video recorders, Polavision had a short history. The earliest instant cameras were conceived before Edwin Land's invention of the instant camera. These cameras were, however, more portable wet darkrooms than "instant" camera and were difficult to use. After Land's instant camera invention was brought to market in 1948, a few different instant cameras were developed, some using Polaroid-compatible film such as cameras by Keystone , Konica , and Minolta . Others were incompatible with Polaroid cameras and film,

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8556-416: The beginning of the 21st century, Bridgeport has begun extensive redevelopment of its downtown and other neighborhoods. Bridgeport's crime rate started going down significantly around 2010; by 2018, it had been reduced by almost 50 percent. Bridgeport is home to three museums , the University of Bridgeport , Housatonic Community College , Paier College , and part of Sacred Heart University as well as

8694-407: The camera and was eventually offered in three sizes (40, 30, and 20 series). The first 100 series pack film model was the model 100, followed by various models in the 100 - 400 series and a few ad hoc cameras such as the countdown series. The next generation of Polaroid cameras used 100 series "pack film," where the photographer pulled the film out of the camera, then peeled apart the positive from

8832-429: The camera at the subject, framed it and took the photo. The camera and film did the rest, including adjusting the exposure settings, taking care of focusing (Sonar autofocus models only), utilising a flash if necessary (600 series and up), and ejecting the film, which developed without intervention from the photographer. The new design of the frame film for the SX-70 cameras allowed for their convenient usage. With all of

8970-412: The camera for the required time, the photographer opened the small door in the camera back and peeled the positive from the negative. To prevent fading, the black and white positive had to be coated with a fixing agent, a potentially messy procedure which led to the development of coaterless instant pack film. Pack film cameras were mostly equipped with automatic exposure , but still had to be focused and

9108-429: The city filed for bankruptcy protection but was declared solvent by a federal court. Later that same year, Mayor Mary C. Moran lost the election to Joseph Ganim , at 33 years old, the youngest person to hold that office. and under him the city was able to begin redevelopment with the construction of the Arena at Harbor Yard and the Ballpark at Harbor Yard . Bridgeport made numerous efforts at revitalization. In

9246-469: The city of Bridgeport bought Pleaseure Beach (also known as Steepchase Island) for $ 220,000. Pleasure Beach was an amusement park and beach on an island in the East End next to Stratford . In 1920, the city parks commissioner began the process of creating a zoo in Beardsley Park . Bridgeport a stop became for performances with around 20 theatres. 1922 was the year the elegantly designed Majestic and Poli Palace theatres , were built downtown, along with

9384-443: The city over the course of his life, the first being Iranistan . In 1852, Barnum began an endeavor with William Noble to develop the land (inherited by Noble) on the other side of the Pequonnock River , across the river from Bridgeport to be known as " East Bridgeport " with Washington Park at the center. The new neighborhood had homes, commerce, and factories, centered around East Main Street . The neighborhood eventually became

9522-551: The city was packed, and a crowd formed outside, as well. Lincoln received a standing ovation before taking the 9:07 pm train that night back to Manhattan. A plaque marks the site where Lincoln spoke; later that year, he was elected president. The Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. spoke three times at the Klein Auditorium during the 1960s, as well as at the University of Bridgeport and the original Central High School (today Bridgeport City Hall )., as well as in Bridgeport City Hall. Additionally, President George W. Bush spoke before

9660-462: The city's population, or 15,000 people, the largest Puerto Rican population in Connecticut, and they would continue to grow. Groups such as the local Young Lords branch organized themselves on East Main Street , leading to activism to advance the Puerto Rican community with increased access to health care, better housing, food and an end to poverty and police brutality. As cities across the country were renovating their central business district after

9798-460: The city. Laotians refugees settled in the West End opening businesses Bridgeport's Mexican population grew gradually, from 24 people counted in 1970, 599 people in 1990, to 2,687 by the 2000 census, becoming at that point the second largest Latino group in the city behind the city's Puerto Ricans (31,117 people), surpassing the Cuban population. Likewise, the population from other Central and South American nations continued to increase while

9936-434: The class of 1927 with honors. The library there was posthumously named for him, having been funded by grants from his family. He studied physics at Harvard College , more specifically, optics, but left after his freshman year, moving to New York City . There he invented the first inexpensive filters capable of polarizing light, which he called Polaroid film . He was not associated with an educational institution and lacked

