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93-470: Prime advantages of these vehicles is that they do not use fossil fuels such as coal or diesel fuel , emit no exhaust gases and do not require the railway to have expensive continuous infrastructure like electric third rail or overhead catenary . On the down side is the weight of the batteries, which raises the vehicle weight, affecting the range before recharging of between 300 and 600 kilometres (186 and 373 mi). Currently, battery electric units have

186-639: A battery-electric Edison railcar with a range of 160 km (99 mi) operated from 1926 to 1934 on the 34 km (21 mi) long Little River Branch line . The Drumm nickel-zinc battery was used on four 2-car sets between 1932 and 1946 on the Harcourt Street Line in Ireland . British Railways used lead-acid batteries in a British Rail BEMU from 1958 to 1966 on the 38 mile long Aberdeen to Ballater line in Scotland . The BEMU

279-512: A cyclothem . Cyclothems are thought to have their origin in glacial cycles that produced fluctuations in sea level , which alternately exposed and then flooded large areas of continental shelf. The woody tissue of plants is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Modern peat is mostly lignin, with a content of cellulose and hemicellulose ranging from 5% to 40%. Various other organic compounds, such as waxes and nitrogen- and sulfur-containing compounds, are also present. Lignin has

372-591: A proof of concept and a way forward to eliminating diesel trains by 2035, a target set by the French government and SNCF . In 1887, the first German accumulator railcars were placed in service by the Royal Bavarian State Railways . Pre- Second World War classes ETA 177 to 180. The post-war DB Class ETA 176 (later 517) and finally ended with DB Class ETA 150 (later 515) . The latter were used until 1995 having been since modernised into

465-505: A " NE Train Smart Denchi-kun " battery electric railcar from 2009. This vehicle is capable of operating under 1,500 V DC overhead wires or on battery power alone for a distance of up to 50 km away from an overhead power supply. The batteries are charged via the pantograph either when running under an overhead electric supply or at a specially built recharging facility. From March 2014, a two-car battery electric multiple unit,

558-711: A 10-year period, for use on the DART network. The order will consist of both electric multiple units and battery electric multiple units. The N700S train had battery backup introduced in June 2020. The batteries power the train at reduced speed to the nearest station when power outages occur. The train operates on the Tokaido Shinkansen line between Tokyo and Shin-Osaka, and the Sanyo Shinkansen line between Shin-Osaka and Hakata. In Japan, JR East tested

651-434: A Motor Luggage Van (MLV), was operational from 1959 to 2004, which could run on either on batteries or a third rail , being used for short unelectrified section on quaysides. The United Kingdom has almost two-thirds, 58%, of the 20,000 mi (32,000 km) rail network on non-electrified track, which consumes 103 million gallons (469 million litres) of diesel each year. Mark Carne of Network Rail , who are responsible for

744-766: A battery set to store solar generated energy from the cars' roof panels . The solar train came into operational use on a formerly disused section of line through Byron Bay in 2017. It is believed to be the world's first solar-powered train. CAF Urbos 3 supercapacitor powered trams operate on the Newcastle Light Rail network with trams being recharged at each stop. The Canberra and Parramatta light rail networks are also planning to introduce battery powered CAF Urbos 3 vehicles on their networks. They will operate on battery power on select parts of their networks. The Austrian Federal Railways has purchased 189 Siemens Desiro ML trains from 2013 to 2020. One of these trains

837-751: A combination of a supercapacitor and a traction battery that are charged at each stop through an overhead conductor rail . A Combino tramway using four car tramsets equipped with the Sitras HES system has been in regular service from Almada to Seixal, Portugal, since November 2008. It is capable of running up to distances of 2,500 metres (2,700 yd) without overhead wires. A number of catenary-free tramways have opened in China that recharge at tram stops and terminals. The 20.3 km (12.6 mi) Huai'an tram line in China, opened in February 2016. The line

930-453: A higher purchase price and running costs than petrol or diesel railcars. One or more charging stations are required along the routes they operate, unless operation is on a mixture of electrified and unelectrified track, with the batteries being charged from the electrified track. Battery technology has greatly improved over the past 20 years, broadening the scope of use of battery trains, moving away from limited niche applications. Vivarail in

