134-521: Edinburgh Water Company and its successors have provided a public water supply and latterly sewerage and sewage treatment services to the Scottish capital of Edinburgh since 1819. The original company was established to supply drinking water and did so until 1870, when it was taken over by a public Water Trust, with representatives from Edinburgh, Leith and Portobello. That in turn was taken over by Edinburgh Corporation and in 1975, responsibility passed to
268-644: A UNESCO World Heritage Site , which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. The city's historical and cultural attractions have made it the UK's second-most visited tourist destination, attracting 4.9 million visits, including 2.4 million from overseas in 2018. Edinburgh is governed by the City of Edinburgh Council , a unitary authority. The City of Edinburgh council area had an estimated population of 514,990 in mid-2021, and includes outlying towns and villages which are not part of Edinburgh proper. The city
402-465: A royal charter , c. 1124–1127 , by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline . The shire of Edinburgh seems to have also been created in the reign of David I, possibly covering all of Lothian at first, but by 1305 the eastern and western parts of Lothian had become Haddingtonshire and Linlithgowshire , leaving Edinburgh as the county town of
536-524: A government inspection of all works of this character, and that such inspection should be frequent, sufficient and regular." It was not until 66 years later that the Reservoirs (Safety Provisions) Act 1930 was passed. As a result of that Act, standards have been developed, and the size of the spillways on all of the dams have had to be increased, although this is not a feature that is unique to Edinburgh's reservoirs, but has affected most earth dams built in
670-505: A half years to complete from a start date in January 2004. The Marchbank Water Treatment Works was also upgraded with new dissolved air flotation filters, in a £10-million project completed in 2009, which enabled it to deliver 62 Ml of water per day to Edinburgh consumers. When there was no effective way of disposing of human waste, those who lived on the upper storeys of Edinburgh's tenement blocks could empty pails and chamber pots into
804-519: A major project to divert sewage away from the Water of Leith , the main river through the city, took place in 1864, probably with Napier Bell as the engineer. A new sewer intercepted the existing sewers and drains, and carried the raw sewage to the sea. Edinburgh did not have a sewage treatment works until 1978, when construction of Seafield Treatment Works on reclaimed land near Leith Docks was completed. It now produces 2.3 MW of electric power, generated from
938-415: A major upgrade was completed, to increase its output from 40 Ml per day to 60 Ml per day, by replacing the existing slow sand filters and bell pressure filters, which had reached the end of their lives, by dissolved air flotation rapid gravity filters. The works were phased to ensure that the existing throughput could be maintained during the new construction, and the £8.6-million project took two and
1072-523: A population in 2014 of 1,339,380. Like most of Scotland, Edinburgh has a cool temperate maritime climate ( Cfb ) which, despite its northerly latitude, is milder than places which lie at similar latitudes such as Moscow and Labrador . The city's proximity to the sea mitigates any large variations in temperature or extremes of climate. Winter daytime temperatures rarely fall below freezing while summer temperatures are moderate, rarely exceeding 22 °C (72 °F). The highest temperature recorded in
1206-492: A public Water Trust. This would include representatives from the three Corporations, and its powers included taking over the Edinburgh Water Company, which it did on 15 May 1870. Leslie was retained as a consulting engineer, but they also appointed James W Stewart to manage the immediate issues. In this he was assisted by John Frederick Bateman . Prior to the takeover, Leslie had suggested a scheme to exploit
1340-583: A series of small summits to the south of the city centre that command expansive views looking northwards over the urban area to the Firth of Forth. Edinburgh is drained by the river named the Water of Leith , which rises at the Colzium Springs in the Pentland Hills and runs for 18 miles (29 km) through the south and west of the city, emptying into the Firth of Forth at Leith. The nearest
1474-585: A shire covering the central part of Lothian, which was called Edinburghshire or Midlothian (the latter name being an informal, but commonly used, alternative until the county's name was legally changed in 1947). Edinburgh was largely under English control from 1291 to 1314 and from 1333 to 1341, during the Wars of Scottish Independence . When the English invaded Scotland in 1298 , Edward I of England chose not to enter Edinburgh but passed by it with his army. In
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#17328024554111608-532: A spur of rock narrowed the channel of the Glencorse Burn, which caused great difficulties in its construction. The gravel bed on which the burn flowed was up to 16.2 metres (53 ft) deep and when this was removed to create a clay-puddle dyke, the hill on the south side collapsed. The reservoir is the property of Scottish Water . The reservoir was built to provide water to compensate the mills at Glencorse , Milton Bridge and Auchendinny and to ensure
1742-501: A suburb to the south of the city. As more water was required, additional springs in Comiston were tapped, and the pipe was progressively replaced by a 5-inch (13 cm) lead pipe between 1704 and 1720. Iron pipework replaced the lead in 1820. The network was extended in 1760, when wooden pipes were laid into the city from springs near Swanston , a little further to the south, but now also a suburb. 7-inch (18 cm) iron pipes replaced
1876-449: A supply of drinking water to Edinburgh through a cast-iron pipe which took water to two small reservoirs in the city, at Castlehill and near George Heriot's School . The reservoir has an area of 19.3 hectares (48 acres). A Water Treatment Works was opened at Glencorse in 2012 to replace aged facilities at Alnwickhill and Fairmilehead and treat water from Talla , Fruid and Megget reservoirs. In 2019, Glencorse Water Treatment Works
2010-655: A war band from across the Brittonic world who gathered in Eidyn before a fateful raid; this may describe a historical event around AD 600. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria , and around this time control of Lothian passed to the Angles . Their influence continued for the next three centuries until around 950, when, during the reign of Indulf , son of Constantine II ,
2144-520: Is almost entirely within the City of Edinburgh Council boundary, merging with Musselburgh in East Lothian. Towns within easy reach of the city boundary include Inverkeithing , Haddington , Tranent , Prestonpans , Dalkeith , Bonnyrigg , Loanhead , Penicuik , Broxburn , Livingston and Dunfermline . Edinburgh lies at the heart of the Edinburgh & South East Scotland City region with
2278-464: Is believed to have been located at Castle Rock , now the site of Edinburgh Castle . A siege of Din Eidyn by Oswald , king of the Angles of Northumbria in 638 marked the beginning of three centuries of Germanic influence in south east Scotland that laid the foundations for the development of Scots , before the town was ultimately subsumed in 954 by the kingdom known to the English as Scotland. As