10074-611: The company; the result was the Polaroid Collection . Compiled since the 1970s, the collection grew to between 16,000 and 24,000 photos shot by some of the world's greatest artists and photographers, including Ansel Adams , Chuck Close , Robert Frank and Andy Warhol . The collection, an asset of the Polaroid Corporation, remained intact until 2010 when, in controversial circumstances, it was broken up and put up for sale in lots. Land resigned from his role as Presidential Advisor during Nixon's Watergate scandal in 1973. He

10212-444: The condition of a vehicle after an accident. Having this visual in turn changed how the physician viewed the accident their patient was in. With the advent of digital photography , much of the instant camera's consumer appeal has been transferred to digital cameras . Passport photo cameras have gone to digital, leaving instant cameras to a niche market. Instant Cameras and Society The introduction of instant camera technologies

10350-573: The construction of " Remington City " in the Mill Hill neighborhood, and " Remington Village " in the East End, by Remington Arms . In the summer of 1915, a series of strikes imposed the eight-hour day on the town's factories; rather than moving business elsewhere, the success spread the eight-hour day throughout the Northeast . Due to housing shortages in many US cities during World War I,

10488-528: The construction of a big box retailer in 2013, along with other stores, shops, and a lighthouse with a marina and oyster bar). The plan for high-end mixed use apartments is in place, although concerns about gentrification have been raised. A hotel is also in the works. A new proposed train station in East Bridgeport , meant to be completed in 2021, was postponed in 2019. By 2013 the city and local business owners agreed that work needed to be done in

10626-524: The downtown area north of Fairfield Avenue, nicknamed Downtown North , above. Made up of old empty brick buildings which were neglected for years, the city and developers began their rehabilitation starting in 2015, most of which are now converted apartments or retail. Bridgeport's downtown renovation has resulted in various restaurants, the renovation of the Bishop Arcade Mall , a comedy club , and theatres. A 2022 plan to renovate McLevy Hall

10764-425: The economic and social decline. The once busy Lafayette Shopping Plaza began to lose customers after Gimbel's closed in 1984. Replaced with a Read's store , the mall was later bought by Hi-Ho Industries and renamed "Hi-Ho Mall", until it closed in 1993 and became Housatonic Community College in 1997. Bridgeport remained the state's second city and as Hartford's population continued to shrink, Bridgeport became

10902-494: The end of his passion in research and decided to continue with his interest in color vision. From 1978, he was a regular visitor to the laboratory of Semir Zeki at University College London, to attend Zeki's experiments on color vision. Although they never published together, Land was to design the gelatin filters to accompany the paper on the physiology of color vision published by Zeki in Nature in 1980. These filters, and especially

11040-575: The entire town migrated" to Bridgeport. During the Great Depression the city elected Socialist party candidate Jasper McLevy as mayor in 1933. McLevy's election made headlines as a New England city had a socialist mayor. Known for cutting costs, he would serve as mayor for 12 terms, finally losing in 1957. The Great Migration led southern African-Americans to Bridgeport around the 1930s (thanks to railroads) along with black foreigners (such as Cape Verdean ), By 1930, Bridgeport had

11178-512: The exodus of manufacturing companies, would result in even higher taxes for residents. The city in 1995 saw a serious reduction in violent crime, notably in its East Side, where crime rate fell by nearly half, homicides dropped, burglaries by 3/4s and stolen car thefts by more than half, among other stats, as the Phoenix Project led to barricading city streets, confusing out of town drug buyers, and preventing sellers to escape. In 1991,

11316-553: The federal government created the US Housing Corporation . This resulted in 7 USHC housing developments being built in Bridgeport, notably Seaside Village in the South End and Black Rock Gardens in Black Rock . By this point, Remington Arms was producing 50% of America's cartridges during the war, with 17,000 employees, and homes for new workers were needed. The factory became a General Electric plant after

11454-511: The first bank telephone bill service in the US (1981). Inventor Harvey Hubbell II invented the electric plug outlet in Bridgeport in 1912. The Frisbie Pie Company was founded and operated in Bridgeport. The world's first Subway restaurant opened in the city's North End in 1965. After World War II , industrial restructuring and suburbanization caused the loss of many large companies and affluent residents, leaving Bridgeport struggling with issues of poverty and violent crime. Since