1023-531: A new contract to retrofit and introduce a pre-series of five AGC battery-operated trains by 2023, in collaboration with SNCF and five French regions including Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes , Hauts-de-France , Nouvelle-Aquitaine , Occitanie and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur . The 5 AGC trains will be modified into battery-operated to help decarbonise French rail transport. The idea is to convert dual-mode ( catenary and diesel-powered) high capacity self-propelled trains to dual-mode battery-powered AGCs. This project offers

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1116-417: A process called carbonization . Carbonization proceeds primarily by dehydration , decarboxylation , and demethanation. Dehydration removes water molecules from the maturing coal via reactions such as Decarboxylation removes carbon dioxide from the maturing coal: while demethanation proceeds by reaction such as In these formulas, R represents the remainder of a cellulose or lignin molecule to which

1209-450: A procurement for the construction and delivery of 9 BEMU sets, with an option for 7 more, until the end of 2026. Stadler, CAF and Škoda Transportation had applied for BEMU deliveries in the first part of the tender. Seven of these trains will be used for the busiest unelectrified railway lines Rīga-Bolderāja and Rīga-Sigulda, with the other two being used on unelectrified routes such as Rīga-Dobele and Rīga-Jēkabpils. These trains will replace

1302-472: A supercapacitor that will be charged at each stop. The main motivation for the usage of battery-powered tramways is to avoid railway electrification system installation. Using boost charging at each stop allows to lower the size of the required traction battery. This technology is hoped to be transferred to full trains. The CAF Urbos 3 tramways was ordered for the Seville MetroCentro with

1395-540: A switch in fuels happened in London in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Historian Ruth Goodman has traced the socioeconomic effects of that switch and its later spread throughout Britain and suggested that its importance in shaping the industrial adoption of coal has been previously underappreciated. The development of the Industrial Revolution led to the large-scale use of coal, as

1488-561: A tenth. Indonesia and Australia export the most, followed by Russia . The word originally took the form col in Old English , from reconstructed Proto-Germanic * kula ( n ), from Proto-Indo-European root * g ( e ) u-lo- "live coal". Germanic cognates include the Old Frisian kole , Middle Dutch cole , Dutch kool , Old High German chol , German Kohle and Old Norse kol . Irish gual

1581-721: A third of its electricity . Some iron and steel -making and other industrial processes burn coal. The extraction and burning of coal damages the environment , causing premature death and illness, and it is the largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide contributing to climate change . Fourteen billion tonnes of carbon dioxide were emitted by burning coal in 2020, which is 40% of total fossil fuel emissions and over 25% of total global greenhouse gas emissions . As part of worldwide energy transition , many countries have reduced or eliminated their use of coal power . The United Nations Secretary General asked governments to stop building new coal plants by 2020. Global coal use

1674-611: A two-car BEC819 series BEMU train, nicknamed "DENCHA", on part of the Chikuhō Main Line , with revenue-earning service scheduled from October of the same year, and six more trains planned to be introduced on the line in spring 2017. It can also be powered via overhead AC power line. The BEC819 series battery-electric trains became operational on the through services on the Fukuhoku Yutaka Line in October 2016, which

1767-403: A weight basis. This composition reflects partly the composition of the precursor plants. The second main fraction of coal is ash, an undesirable, noncombustable mixture of inorganic minerals. The composition of ash is often discussed in terms of oxides obtained after combustion in air: Of particular interest is the sulfur content of coal, which can vary from less than 1% to as much as 4%. Most of

1860-406: A weight composition of about 54% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 30% oxygen, while cellulose has a weight composition of about 44% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 49% oxygen. Bituminous coal has a composition of about 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on a weight basis. The low oxygen content of coal shows that coalification removed most of the oxygen and much of the hydrogen

1953-506: Is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock , formed as rock strata called coal seams . Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements , chiefly hydrogen , sulfur , oxygen , and nitrogen . Coal is a type of fossil fuel , formed when dead plant matter decays into peat which is converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions of years. Vast deposits of coal originate in former wetlands called coal forests that covered much of

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2046-636: Is also a cognate via the Indo-European root. The conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called coalification . At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying areas. In these wetlands, the process of coalification began when dead plant matter was protected from oxidation , usually by mud or acidic water, and was converted into peat . The resulting peat bogs , which trapped immense amounts of carbon, were eventually deeply buried by sediments. Then, over millions of years,