2412-578: Is cloudier and somewhat wetter, but differences are minor. Temperature and rainfall records have been kept at the Royal Observatory since 1764. The most recent official population estimates (2020) are 506,520 for the locality (includes Currie ), 530,990 for the Edinburgh settlement (includes Musselburgh ). Glencorse Reservoir Glencorse Reservoir is a reservoir in Midlothian , Scotland , two miles west of Glencorse , in
2546-426: Is encircled by a green belt , designated in 1957, which stretches from Dalmeny in the west to Prestongrange in the east. With an average width of 3.2 km (2 mi) the principal objectives of the green belt were to contain the outward expansion of the city and to prevent the agglomeration of urban areas. Expansion affecting the green belt is strictly controlled but developments such as Edinburgh Airport and
2680-488: Is expected that the site will become self-sufficient for energy within a few years. As part of the Seafield works, another interceptor sewer was constructed, some 11 miles (17.7 km) long and up to 10 feet (3 m) in diameter. Due to the wide variety of ground conditions, some of it was tunnelled, some constructed by cut-and-cover, and in places, the ground had to be frozen before excavation could proceed. In addition to
2814-599: Is in the Lothian region and was historically part of the shire of Midlothian (also called Edinburghshire). "Edin", the root of the city's name, derives from Eidyn , the name for the region in Cumbric , the Brittonic Celtic language formerly spoken there. The name's meaning is unknown. The district of Eidyn was centred on the stronghold of Din Eidyn, the dun or hillfort of Eidyn. This stronghold
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#17328024554112948-440: Is typical of the old quarters of many Northern European cities. The New Town was an 18th-century solution to the problem of an increasingly crowded city which had been confined to the ridge sloping down from the castle. In 1766 a competition to design a "New Town" was won by James Craig , a 27-year-old architect. The plan was a rigid, ordered grid, which fitted in well with Enlightenment ideas of rationality. The principal street
3082-524: Is used to top up Talla Reservoir. In 2014, a survey of the Talla aqueduct, which now carries water from Fruid and Talla to a new water treatments works at Glencorse, was undertaken, after which 1,150 feet (350 m) of the tunnels were refurbished. In addition, new valves were fitted to the valve chambers. Jacobs were the consulting engineers for the £2.6 million project, and the contractor was George Leslie. Bateman's scheme to abstract water from St Mary's Loch
3216-654: The Athenian Acropolis , as did aspects of the neoclassical architecture and layout of New Town . Both cities had flatter, fertile agricultural land sloping down to a port several miles away (respectively, Leith and Piraeus ). Intellectually, the Scottish Enlightenment , with its humanist and rationalist outlook, was influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy . In 1822, artist Hugh William Williams organized an exhibition that showed his paintings of Athens alongside views of Edinburgh, and
3350-661: The George Square and Potterrow areas proved highly controversial. Since the 1990s a new "financial district", including the Edinburgh International Conference Centre , has grown mainly on demolished railway property to the west of the castle, stretching into Fountainbridge , a run-down 19th-century industrial suburb which has undergone radical change since the 1980s with the demise of industrial and brewery premises. This ongoing development has enabled Edinburgh to maintain its place as
3484-659: The Lothian Regional Council , as did the duty to provide sewerage and sewage treatment services. Both services were moved out of local authority control, and taken over by the East of Scotland Water Authority in 1996. The three Scottish regional water authorities were merged to form Scottish Water in 2002. During the time of the Edinburgh Water Company and the Edinburgh Water Trust, major projects were carried out to construct reservoirs, some for
3618-518: The Pentland Hills . It is retained by an earth dam , and it was built between 1820 and 1824 by James Jardine to provide water for the mills of Auchendinny , Milton Bridge and Glencorse, and to supply drinking water to the citizens of Edinburgh . The dam is 23.5 metres (77 ft) at its highest point, one of the tallest in Britain when it was constructed, and was built at a point where
3752-803: The Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, they found a Brittonic Celtic tribe whose name they recorded as the Votadini . The Votadini transitioned into the Gododdin kingdom in the Early Middle Ages , with Eidyn serving as one of the kingdom's districts. During this period, the Castle Rock site, thought to have been the stronghold of Din Eidyn, emerged as the kingdom's major centre. The medieval poem Y Gododdin describes
3886-668: The Royal Highland Showground at Ingliston lie within the zone. Similarly, suburbs such as Juniper Green and Balerno are situated on green belt land. One feature of the Edinburgh green belt is the inclusion of parcels of land within the city which are designated green belt, even though they do not connect with the peripheral ring. Examples of these independent wedges of green belt include Holyrood Park and Corstorphine Hill. Edinburgh includes former towns and villages that retain much of their original character as settlements in existence before they were absorbed into
4020-753: The Scotland Act , which came into force the following year, established a devolved Scottish Parliament and Scottish Executive (renamed the Scottish Government since September 2007 ). Both based in Edinburgh, they are responsible for governing Scotland while reserved matters such as defence, foreign affairs and some elements of income tax remain the responsibility of the Parliament of the United Kingdom in London. In 2022, Edinburgh
4154-795: The Scottish National Gallery . The city is also known for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe , the latter being the world's largest annual international arts festival. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle , the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the churches of St. Giles , Greyfriars and the Canongate , and the extensive Georgian New Town built in the 18th/19th centuries. Edinburgh's Old Town and New Town together are listed as
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4288-755: The Scottish Parliament , the highest courts in Scotland , and the Palace of Holyroodhouse , the official residence of the monarch in Scotland. It is also the annual venue of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland . The city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scottish law , literature, philosophy, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh , founded in 1582 and now one of three in
4422-739: The South Bridge in the 1780s. The Southside is particularly popular with families (many state and private schools are here), young professionals and students (the central University of Edinburgh campus is based around George Square just north of Marchmont and the Meadows ), and Napier University (with major campuses around Merchiston and Morningside). The area is also well provided with hotel and "bed and breakfast" accommodation for visiting festival-goers. These districts often feature in works of fiction. For example, Church Hill in Morningside,