11592-622: The first passively guided smart bombs , and a special stereoscopic viewing system called the Vectograph , co-invented with Czech refugee Joseph Mahler, which revealed camouflaged enemy positions in aerial photography. With all this, he was also a consultant to the National Research Defense Committee which focused its efforts on non-governmental scientific research. On a vacation to Santa Fe, New Mexico , with his three-year-old eldest daughter, Jennifer, he took

11730-502: The higher end instant cameras to preview lighting before taking the more expensive medium and/or large format photo. Instant film also has been used in ways that are similar to folk art , including the transfer of the images/emulsion and image manipulation. Script supervisors in film production used instant cameras (until superseded by digital cameras) as standard to aid visual continuity by photographing actors, sets or props, to take photographs that could be instantly referred to when

11868-437: The ingredients necessary to develop the photograph in the thicker portion of the frame, the user only has to take the photo to initiate the reaction which provided them their photo. Due to the way that instant film develops, several techniques to modify or distort the final image exist, which were utilized by many artists. The three main techniques used are SX-70 manipulation, emulsion lift, and image transfer. SX-70 manipulation

12006-519: The initial major application was for sunglasses and scientific work, it quickly found many additional applications: for color animation in the Wurlitzer 850 Peacock jukebox of 1942, for glasses in full-color stereoscopic (3-D) movies, to control brightness of light through a window, a necessary component of all LCDs , and many more. During World War II , he worked on military tasks, which included developing dark-adaptation goggles, target finders,

12144-675: The land. Constructed with federal funding, on Lafayette Boulevard and Broad Street, the 450,000 acre, 2 story (with basement) Lafayette Shopping Plaza was erected, a downtown shopping mall with a Sears and a Gimbels department store as anchors connected to it.Military contracts during the 1950s and 1960s enabled the Bridgeport-Lycoming division of AVCO , founded 1951, to employ at times more than 12,000 people, building tanks, helicopters, and other military hardware. Decreased demand led to layoffs, and then closure in 1984. Other examples of urban development include two city landmarks,

12282-479: The largest city in Connecticut in 1974, with a population of 142,546.A 1981 Times article read; "Bridgeport... for years has suffered an image problem when compared with Hartford because of that city's role as state capital and as the site of a number of large corporations." Mayor Mandanici 's response was "Hartford reported state sales taxes of $ 712.7 million, but Bridgeport yielded state sales taxes of $ 890.4 million. That's economic power, right?" In 1985, Bridgeport

12420-723: The long-wave one, were later used to study details of the structure of DNA. Before Land died, Zeki negotiated with the Royal Society to take a page of the Royal Society Fellows Book for Land to sign in the United States, since he was too ill to attend the signing ceremony in London. It was signed at a small private ceremony in Land's home in Cambridge, Mass., attended by his son-in-law; the citations were read by Zeki and Hugh Huxley admitted Land formally to

12558-416: The mid-20th century caused the loss of thousands of jobs and residents. Like other urban centers in Connecticut, Bridgeport suffered during the deindustrialization of the United States in the 1970s and 1980s. Pleasure Beach was sold 5 years after a rollercoaster caught fire. A year later the park closed for good. The old Bridgeport station caught fire in 1978. In September 1978, Bridgeport teachers went on

12696-564: The most notable of these being made by Kodak , such as the EK series and Kodamatic cameras. Later, Fujifilm introduced instant cameras and film in selected markets. After taking over an old Polaroid factory in 2008, the Netherlands -based Impossible Project began producing instant film for Polaroid cameras. This helped generate new interest in instant photography. Kodak's EK and Kodamatic series cameras were introduced in 1976, and accepted

12834-558: The mother church of all Orthodox Churches in New England. From 1870 to 1910, Bridgeport became the largest industrial center in Connecticut; its population rose from around 25,000 to over 100,000, including thousands of Irish , Slovaks , Hungarians , Germans , English , and Italian immigrants . Jewish migration to the city began in the 1881, with an influx of Polish , Russian , and especially Hungarian Jews calling Bridgeport home. Bridgeport Jew Edwin Land grew up to invent