2139-429: Is burned in a turbine). Hot exhaust gases from the turbine are used to raise steam in a heat recovery steam generator which powers a supplemental steam turbine . The overall plant efficiency when used to provide combined heat and power can reach as much as 94%. IGCC power plants emit less local pollution than conventional pulverized coal-fueled plants. Other ways to use coal are as coal-water slurry fuel (CWS), which

2232-585: Is electrified at 20 kV 60 Hz AC and the non-electrified Chikuhō Main Line, known as the "Wakamatsu Line", between Orio and Wakamatsu. The battery capacity is 360  kWh (480  hp⋅h ). In 2019, a total of 11 new BEC819 trainsets were introduced on the Kashii Line , replacing all diesel multiple units previously operated on that line. This brought the total number of BEC819 trainsets in revenue service to 18. A new EV-E801 series two-car BEMU train

2325-425: Is eliminated. Previously, incorporating lightly used unelectrified lines into an electrified network meant extending expensive electrical infrastructure, making many extensions unviable. Modern battery-electric trains have the ability to operate on both types of track. A number of metro networks around the world have extended electrified metro lines using battery-electric technology, with a number of networks considering

2418-483: Is entirely catenary-free utilising battery-powered trams supplied by CRRC Zhuzhou which recharge at tram stops. The Byron Bay Train service in Byron Bay , New South Wales operates a heritage 600 class railcar . The railcar was formerly diesel powered which was operational from 1949 to 1994. The railcar had the diesel equipment stripped out with electric traction motors fitted, being converted to solar power using

2511-603: Is entirely vertical; however, metamorphism may cause lateral changes of rank, irrespective of depth. For example, some of the coal seams of the Madrid, New Mexico coal field were partially converted to anthracite by contact metamorphism from an igneous sill while the remainder of the seams remained as bituminous coal. The earliest recognized use is from the Shenyang area of China where by 4000 BC Neolithic inhabitants had begun carving ornaments from black lignite. Coal from

2604-723: Is hoped that the successful demonstration of BEMU technology on the Caltrain line will provide insight into the feasibility of other potential BEMU implementations in the United States. In February 2024, Metra announced an order of 16 Stadler FLIRT Akku trainset for use on the Beverly Branch of the Rock Island District . The new rolling stock is hoped to significantly increase frequency on the line, which has closely spaced stations. Coal Coal

2697-455: Is made when metallurgical coal (also known as coking coal ) is baked in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C, driving off the volatile constituents and fusing together the fixed carbon and residual ash. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace . The carbon monoxide produced by its combustion reduces hematite (an iron oxide ) to iron. Pig iron , which

2790-409: Is more abundant, and anthracite. The % carbon in coal follows the order anthracite > bituminous > lignite > brown coal. The fuel value of coal varies in the same order. Some anthracite deposits contain pure carbon in the form of graphite . For bituminous coal, the elemental composition on a dry, ash-free basis of 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on

2883-604: Is more expensive than electrifying the line and running standard EMUs ; for lines run less frequently than this threshold, BEMU is cheaper. Experiments with accumulator railcars, as they were originally called, were conducted from around 1890 in Belgium, France, Germany, and Italy. Full implementation of battery trains were undertaken with various degrees of success. In the U.S., railcars of the Edison-Beach type, with nickel-iron batteries were used from 1911. In New Zealand,

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2976-807: Is provided by two lithium-ion batteries per car giving four per train, providing 106  kWh (142  hp⋅h ), with an expected life of seven years for the batteries. In 2017, Vivarail battery trains were being considered for use on the Valley Lines network in South Wales. The trains would be battery powered, capable of being recharged via 25 kV OHLE . The Class 230 was introduced on the Borderlands line for Transport for Wales between Wrexham Central and Bidston interconnecting with Merseyrail into Liverpool. The trains run as diesel -Battery electric multiple units. The Edison-Beach battery railcar

3069-528: Is the ground-level power supply (APS) marketed by Alstom ; CAF differentiates ACR against APS through its support of regenerative braking. CAF claims that ACR could be useful in rapid transit systems for the same reason. Since Seville's MetroCentro tramway opened in 2007, sections of its overhead line around the Seville Cathedral had been dismantled annually to allow Holy Week processions to pass safely. ACR's first commercial installation