4556-503: The "burh" (fortress), named in the 10th-century Pictish Chronicle as oppidum Eden , was abandoned to the Scots. It thenceforth remained, for the most part, under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, though the date of its charter is unknown. The first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is
4690-499: The 1860s began the transformation of the area into the predominantly Victorian Old Town seen today. More improvements followed in the early 20th century as a result of the work of Patrick Geddes , but relative economic stagnation during the two world wars and beyond saw the Old Town deteriorate further before major slum clearance in the 1960s and 1970s began to reverse the process. University building developments which transformed
4824-409: The 18th-century novel The Expedition of Humphry Clinker by Tobias Smollett one character describes Edinburgh as a "hotbed of genius". Edinburgh was also a major centre for the Scottish book trade. The highly successful London bookseller Andrew Millar was apprenticed there to James McEuen. From the 1770s onwards, the professional and business classes gradually deserted the Old Town in favour of
4958-520: The 19th century and joined by new industries such as rubber works , engineering works and others. By 1821, Edinburgh had been overtaken by Glasgow as Scotland's largest city. The city centre between Princes Street and George Street became a major commercial and shopping district, a development partly stimulated by the arrival of railways in the 1840s. The Old Town became an increasingly dilapidated, overcrowded slum with high mortality rates. Improvements carried out under Lord Provost William Chambers in
5092-400: The 19th century. Additionally, the foundations and embankment at Clubbiedean were grouted in the 1970s, and some remedial work to deal with leakage was carried out at Torduff in the 1980s. In 1974 responsibility for supplying water to Edinburgh, and ownership of the reservoirs passed to Lothian Regional Council. It subsequently passed to the East of Scotland Water Authority in 1996, and in 2002
5226-411: The Castle Rock, giving rise to allusions to the seven hills of Rome . Occupying a narrow gap between the Firth of Forth to the north and the Pentland Hills and their outrunners to the south, the city sprawls over a landscape which is the product of early volcanic activity and later periods of intensive glaciation. Igneous activity between 350 and 400 million years ago, coupled with faulting , led to
5360-520: The Council for a nominal £1. Edinburgh Edinburgh ( / ˈ ɛ d ɪ n b ər ə / ED -in-bər-ə , Scots: [ˈɛdɪnbʌrə] ; Scottish Gaelic : Dùn Èideann [t̪un ˈeːtʲən̪ˠ] ) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 council areas . The city is located in southeast Scotland and is bounded to the north by the Firth of Forth estuary and to
5494-580: The Crawley springs, some 6 miles (9.7 km) to the south of Edinburgh in the Pentland Hills , an idea that had first been suggested by Thomas Telford in 1811. They could also take water from the Glencorse Burn, and in order to maintain supplies to mill owners on the River Esk , the Glencorse Reservoir was to be built, as a source of compensation water. James Jardine was appointed as
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5628-536: The Crosswood Burn. The dam that Leslie designed was similar to that at Harperrig, and the work was completed in 1868. Leslie had improved his designs in other respects, and after the catastrophic failure of the Bilberry Dam in 1852, had insisted that dams should be built up in layers not more than 6 inches (15 cm) thick, to ensure adequate consolidation. He also specified that where excavated material
5762-447: The Edinburgh sewerage works, but it is unclear in what capacity. The sewer used brickwork sealed with Portland cement and caulked with rope, and was of an egg-shaped section, as pioneered by John Roe, which made them self-cleaning. Ventilators were constructed every 100 yards (90 m) or so, which were covered with metal gratings where the sewer ran beneath streets, and disguised by bushes where it ran through parks. This removed much of
5896-668: The English in 1544, Edinburgh continued to develop and grow, and was at the centre of events in the 16th-century Scottish Reformation and 17th-century Wars of the Covenant . In 1582, Edinburgh's town council was given a royal charter by King James VI permitting the establishment of a university; founded as Tounis College (Town's College), the institution developed into the University of Edinburgh , which contributed to Edinburgh's central intellectual role in subsequent centuries. In 1603, King James VI of Scotland succeeded to
6030-620: The English throne, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England in a personal union known as the Union of the Crowns , though Scotland remained, in all other respects, a separate kingdom. In 1638, King Charles I's attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . Subsequent Scottish support for Charles Stuart 's restoration to
6164-588: The Fullerton Burn had a valve well located near to the puddle corewall, rather than Leslie's previous siting of the well at the toe of the upstream embankment. This was a retrograde step, but may have been influenced by Thomas Hawksley , who had been asked by the Trust to assist Leslie in finding a suitable site. Trial boring for the Gladhouse Reservoir was thorough, and paid dividends when what
6298-436: The Glencorse Burn, and this was only avoided by paying them an indemnity of between £4,000 and £5,000. The Company rushed through an Act of Parliament in 1843 to allow them to abstract water from streams at Listonshiels, Bavelaw and Black Springs, all of which are on the north side of the Pentland Hills. Two more reservoirs were required to provide compensation water, at Threipmuir and Harlaw , and despite difficulties in buying
6432-684: The Hillend pump house. The buildings are of an Edwardian Baroque style, rather than the classical Roman style that Leslie had used on earlier works. Near to Talla Reservoir is the Fruid Reservoir , built to impound the waters of the next upstream tributary of the Tweed, the Fruid Water. The top water level is 1,024 feet (312 m) above sea level, and it covers an area of 344 acres (139 ha). Construction started in 1967, and surplus water
6566-598: The House of Lords to reject the scheme for a second time. There were local elections in 1872, which resulted in the personnel of the Trust changing, and Leslie effectively regained control as engineer. He advised the Trust to proceed with the Moorfoot Hills scheme, using the catchment of the River South Esk to supply drinking water and the Fullerton Burn to supply compensation water. The Edgelaw Reservoir on
6700-673: The Jacobite "Highland Army" before its march into England. After its eventual defeat at Culloden , there followed a period of reprisals and pacification, largely directed at the rebellious clans . In Edinburgh, the Town Council, keen to emulate London by initiating city improvements and expansion to the north of the castle, reaffirmed its belief in the Union and loyalty to the Hanoverian monarch George III by its choice of names for