12972-476: The movie Memento . The popular 2003 song " Hey Ya! " by Outcast features the line "Shake it like a Polaroid picture", referring to the myth that shaking an instant photo makes it dry faster. In reality, shaking has no positive effect and can even damage the photo. As a result of the song, the Polaroid Corporation released a statement discouraging the practice. The name and app icon of the social photo sharing platform Instagram , founded in 2010, originated from

13110-511: The nation's inflation crisis, established themselves in the city due to the large Portuguese population already present, easing the language barrier. Bridgeport was a common second US destination for Vietnamese refugees "There's already an established community here, so that's why they come," from the New York Times in 1996. Along with them, Thai , Koreans , Chinese , and especially Laotians and Cambodians established themselves in

13248-487: The negative at the end of the developing process. Pack film initially was offered in a rectangular format (100 series), then in square format (80 series). Models which used SX-70 film were introduced in a folding version, with later versions being solid plastic bodied. Third generation Polaroids, like the once popular SX-70 , used a square format integral film , in which all components of the film (negative, developer, fixer, etc.) were contained. The SX-70 instant camera used

13386-414: The new 18-story Bridgeport Center overlooking McLevy Square, and was designed by famous architect Richard Meier and was meant to give the city a new icon Bridgeport in 1989 had more homicides per capita than any Northeastern US city over 100,000 people. Bridgeport had a smaller police force than smaller cities like Hartford or New Haven, yet hiring due to city financial issues, having not recovered from

13524-549: The new sleek and classic design. [1] In the late 1990s Fujifilm introduced a new series of cameras using a new film called Instax it was available in markets outside the US. Instax became available in a smaller size with the introduction of the Instax Mini/Cheki line. Polaroid's Mio was available in the US, it uses the same film as the Fujifilm Instax Mini series but were rebranded as Mio film. This

13662-416: The photographer to use a light meter to take a reading of the light level, then to set the exposure setting on the lens. Then the lens was focused and the subject framed and the picture was taken. The photographer flipped a switch and pulled the large tab in the back of the camera to pull the negative over the positive, through some rollers to spread the developing agent. After the picture developed inside

13800-474: The picture too early and adhering the negative onto the desired material. Polaroid encouraged the use of these techniques by producing videos about them. The artist Lucas Samaras , for example, was among the first to modify the images taken with the Polaroid SX-70 through the " Polaroid transfer ". Thus, he developed the series "autoentrevistas", a set of self-portraits in which he takes the place of

13938-489: The plane with Kelly Johnson . Also in this decade, Land first discovered a two-color system for projecting the entire spectrum of hues with only two colors of projecting light (he later found more specifically that one could achieve the same effect using very narrow bands of 579 nm and 599 nm light). Some of this work was later incorporated in his Retinex theory of color vision . In 1957, Harvard University awarded him an honorary doctorate, and Edwin H. Land Blvd.,

14076-485: The press respected his scientific accomplishments by calling him Dr. Land. The only exception was The Wall Street Journal , which refused to use that honorific title throughout his lifetime. Land often made technical and management decisions based on what he felt was right as both a scientist and a humanist, much to the chagrin of Wall Street and his investors. From the beginning of his professional career, he hired women and trained them to be research scientists. Following

14214-442: The print technology that Edwin Land had most desired. It introduced the use of more efficient print technology that developed more instantly than previous film types offered, which cut out some of the user's responsibility and made it easier to use. Each exposure developed automatically once the shot was taken. SX-70 (or Time Zero ) film had a strong following with artists who used it for image manipulation. 600 series cameras such as

14352-428: The proposed space. The construction of Honey Locust Square began on the East End, which when complete will house a supermarket (something the neighborhood lacks), a public library, a health center, and a retail building. On March 10, 1860, Abraham Lincoln spoke in the city's Washington Hall, an auditorium at the old Bridgeport City Hall (now McLevy Hall), at the corner of State and Broad Streets. The largest room in

14490-578: The public, today's Discovery Museam and Planetarium . Known for the newly developed approach of hands on-exhibits, the Museam became science oriented later on. Continued development of new suburban housing outside of Bridgeport in the city's adjacent suburbs such as Fairfield and Milford attracted middle and upper-class residents, leaving the city with a higher proportion of poor. By the 1960s, Puerto Ricans had begun to immigrate to settle to Bridgeport in large numbers, and by about 1970 had made up 10% of