3162-584: Is too rich in dissolved carbon, is also produced. Acumulador de Carga R%C3%A1pida Acumulador de Carga Rápida ( ACR ) ( transl.  fast-charging battery ) is a battery electric tram system marketed by Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) of Spain. Trams equipped with ACR are fast-charged while at stops ; elsewhere they require no overhead line , which is desirable for reasons of safety, reliability, cost, and aesthetics. It also allows regenerative braking where direct current electrification systems cannot return (much) energy to

3255-452: Is used as fuel. 27.6% of world energy was supplied by coal in 2017 and Asia used almost three-quarters of it. Other large-scale applications also exist. The energy density of coal is roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram (approximately 6.7 kilowatt-hours per kg). For a coal power plant with a 40% efficiency, it takes an estimated 325 kg (717 lb) of coal to power a 100 W lightbulb for one year. In 2022, 68% of global coal use

3348-593: The Acumulador de Carga Rápida system which uses short overhead wires at each stop for charging. The Seville trams have been operating since Easter 2011. Siemens three car trams are to be used for Education City in Doha , the capital of Qatar . The network opened in 2010. No overhead wires were installed, as the 10 Avenio trams will be powered by the Siemens Sitras HES system ( Hybrid Energy Storage ),

3441-715: The Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), where it formed part of funeral pyres . In Roman Britain , with the exception of two modern fields, "the Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century AD". Evidence of trade in coal, dated to about AD 200, has been found at the Roman settlement at Heronbridge , near Chester ; and in the Fenlands of East Anglia , where coal from

3534-516: The EV-E301 series with 1,500 V DC overhead wire and battery power capability, entered revenue-earning service on the 20 km (12 mi) long non-electrified Karasuyama Line . Since March 4, 2017, battery electric trains have completely replaced diesel multiple units on this route. There are four two-car sets in operation, each set equipped with a 190 kWh lithium-ion battery. The trains recharge their batteries at Karasuyama Station (the end of

3627-521: The Fushun mine in northeastern China was used to smelt copper as early as 1000 BC. Marco Polo , the Italian who traveled to China in the 13th century, described coal as "black stones ... which burn like logs", and said coal was so plentiful, people could take three hot baths a week. In Europe, the earliest reference to the use of coal as fuel is from the geological treatise On Stones (Lap. 16) by

3720-764: The Kamp Valley line between Horn and St. Pölten . In 1912, the United Railways of Havana  [ de ] ordered a battery railcar by Thomas Edison and Ralph H. Beach. From the end of 2020, Stadler FLIRT Akku battery trains will be trialled on two lines, the 25 km (16 mi) Helsingør to Hillerød line in Northern Sjælland, and the 18 km (11 mi) Lemvig line in Northwestern Julland. The trains will be operational in 2024. In January 2021, Bombardier signed

3813-527: The Mayflower Line in Essex. The train travelled up to 60 miles (97 km) on energy stored in the batteries also recharging the batteries via the overhead-wires when on electrified sections of the line, at stations and via braking power regeneration . Network Rail refer to this prototype model and its possible future descendants as Independently Powered Electric Multiple Units (IPEMU). A month after

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3906-680: The Merseyrail network had shown that they were capable of travelling up to 20 miles (32 km) without a charge. The battery-electric version of the Class 777 would allow the possibility of Merseyrail services from Liverpool to Skelmersdale , Wrexham , Warrington and Runcorn , without full line electrification. Tests by Stadler achieved 135 km in range. In October 2023, the hybrid battery electric multiple units entered regular service on Merseyrail from Liverpool Central underground station terminating at Headbolt Lane interchange station . On

3999-607: The Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain. Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villas and Roman forts , particularly in Northumberland , dated to around AD 400. In the west of England, contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath ), although in fact easily accessible surface coal from what became