6834-519: The Megget Reservoir, and controlling the outflow from the loch by the use of sluices. By 2008, there were 13 service reservoirs supplying Edinburgh, at Fairmilehead, Alnwickhill, Marchbank, Firrhill, Humbie, Hillend, Torduff, Clermiston, Harlaw, Kinleith, Langloan, Dunsapie, and Craig Park, which were supplied from four water treatment works, at Rosebery, Fairmilehead, Alnwickhill and Marchbank. In 2006, Scottish Water considered ways to improve
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#17328024554116968-476: The North". Robert Louis Stevenson, also a son of the city, wrote that Edinburgh "is what Paris ought to be". The earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond , where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c. 8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have been found on Castle Rock, Arthur's Seat , Craiglockhart Hill and the Pentland Hills . When
7102-548: The Provost for the time as Sheriff, and by the Bailies for the time as Sheriffsdepute conjunctly and severally; with full power to hold Courts, to punish transgressors not only by banishment but by death, to appoint officers of Court, and to do everything else appertaining to the office of Sheriff; as also to apply to their own proper use the fines and escheats arising out of the exercise of the said office." Despite being burnt by
7236-677: The South Esk about 1 mile (1.6 km) below Gladhouse Reservoir, which was completed in 1885. James Leslie took his son Alexander into partnership in 1871, becoming J & A Leslie, and his son-in-law Robert Reid joined about two years later, when the enterprise became J & A Leslie and Reid. Leslie designed the Alnwickhill water treatment works, although the contractors were James Young & Son. It consisted on reservoir holding 15 million imperial gallons (68 Ml) of raw water and two slow sand filter settling tanks. Work started on
7370-505: The United Kingdom's second largest financial and administrative centre after London. Financial services now account for a third of all commercial office space in the city. The development of Edinburgh Park , a new business and technology park covering 38 acres (15 ha), 4 mi (6 km) west of the city centre, has also contributed to the District Council's strategy for the city's major economic regeneration. In 1998,
7504-544: The adjectival forms Edinburgensis and Edinensis are used in educational and scientific contexts. Edina is a late 18th-century poetical form used by the Scots poets Robert Fergusson and Robert Burns . "Embra" or "Embro" are colloquialisms from the same time, as in Robert Garioch 's Embro to the Ploy . Ben Jonson described it as "Britaine's other eye", and Sir Walter Scott referred to it as "yon Empress of
7638-405: The architectural style of the New Town into the early 19th century. Bute House , the official residence of the First Minister of Scotland , is on the north side of Charlotte Square. The hollow between the Old and New Towns was formerly the Nor Loch , which was created for the town's defence but came to be used by the inhabitants for dumping their sewage . It was drained by the 1820s as part of
7772-483: The area. With the redevelopment, Edinburgh has gained the business of cruise liner companies which now provide cruises to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands. The coastal suburb of Portobello is characterised by Georgian villas, Victorian tenements, a beach and promenade and cafés, bars, restaurants and independent shops. There are rowing and sailing clubs, a restored Victorian swimming pool, and Victorian Turkish baths . The urban area of Edinburgh
7906-402: The best-designed earth dams at the time of their construction. Although less details are available, Leslie was also responsible for construction of water mains and treatment works. By 1868, the Pentland Hills were yielding some 6.3 million imperial gallons (29 Ml) of water per day, of which three-quarters comprised spring water from the north side of the hills, with the rest coming from
8040-404: The bottom outlets fed into tunnels cut through solid rock, but at Clubbiedean, the outlet was a single cast iron pipe buried beneath the dam. Leslie's regime of compacting thin layers worked well, and it was not until the 1970s that some remedial work was required at Clubbiedean to grout the embankment and foundations, as the underlying limestone had gradually dissolved, creating some leakage through
8174-423: The city between October and April. Located slightly north of the city centre, the weather station at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) has been an official weather station for the Met Office since 1956. The Met Office operates its own weather station at Gogarbank on the city's western outskirts, near Edinburgh Airport . This slightly inland station has a slightly wider temperature span between seasons,
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#17328024554118308-423: The city was 31.6 °C (88.9 °F) on 25 July 2019 at Gogarbank, beating the previous record of 31 °C (88 °F) on 4 August 1975 at Edinburgh Airport. The lowest temperature recorded in recent years was −14.6 °C (5.7 °F) during December 2010 at Gogarbank. Given Edinburgh's position between the coast and hills, it is renowned as "the windy city", with the prevailing wind direction coming from
8442-473: The city's northward expansion. Craig's original plan included an ornamental canal on the site of the loch, but this idea was abandoned. Soil excavated while laying the foundations of buildings in the New Town was dumped on the site of the loch to create the slope connecting the Old and New Towns known as The Mound . In the middle of the 19th century the National Gallery of Scotland and Royal Scottish Academy Building were built on The Mound, and tunnels for
8576-413: The city's water supply, and particularly the Alnwickhill works, dating from 1885, and that at Fairmilehead, dating from 1909. The solution adopted was to build a new treatment works at Glencorse, to replace both of them. One of the factors affecting the choice of site was that raw water could reach it from the main reservoirs at Talla, Fruid and Megget by gravity, using the existing Victorian pipeline, and it
8710-407: The city, is considered one of the best research institutions in the world. The financial centre of Scotland, Edinburgh is the second-largest financial centre in the United Kingdom, the fourth largest in Europe, and the thirteenth largest internationally. The city is a cultural centre, and is the home of institutions including the National Museum of Scotland , the National Library of Scotland and
8844-484: The company's first engineer, who had been involved in the construction of the Union Canal , and who had also been the first person to work out the mean level of the sea . He was responsible for the pipeline from Crawley springs, which was 8.5 miles (13.7 km) long, as it followed the contours, and acted as resident engineer for the Glencorse dam, with Telford acting as the chief designer. The water pipeline, which varied in diameter from 15 to 20 inches (38 to 51 cm),
8978-426: The construction of over 4.5 miles (7 km) of twin 4-foot (1.2 m) diameter pipeline to link the works to the existing distribution network at Fairmilehead and Alnwickhill, was £130 million. The work was completed in March 2012, and the plant was officially opened in June 2012. Rosebery Water Treatment Works was originally built in the 1940s, close to Rosebury Reservoir, and was extended in 1965 and 1989. In 2006