14628-413: The same clothes for eighteen consecutive days while solving problems with the commercial production of polarizing film. As the Polaroid company grew, Land had teams of assistants working in shifts at his side. As one team wore out, the next team was brought in to continue the work. Elkan Blout , a close colleague of Edwin Land at Polaroid, wrote: "What was Land like? Knowing him was a unique experience. He

14766-612: The solution to a problem in his head, he lost all motivation to write it down or prove his vision to others. Often his wife, Terre, would extract from him the answers to homework problems, at the prodding of his instructor. She would then write up the homework and hand it in so that he could receive credit and not fail the course. In 1932, he established the Land-Wheelwright Laboratories together with his Harvard physics professor, George Wheelwright III, to commercialize his polarizing technology. Wheelwright came from

14904-683: The state. It is retained in the Town of Trumbull .) In 1639, Roger Ludlow , deputy governor of the English Connecticut Colony was ordered by the colony's General Assembly in Hartford to establish two plantations, one at Cupheg the mouth of the Housatonic River (today Stratford), and one at the harbor at the mouth of the Pequonnock River , today's Bridgeport Harbor . Ludlow disobeyed orders and instead established

15042-464: The summer of 2016, Lomography announced the development of a new instant camera. Called the Lomo'Instant Automat, Lomography describes it as "the most advanced automatic instant camera.” In August 2017, Lomography released the Lomo'Instant Square Glass. It takes 86mm x 72mm photographs and is the "world's first dual-format, glass lensed instant camera". Instant cameras have found many uses throughout their history. The original purpose of instant cameras

15180-464: The third largest percentage of African Americans in New England . The Italian population by 1930 had more than doubled, now the city's largest ethnic group. The build-up to World War II helped the city's recovery in the late 1930s. Suburban development made its expansion into the undeveloped North End neighborhood. On Park Avenue in 1962 the Museam of Art, Science and Industry (MASI) was opened to

15318-475: The tools of a proper laboratory, making this a difficult endeavor, so he would sneak into a laboratory at Columbia University late at night to use their equipment. He also availed himself of the New York Public Library to scour the scientific literature for prior work on polarizing substances. His breakthrough came when he realized that, instead of attempting to grow a large single crystal of

15456-530: The town to Long Island . Harvey Hubbell founded Hubbell Incorporated in Bridgeport in 1888. The Holmes & Edwards Silver Co. was founded in 1882, its wares sold nationally, and the company became part of the International Silver Company in 1898. (The H&E brand continued well into the 1950s and was advertised in national magazines such as LIFE and Ladies' Home Journal .) Hungarian immigrants began to arrive, which led to

15594-537: The trend of establishing headquarters outside of major cities in suburban campuses all played a factor. As such, most skyscraper construction models for downtown Bridgeport from the 70s were never built, unlike Hartford (a city already home to major insurance companies) or Stamford . Much of north downtown Bridgeport would end up abandoned, neglected and boarded up as department and discount stores closed, leaving only federal and municipal buildings along now empty lots. Restructuring of heavy industry starting after

15732-486: The user's pocket or under their arm to keep it warm while developing. After the required development time (15 seconds to 2 minutes), the positive (with the latent image) was peeled apart from the negative. Integral film cameras, such as the SX-70, 600 series, Spectra, and Captiva cameras went a long way in accomplishing Edwin Land's goal of creating a seamless process in producing instant photos. The photographer simply pointed

15870-593: The war, Bridgeport attempted its own urban renewal projects in its old downtown in the early 1960s during the construction of the highways. Hunktown, with a population of 15,000 and the Irish neighborhood in the South End were demolished and replaced with highways and an industrial park. The Trumbull Shopping Park was built just outside Bridgeport city limits in Trumbull in 1965, Connecticut's first fully enclosed shopping mall. Bridgeport under Mayor Tedesco went under

16008-469: The war. The First World War had continued the city's expansion so that, on the eve of the Great Depression , there were more than 500 factories in Bridgeport, including Columbia Records ' primary pressing plant and a Singer Sewing Machine factory. The 1920s saw the city's population stabilize at 143,555 after the war. The Roaring Twenties brought more leisure and entertainment. In 1919,