9112-415: The creation of tough basalt volcanic plugs , which predominate over much of the area. One such example is the Castle Rock which forced the advancing ice sheet to divide, sheltering the softer rock and forming a 1 mi-long (1.6 km) tail of material to the east, thus creating a distinctive crag and tail formation. Glacial erosion on the north side of the crag gouged a deep valley later filled by
9246-567: The crest of a ridge from it terminating at Holyrood Palace. Minor streets (called closes or wynds ) lie on either side of the main spine forming a herringbone pattern. Due to space restrictions imposed by the narrowness of this landform, the Old Town became home to some of the earliest "high rise" residential buildings. Multi-storey dwellings known as lands were the norm from the 16th century onwards with ten and eleven storeys being typical and one even reaching fourteen or fifteen storeys. Numerous vaults below street level were inhabited to accommodate
9380-400: The dam being built too quickly, with insufficient attention being paid to consolidating the hard boulder clay from which much of the dam was constructed, and all his subsequent dams were constructed in layers less than 1 foot (300 mm) thick, to mitigate such problems. Despite the movement of the tower, no remedial work was undertaken, and it has remained standing ever since. Leslie completed
9514-431: The dam. Remedial work was also required at Torduff after some leakage was discovered in the 1980s. The volume of water needed to supply the residents of Edinburgh continued to increase, and in 1856 a further Act of Parliament was obtained, allowing the company to take water from the Colzium springs. To maintain flows in the Water of Leith , a compensation reservoir was required at Harperrig . Leslie refined his designs for
9648-409: The early 1870s. The last major project of this early period was Talla Reservoir , completed in 1905, but there were further civil engineering projects in the 1960s and 1980s. Alexander Leslie compiled a dosier of photographs, showing the construction of some of the later Victorian reservoirs, which has recently been rediscovered in the archives of Edinburgh Library. With the population growing rapidly,
9782-610: The end of 1998, when dumping was banned by the EU Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive , and the plant was extended to perform secondary treatment on the sewage, after which it went to a landfill site. In 1999, the running of the plant was taken over from the East of Scotland Water Board by Stirling Water and Veolia, under a Private Finance Initiative. There are six sludge digesters on the site, which occupies 20 acres (8.1 ha), and they produce enough gas to generate 2.3 MW of electricity. It
9916-434: The expanding city of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Many areas, such as Dalry , contain residences that are multi-occupancy buildings known as tenements , although the more southern and western parts of the city have traditionally been less built-up with a greater number of detached and semi-detached villas. The historic centre of Edinburgh is divided in two by the broad green swathe of Princes Street Gardens . To
10050-477: The fact that the social classes shared the same urban space, even inhabiting the same tenement buildings; although here a form of social segregation did prevail, whereby shopkeepers and tradesmen tended to occupy the cheaper-to-rent cellars and garrets, while the more well-to-do professional classes occupied the more expensive middle storeys. During the Jacobite rising of 1745 , Edinburgh was briefly occupied by
10184-404: The first phase in 1875, and the works opened in 1879, with a second phase being completed in 1888. The two outlet houses were built in a classical Roman style. Alexander Leslie collected dozens of photographs, showing the construction of some of the later projects, including the dams and filtration plants, workmen, architects and engineers, which he mounted in a book. The book was lost from view, but
10318-425: The gas which is a product of the sludge digesters which treat the effluent, and it is expected to become self-sufficient for power in the near future. The City of Edinburgh had a number of wells, from which water could be obtained, and Nor Loch also acted as a source for water. Water was first brought in from outside the city in 1676, when a 3-inch (7.6 cm) lead pipe was installed from springs at Comiston , now
10452-632: The idea of a direct parallel between both cities quickly caught the popular imagination. When plans were drawn up in the early 19th century to architecturally develop Calton Hill , the design of the National Monument directly copied Athens' Parthenon . Tom Stoppard 's character Archie of Jumpers said, perhaps playing on Reykjavík meaning "smoky bay", that the "Reykjavík of the South" would be more appropriate. The city has also been known by several Latin names , such as Edinburgum , while
10586-429: The impounding of water supplies, and others to provide compensation water, to ensure that rivers could still provide water power to mills, when some of their sources had been tapped to supply Edinburgh. James Jardine was the company's first engineer, and was succeeded by James Leslie , who became part of J & A Leslie and Reid, when he entered into partnership with his son Alexander Leslie and son-in-law Robert Reid in
10720-620: The influx of incomers, particularly Irish immigrants , during the Industrial Revolution . The street has several fine public buildings such as St Giles' Cathedral, the City Chambers and the Law Courts . Other places of historical interest nearby are Greyfriars Kirkyard and Mary King's Close . The Grassmarket , running deep below the castle is connected by the steep double terraced Victoria Street. The street layout
10854-463: The language shifted from Cumbric to Northumbrian Old English and then Scots , the Brittonic din in Din Eidyn was replaced by burh , producing Edinburgh . In Scottish Gaelic din becomes dùn , producing modern Dùn Èideann . The city is affectionately nicknamed Auld Reekie , Scots for Old Smoky , for the views from the country of the smoke-covered Old Town. A note in a collection of
10988-586: The main treatment works at Seafield, there are smaller works at Newbridge, South Queensferry and Dalmeny. Most of the reservoirs built in the 19th century to supply Edinburgh with water have lasted well. Following the failure of the Dale Dyke Dam in Sheffield in 1864, which resulted in nearly 250 deaths, the jury at the inquest stated that "the Legislature ought to take such action as will result in
11122-535: The middle of the 14th century, the French chronicler Jean Froissart described it as the capital of Scotland (c. 1365), and James III (1451–88) referred to it in the 15th century as "the principal burgh of our kingdom". In 1482 James III "granted and perpetually confirmed to the said Provost, Bailies, Clerk, Council, and Community, and their successors, the office of Sheriff within the Burgh for ever, to be exercised by
11256-623: The modern-day skyscraper. Most of these old structures were replaced by the predominantly Victorian buildings seen in today's Old Town. In 1611 an act of parliament created the High Constables of Edinburgh to keep order in the city, thought to be the oldest statutory police force in the world. Following the Treaty of Union in 1706, the Parliaments of England and Scotland passed Acts of Union in 1706 and 1707 respectively, uniting
11390-538: The more elegant "one-family" residences of the New Town, a migration that changed the city's social character. According to the foremost historian of this development, "Unity of social feeling was one of the most valuable heritages of old Edinburgh, and its disappearance was widely and properly lamented." Despite an enduring myth to the contrary, Edinburgh became an industrial centre with its traditional industries of printing, brewing and distilling continuing to grow in
11524-480: The new works, which opened in 1978, having been partially funded by a European Investment Bank preferential loan. The works initially performed primary treatment only, to remove solids, and the remaining liquid was discharged into the sea through a 1.75-mile (2.8 km) pipeline. After the solids had been treated, they ware loaded onto a sludge disposal ship, the Gardyloo , and dumped at sea. This practice ceased at
11658-475: The now drained Nor Loch . These features, along with another hollow on the rock's south side, formed an ideal natural strongpoint upon which Edinburgh Castle was built. Similarly, Arthur's Seat is the remains of a volcano dating from the Carboniferous period , which was eroded by a glacier moving west to east during the ice age. Erosive action such as plucking and abrasion exposed the rocky crags to
11792-430: The outlet valve to be inspected or maintained, a sluice made of oak could be lowered in guides, cutting off the incoming water and allowing the pipeline to drain. A second similar structure allowed water to be taken from about 40 feet (12 m) above the bottom of the reservoir. When the dam was nearly completed, there was evidence of slippage on the upstream face, which displaced the tower slightly. Leslie put this down to
11926-475: The outlets of the reservoir, with both the upper and lower outlets feeding into a culvert which ran beneath the bottom of the dam, and had been used to channel the river while the dam was being constructed. This project was completed in 1859, but was still not sufficient, so an Act of Parliament was obtained in 1863 to enable exploitation of the Crosswood springs, with a compensation reservoir at Crosswood to feed
12060-428: The people have the art, very strange to Aeneas, of burning a certain sort of black stones, and Edinburgh with its chimneys is called 'Auld Reekie' by the country people". The 19th-century historian Robert Chambers asserted that the sobriquet could not be traced before the reign of Charles II in the late 17th century. He attributed the name to a Fife laird, Durham of Largo, who regulated the bedtime of his children by
12194-481: The potential to yield three times as much water in the longer term, and so ultimately would prove to be cheaper. This scheme had been included in the bill for the 1870 Act, but had been rejected by the House of Lords because of a minor technical error. After the takeover had occurred, the burghs put the scheme before Parliament again, but local opposition was stirred up, particularly about the alleged problems of water fleas when using lake water, and they managed to persuade
12328-460: The proposals, and the setting out of the works once the Act was obtained, but it was Leslie who supervised the construction. The northern reservoirs were constructed with earth dams, with a 3 to 1 slope on the upstream side of the central clay puddle wall, and a 2.5 to 1 slope on the downstream side. The outlet arrangements for Torduff and Loganlea were similar to those at Harlaw, with two outlets, although
12462-522: The railway line between Haymarket and Waverley stations were driven through it. The Southside is a residential part of the city, which includes the districts of St Leonards , Marchmont , Morningside , Newington , Sciennes , the Grange and Blackford . The Southside is broadly analogous to the area covered formerly by the Burgh Muir , and was developed as a residential area after the opening of
12596-532: The remainder if formed of bridges and syphons. The syphons consist of cast iron pipes which cross valleys, and each is fitted with an automatic valve at the upstream end, which is designed to close if a burst occurs. The aqueduct falls at a gradient of 1 in 4000. J & A Leslie and Reid were the engineers for the water treatment works at Fairmilehead , completed in 1910, which consisted of a filter house, containing 12 pressure filters capable of treating 4 million imperial gallons (18 Ml) or water per day, and
12730-401: The required land, Jardine pressed on with the project. However, he retired in 1846 before either reservoir had been finished, having reached the age of 70, and it was James Leslie who took over and saw them completed. Leslie had previously worked with Jardine on a report about a water supply scheme for Dundee , for which an Act of Parliament was obtained in 1837, but no work was undertaken at
12864-413: The river gets to the city centre is at Dean Village on the north-western edge of the New Town, where a deep gorge is spanned by Thomas Telford 's Dean Bridge , built in 1832 for the road to Queensferry . The Water of Leith Walkway is a mixed-use trail that follows the course of the river for 19.6 km (12.2 mi) from Balerno to Leith. Excepting the shoreline of the Firth of Forth, Edinburgh
12998-492: The sea. Edinburgh Corporation carried out a feasibility study in 1966, as to how this situation could be improved, and decided to build a new sewage treatment plant on reclaimed land near Leith. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 created new regional councils, resulting in Lothian Regional Council taking over the responsibility for Edinburgh's sewerage and sewage treatment, and it was they who completed
13132-403: The second half of the century, the city was at the heart of the Scottish Enlightenment , when thinkers like David Hume, Adam Smith, James Hutton and Joseph Black were familiar figures in its streets. Edinburgh became a major intellectual centre, earning it the nickname "Athens of the North" because of its many neo-classical buildings and reputation for learning, recalling ancient Athens. In
13266-580: The smoke rising above Edinburgh from the fires of the tenements. "It's time now bairns, to tak' the beuks, and gang to our beds, for yonder's Auld Reekie, I see, putting on her nicht -cap!". Edinburgh has been popularly called the Athens of the North since the early 19th century. References to Athens, such as Athens of Britain and Modern Athens , had been made as early as the 1760s. The similarities were seen to be topographical but also intellectual. Edinburgh's Castle Rock reminded returning grand tourists of
13400-532: The south by the Pentland Hills . Edinburgh had a population of 506,520 in mid-2020, making it the second-most populous city in Scotland and the seventh-most populous in the United Kingdom . The wider metropolitan area had a population of 912,490 in the same year. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is the seat of the Scottish Government ,
13534-491: The south side. The Crosswood scheme was the last to exploit water from the hills. Serious debate took place, with the Corporations of Edinburgh, Leith and Portobello complaining that the existing Water Company was not bold enough in their actions, as each new scheme seemed to deliver less water than was needed. They looked for where additional supplies could be obtained, and in 1869 obtained an Act of Parliament to create