16146-409: The world by 1946, Bridgeport-based ACME Shear closed its Bridgeport plant in 1996 due to mergers and acquisitions. The industrial operations relocated to Fremont, North Carolina . Between 1984 and 1989 the construction of the new $ 75 million headquarters for People's United Bank , the second largest bank in New England . The 10-story Connecticut National Bank building was demolished and replaced with

16284-495: The world. Bridgeport absorbed the West End and the village of Black Rock and its busy harbor in 1870. In 1875, P. T. Barnum was elected mayor of the town, which afterwards served as the winter headquarters of Barnum and Bailey's Circus and Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show . Barnum also helped establish Fairfield County's first hospital (Conn.'s 3rd) and the Bridgeport-Port Jefferson ferry , connecting

16422-465: Was Golden Hill, which overlooked the harbor and was the location of natural springs and their planting fields. (It has since been blasted through for construction of an expressway .) The Golden Hill Indians were granted a reservation here by the Colony of Connecticut in 1639; it lasted until 1802. (One of the tribes acquired land for a small reservation in the late 19th century that was recognized by

16560-436: Was a resident of the city and served as the town's mayor (1871). Barnum built four houses in Bridgeport and housed his circus in town during winter. The city in the early 20th century saw an economic and population boom, becoming by all measures Connecticut's chief manufacturing city by 1905. Bridgeport was the site of the world's first mutual telephone exchange (1877), the first dental hygiene school (1949), and

16698-467: Was a true visionary; he saw things differently from other people, which is what led him to the idea of instant photography. He was a brilliant, driven man who did not spare himself and who enjoyed working with equally driven people." Beginning in the early years of the Cold War, Land played a major role in the development of photographic reconnaissance and intelligence gathering efforts. Projects included

16836-405: Was acquired by PLR IP Holdings LLC, which uses the Polaroid brand to market various products often relating to instant cameras. Among the products it markets are a Polaroid branded Fuji Instax instant camera, and various digital cameras and portable printers. As of 2017 , film continues to be made by Polaroid B.V. (previously the Impossible Project) for several models of Polaroid camera, and for

16974-497: Was also true of the Polaroid 300, and this film is still being sold. None of Fujifilm's products were sold officially in the United States originally. With the announcement in 2008 of Polaroid ceasing film production, Instax and peel apart type films became available in more channels. Fuji ended production of peel-apart films in 2016, FP-100C being the last such product from them. As noted above, Polaroid Originals (previously

17112-512: Was built near East Main Street, when in 1878, James Beardsley donated more than 100 acres (40 ha) to the city along the Pequonnock River under the condition that the land be "kept the same forever as a public park". Both parks were designed by Frederick Law Olmsted , known for creating Central Park . These two large public parks gave Bridgeport the nickname "The Park City". The county's Catholic seat, St. Augustine Cathedral

17250-537: Was close to Super 8 mm film . Polavision film was different from normal film in that it was an additive film, mixing the primary colors (red, green, blue) to form the color image. The biggest disadvantage of the Polavision system was the low film speed ( ASA 40), which resulted in having to use very bright lights when taking the movie, as well as requiring a special player to view the developed movie. It also lacked audio capability. Because of this, and combined with

17388-545: Was discontinued in 1994 but similar modifications on more recent Instax film can be made to fit in the older cartridges. Fujifilm was one of the first manufacturers who added different shooting modes to Polaroid cameras. "Kid mode" for example, will shoot photos at a faster shutter speed for capturing fast moving objects or people. Fujifilm later introduced Instax Mini 8 and advertised as the "cutest camera" targeting young women and girls. Shortly after, they introduced Instax Mini 90 and Instax mini 70, Targeting middle-aged men with

17526-743: Was finished in 1869, built by the Irish who had arrived 30 year earlier. Saint James Church , predating the Archdiocese of Hartford , was the first Catholic congregation in Fairfield County, starting with 250 members in 1842. The congregation gave rise to St Augustine's in Sterling Hill , the seat of the Diocese of Bridgeport . Following the Civil War , the town held several iron foundries and factories manufacturing firearms , metallic cartridges , horse harnesses , locks , and blinds . Wheeler & Wilson 's sewing machines were exported throughout

17664-527: Was forced to stop manufacture of both the camera and film. Kodak was also left to pay a settlement to some customers who were left without a way to use their now defunct cameras. One settlement offered owners of Kodak instant cameras a credit towards a new Kodak camera. Many Kodak instant cameras still exist and can be found on auction sites. Kodak also lost the contract to manufacture Polaroid's negatives which subsequently took production in house. Recently photographers tried to use Instax mini and square film inside

17802-500: Was home to Slovenians , French-Canadians and Swedish immigrants . By 1910 Bridgeport had grown into second largest city in Connecticut at 102,052, behind New Haven . Between 1910 and 1920, during World War I, the city's population exploded from 102,054 to 143,555, due to the city's role in the First World War. Bridgeport had the largest factory in the world at the time, the new Remington Arms plant on Boston Avenue (on

17940-400: Was important to society because it allowed for more creativity among camera users. Instead of having to use a darkroom to develop photographs, users were able to explore and document their world and experiences as they occurred. Instant Camera photography acted as an activity to some of its users. Instant cameras were portrayed by Polaroid as being able to combine the activities of both taking

18078-516: Was inhabited by the Paugussett native American tribe during the start of European colonization . The earliest European communal settlement was in the historical Stratfield district , along US Route 1 , known in colonial times as the King's Highway. Close by, Mount Grove Cemetery was laid out on what was a native village that extended past the 1650s. It is also an ancient Paugusett burial ground. The burgeoning farming community grew and became

18216-563: Was involved in a corruption scandal after being investigated by the FBI as he received gifts from developers in exchange for being allowed to build in Bridgeport. He was sentenced to federal prison, and was replaced by John Fabrizi . In the early 21st century, Bridgeport has taken steps toward redevelopment of its downtown and other neighborhoods. In 2004, artists' lofts were developed in the former Read's Department Store on Broad Street. Several other rental conversions have been completed, including

18354-660: Was motivated by Jennifer Land's question to her father (Edwin Land): "Why can't I see them now?" Many people have enjoyed seeing their photos shortly after taking them, allowing them to recompose or retake the photo if they didn't get it right. But instant cameras were found to be useful for other purposes such as ID cards, passport photos, ultrasound photos , and other uses which required an instant photo. They were also used by police officers and fire investigators because of their ability to create an unalterable instant photo. Medium and large format professional photographers have also used

18492-488: Was one of the names in Nixon's "political opponents" (following the original top 20 enemies) Despite the tremendous success of his instant cameras, Land's Polavision instant movie system was a financial disaster, and he resigned as Chairman of Polaroid on July 27, 1982. When he retired, he had 535 patents to his name, only surpassed by Thomas Edison and Elihu Thomson . While he was set for retirement years, this did not mean

18630-482: Was similar to the economy of the Paugussett, who had cultivated corn , beans, and squash; and fished and gathered shellfish from both the river and sound. A village called Newfield began to develop around the corner of State and Water streets in the 1760s. The area officially became known as Stratfield in 1695 or 1701, due to its location between the already existing towns of Strat ford and Fair field . During

18768-477: Was skeptical about photography, until instant photography was suggested to him by a museum curator. In the 1980s he began to experiment and creating composite photo collages. These include portraits, still lifes and the iconic swimming pools that Hockney is known for. He admitted that his works are very Cubist and often reference Synthetic Cubism with their distorted perspective. He later moved on from polaroids to 35mm film. Polaroid pictures are used extensively in

18906-410: Was still Connecticut's chief manufacturing center, its major industries including General Electric , Remington Shaver, Bryant Electric , and Raybestos plants. A New York Times in 1985 stated Bridgeport was the fifth largest banking center in New England, with five of the banks based Bridgeport having assets of more than $ 6 billion. The largest scissors, shear and surgical materials manufacturer in

19044-561: Was updated in April 2019. In 2010, the Bridgeport Housing Authority and a local health center announced plans to build a $ 20 million medical and housing complex at Albion Street, making use of federal stimulus funds and designed to replace some of the housing lost with the demolition of Father Panik Village . The Steel Point (or Steelpointe) project of Bridgeport's on the lower portion of the East Side finally led to

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