13668-548: The south, the view is dominated by Edinburgh Castle, built high on Castle Rock, and the long sweep of the Old Town descending towards Holyrood Palace. To the north lie Princes Street and the New Town. The West End includes the financial district, with insurance and banking offices as well as the Edinburgh International Conference Centre. Edinburgh's Old and New Towns were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995 in recognition of
13802-546: The south-west, which is often associated with warm, unstable air from the North Atlantic Current that can give rise to rainfall – although considerably less than cities to the west, such as Glasgow. Rainfall is distributed fairly evenly throughout the year. Winds from an easterly direction are usually drier but considerably colder, and may be accompanied by haar , a persistent coastal fog. Vigorous Atlantic depressions, known as European windstorms , can affect
13936-553: The southern shore of the Firth of Forth. The city centre is 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 mi (4.0 km) southwest of the shoreline of Leith and 26 mi (42 km) inland, as the crow flies, from the east coast of Scotland and the North Sea at Dunbar . While the early burgh grew up near the prominent Castle Rock, the modern city is often said to be built on seven hills , namely Calton Hill , Corstorphine Hill , Craiglockhart Hill, Braid Hill , Blackford Hill , Arthur's Seat and
14070-429: The southern side of the hills they could raise the dam at Glencorse Reservoir, to increase the amount of water impounded, and build a reservoir at Loganlea , above that at Glencorse. The three northern reservoirs were designed to store up spring water, so that supplies to the city of Edinburgh could be maintained even if there were future droughts. The Loganlea Reservoir and the improvements to Glencorse were to ensure that
14204-550: The springs in the Pentland Hills in 1810, while working for Telford. The new scheme worked well until 1842, when there was a severe drought, resulting in many of the smaller streams and brooks drying up completely. Less than 12 inches (300 mm) of rain fell between April and October, and the Glencorse Reservoir emptied. Millers on the River Esk demanded that water from the Crawley springs should be diverted into
14338-574: The statutory compensation water could always be supplied for the mills on the River Esk, while allowing the Water Company to always keep the pipeline from Crawley Springs full. The 1847 Act was innovative, in that it contained a clause requiring the company to provide a constant water supply to homes, a concept that had been championed by the sanitary reformer Edwin Chadwick . Two other engineers, James Rendel and Nathaniel Beardmore worked on
14472-540: The street below. They were required to shout "Gardez l'eau!", meaning "watch the water", which became corrupted to "gardyloo". The hazards to pedestrians were reduced a little by the passing of the Nastiness Act 1749, which restricted such activity to the hours between 10 pm and 7 am. Edinburgh experienced rapid growth in the second half of the 19th century, with the population nearly doubling between 1851 and 1901, from 160,511 to 316,837. The sewerage system
14606-456: The streets of the New Town: for example, Rose Street and Thistle Street; and for the royal family, George Street , Queen Street , Hanover Street, Frederick Street and Princes Street (in honour of George's two sons). The consistently geometric layout of the plan for the extension of Edinburgh was the result of a major competition in urban planning staged by the Town Council in 1766. In
14740-581: The supply of water was "extremely deficient both in quantity and quality," and the editor of the Edinburgh Review , Francis Jeffrey , convened a public meeting, at which a committee was formed to take the matter forwards. The committee included two prominent authors, Henry Mackenzie and Henry Cockburn . The Edinburgh Water Company was formed, and obtained an Act of Parliament in July 1819. This authorised several schemes, including obtaining water from
14874-499: The threat of water-borne diseases such as cholera from the poorer areas of Edinburgh, and in 1889, a second, deeper interceptor sewer was constructed. It reached as far as Balerno , some 8 miles (13 km) to the south-west of the city centre, and resulted in the Water of Leith becoming relatively unpolluted again. The network of sewers continued to expand until 1960, but there was never any attempt made to treat it before it poured into
15008-501: The throne of England resulted in Edinburgh's occupation by Oliver Cromwell 's Commonwealth of England forces – the New Model Army – in 1650. In the 17th century, Edinburgh's boundaries were still defined by the city's defensive town walls . As a result, the city's growing population was accommodated by increasing the height of the houses. Buildings of 11 storeys or more were common, and have been described as forerunners of
15142-561: The time. Construction of the dam for the Threipmuir Reservoir may have been completed before Jardine retired, but the Harlaw dam was definitely Leslie's work. The main outlet for the reservoir was through a cast iron pipe sitting on the foundations for the dam. A masonry tower was built at the inner end of the pipeline, near the upstream toe of the dam, and a rod passing up the tower enabled the sluice to be controlled. To enable
15276-538: The two kingdoms in the Kingdom of Great Britain effective from 1 May 1707. As a consequence, the Parliament of Scotland merged with the Parliament of England to form the Parliament of Great Britain , which sat at Westminster in London. The Union was opposed by many Scots, resulting in riots in the city. By the first half of the 18th century, Edinburgh was described as one of Europe's most densely populated, overcrowded and unsanitary towns. Visitors were struck by
15410-473: The unique character of the Old Town with its medieval street layout and the planned Georgian New Town, including the adjoining Dean Village and Calton Hill areas. There are over 4,500 listed buildings within the city, a higher proportion relative to area than any other city in the United Kingdom. The castle is perched on top of a rocky crag (the remnant of an extinct volcano) and the Royal Mile runs down
15544-646: The village of Tweedsmuir , and lies in the valley of the Talla Water. The scheme also included a service reservoir and filter, main and branch aqueducts to carry the water towards Edinburgh, and a 10-mile (16 km) railway, known as the Talla Railway was built from the Peebles to Symington branch of the Caledonian Railway to the construction site, for the transport of materials. The dam
15678-416: The waters of the Moorfoot Hills in 1866 as a way to obtain extra supplies for the people of Edinburgh, Leith and Portobello. The three burghs had appointed Stewart to look at alternative supplies, and he and Bateman had proposed obtaining water from St Mary's Loch, some 33 miles (53 km) to the south of Edinburgh. Bateman recognised that this would be more expensive than the Moorfoot Hills scheme, but it had
15812-551: The west before leaving a tail of deposited glacial material swept to the east. This process formed the distinctive Salisbury Crags , a series of teschenite cliffs between Arthur's Seat and the location of the early burgh. The residential areas of Marchmont and Bruntsfield are built along a series of drumlin ridges south of the city centre, which were deposited as the glacier receded. Other prominent landforms such as Calton Hill and Corstorphine Hill are also products of glacial erosion. The Braid Hills and Blackford Hill are
15946-529: The wooden pipes around 1790, but there was then a lull in development due to the Napoleonic wars . The piped water reached a fairly limited number of dwellings, and many people had to buy water from water porters, called 'caddies' locally, who were registered by the Magistrates, and sold water for one penny for a barrel containing 5 to 6 imperial gallons (23 to 27 L). There was general disquiet that
16080-471: The work specified by the 1843 Act in 1848. Before the two reservoirs had been completed, Leslie could see that they would still not be sufficient to provide the water that Edinburgh needed, and so in 1847 the Company applied for another Act of Parliament. This made provision for the construction of three more reservoirs, at Clubbiedean, Torduff and Bonaly on the northern parts of the Pentland Hills, while on
16214-483: The works of the poet, Allan Ramsay , explains, "Auld Reeky...A name the country people give Edinburgh, from the cloud of smoke or reek that is always impending over it." In Walter Scott 's 1820 novel The Abbot , a character observes that "yonder stands Auld Reekie—you may see the smoke hover over her at twenty miles' distance". In 1898, Thomas Carlyle comments on the phenomenon: "Smoke cloud hangs over old Edinburgh, for, ever since Aeneas Silvius 's time and earlier,
16348-514: Was a matter of great resentment when the two burghs merged in 1920 into the City of Edinburgh. Even today the parliamentary seat is known as "Edinburgh North and Leith". The loss of traditional industries and commerce (the last shipyard closed in 1983) resulted in economic decline. The Edinburgh Waterfront development has transformed old dockland areas from Leith to Granton into residential areas with shopping and leisure facilities and helped rejuvenate
16482-522: Was affected by the 2022 Scotland bin strikes . In 2023, Edinburgh became the first capital city in Europe to sign the global Plant Based Treaty , which was introduced at COP26 in 2021 in Glasgow. Green Party councillor Steve Burgess introduced the treaty. The Scottish Countryside Alliance and other farming groups called the treaty "anti-farming". Situated in Scotland's Central Belt , Edinburgh lies on
16616-411: Was at a sufficient elevation that the treated water could reach Edinburgh by gravity, removing the need for pumping, with its associated costs. The incoming raw water is used to power a Gilkes water turbine, which generates 230 kW, around one-third of the power requirements of the plant. The new works can deliver 38 million imperial gallons (170 Ml) per day, and the total cost, which included
16750-566: Was completed in August 1823, and delivered 1,500,000 imperial gallons (6.8 Ml) per day to the city. The Glencorse dam, which impounded 368 million imperial gallons (1,670 Ml) of water, was one of the tallest earth dams at the time it was built, with the crest around 120 feet (37 m) above ground level. The total cost of these projects was around £145,000, and they received high praise from The Scotsman newspaper. Jardine had originally calculated water levels and potential yields from
16884-477: Was formally opened on 20 May 1905, after which the Talla Water was diverted into it and it began to fill. The railway was sold off afterwards, and had been lifted by 1912. The Talla Aqueduct carries water 35 miles (56 km) from the reservoir to Alnwickhill Filters. There are 21 tunnels with a total length of 9 miles (14 km), ranging in length from 133 yards (122 m) to 1.33 miles (2.14 km). 12 miles (19 km) were built by cut-and-cover methods, and
17018-617: Was found in the archives of the Edinburgh Library, and in 2014 the images were compiled to form an online exhibition. The next development was to exploit the headwaters of the River Tweed . Talla Reservoir was part of the New Water Supply project adopted by the Edinburgh and District Water Trust on 11 October 1894, and authorised by Act of Parliament on 30 May 1895. The reservoir is about 1 mile (1.6 km) from
17152-519: Was inadequate, and the Water of Leith , the main river through the city, became polluted. In 1864 an Act of Parliament was obtained, to allow the construction of a sewer to intercept the drains and sewers that discharged into the Water of Leith, which would convey the sewage to the sea. The civil engineer Napier Bell, who had spent his early years in Central America with his father James Stanislaus Bell and returned to Scotland in 1857, worked on
17286-437: Was initially thought to be solid rock turned out to be a large boulder. No suitable bedrock could be found below it, and the dam was eventually sited 1 mile (1.6 km) further downstream. The scheme was completed in 1880, and yielded 8.69 million imperial gallons (39.5 Ml) per day, very similar to the amount that Bateman had suggested it would yield when arguing against it. Leslie later built Rosebery Reservoir, also on
17420-628: Was revisited in the 1980s, when the Megget Reservoir was completed in 1983. It dams the Megget River, which flows into the loch, and impounds water from around half of the St Mary's Loch catchment. Aqueducts and pipelines convey the water to Glencorse Reservoir, dating from 1822, to Gladhouse Reservoir, dating from 1879, and to Rosebery Treatment Works, which was built in 1953. A second phase involved pumping water from St Mary's Lock into
17554-572: Was the home of Muriel Spark 's Miss Jean Brodie, and Ian Rankin 's Inspector Rebus lives in Marchmont and works in St Leonards. Leith was historically the port of Edinburgh, an arrangement of unknown date that was confirmed by the royal charter Robert the Bruce granted to the city in 1329. The port developed a separate identity from Edinburgh, which to some extent it still retains, and it
17688-576: Was to be George Street , running along the natural ridge to the north of what became known as the "Old Town". To either side of it are two other main streets: Princes Street and Queen Street. Princes Street has become Edinburgh's main shopping street and now has few of its Georgian buildings in their original state. The three main streets are connected by a series of streets running perpendicular to them. The east and west ends of George Street are terminated by St Andrew Square and Charlotte Square respectively. The latter, designed by Robert Adam , influenced
17822-438: Was transferred to the newly-formed Scottish Water . In 2005, Edinburgh Council agreed to buy Harperrig, Harlaw and Threipmuir reservoirs from Scottish Water, who no longer required them for water supply. They now form a major part of the flood defences for the Water of Leith, allowing water levels to be lowered to give additional storage in times of high rainfall. The three reservoirs were valued at £135,000, but were transferred to
17956-555: Was used to build the dams, clay and earth should be used against the central puddle wall, particularly on the upstream side, and that stones, gravel and sandy material should only be used for the slopes, and restricted to the downstream side if possible. These latter requirements were probably influenced by the findings of the inquest into the Bilberry disaster, but Leslie's insights meant that the Harperrig and Crosswood dams were among
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