4092-898: The Nokia ETA , painted light grey and green and deployed onto the so-called Nokia Railway (timetable number RB 46), nowadays the Glückauf-Bahn from Gelsenkirchen via Wanne-Eickel to Bochum . In July 2019, Schleswig-Holstein rail authority NAH.SH awarded Stadler a €600m order for 55 battery-powered Flirt Akku multiple unit trains along with maintenance for 30 years. The trains, which offer 150 km (93 mi) of battery range, will start entering service in 2022 replacing DMUs on non-electrified routes. The five routes of: Offenburg to Freudenstadt/Hornberg, Offenburg to Bad Griesbach, Offenburg to Achern, Achern to Ottenhöfen and Biberach (Baden) to Oberharmersbach-Riersbach started to operate from April 2024 on electrified and unelectrified track,

4185-728: The Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally. Evidence of coal's use for iron -working in the city during the Roman period has been found. In Eschweiler , Rhineland , deposits of bituminous coal were used by the Romans for the smelting of iron ore . No evidence exists of coal being of great importance in Britain before about AD 1000, the High Middle Ages . Coal came to be referred to as "seacoal" in

4278-491: The coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event , where coal is rare. Favorable geography alone does not explain the extensive Carboniferous coal beds. Other factors contributing to rapid coal deposition were high oxygen levels, above 30%, that promoted intense wildfires and formation of charcoal that was all but indigestible by decomposing organisms; high carbon dioxide levels that promoted plant growth; and

4371-617: The grid . ACR-equipped trams are powered between stops by discharging a rooftop supercapacitor battery, weighing around 1 tonne (2,200 lb), which gives a range of around 2 miles (3.2 km). The battery is partially recharged between stops by regenerative braking; at stops, it is completely recharged in around thirty seconds by current drawn via pantograph from a short section of overhead line. CAF offers ACR as an option on its Urbos 3 tram; for retrofitting on trams built by CAF or other manufacturers; and for standard gauge and metre gauge tram systems. ACR's most direct competitor

4464-447: The steam engine took over from the water wheel . In 1700, five-sixths of the world's coal was mined in Britain. Britain would have run out of suitable sites for watermills by the 1830s if coal had not been available as a source of energy. In 1947 there were some 750,000 miners in Britain, but the last deep coal mine in the UK closed in 2015. A grade between bituminous coal and anthracite

4557-639: The 120 seat Siemens Mireo Plus B battery-powered/overhead power line trains. On only battery operation the trains have a range of 80 kilometers (50 mi). The New Athos Cave Railway in Abkhazia in the country of Georgia has three narrow-gauge power-concentrated battery electric multiple units built by the Railroad Machinery Plants of Riga in Latvia . Two Ep «Tourist» trains were built in 1975 and later modernized in 2005 and 2009, and

4650-407: The 13th century; the wharf where the material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane, so identified in a charter of King Henry III granted in 1253. Initially, the name was given because much coal was found on the shore, having fallen from the exposed coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of underwater coal outcrops, but by the time of Henry VIII , it was understood to derive from the way it

4743-596: The Carboniferous, and suggested that climatic and tectonic factors were a more plausible explanation, reconstruction of ancestral enzymes by phylogenetic analysis corroborated a hypothesis that lignin degrading enzymes appeared in fungi approximately 200 MYa. One likely tectonic factor was the Central Pangean Mountains , an enormous range running along the equator that reached its greatest elevation near this time. Climate modeling suggests that

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4836-598: The Central Pangean Mountains contributed to the deposition of vast quantities of coal in the late Carboniferous. The mountains created an area of year-round heavy precipitation, with no dry season typical of a monsoon climate. This is necessary for the preservation of peat in coal swamps. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants. This coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae. Sometimes coal seams (also known as coal beds) are interbedded with other sediments in

4929-407: The Earth's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian ) and Permian times. Coal is used primarily as a fuel. While coal has been known and used for thousands of years, its usage was limited until the Industrial Revolution . With the invention of the steam engine , coal consumption increased. In 2020, coal supplied about a quarter of the world's primary energy and over

5022-577: The Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC): Among the materials that are dug because they are useful, those known as anthrakes [coals] are made of earth, and, once set on fire, they burn like charcoal [anthrakes]. They are found in Liguria ;... and in Elis as one approaches Olympia by the mountain road; and they are used by those who work in metals. Outcrop coal was used in Britain during

5115-551: The Liverpool end of the line trains will proceed around the loop of the electrified Liverpool city centre underground tunnels with thirteen station stops. As the train proceeds on the looped electrified line from Bidston and back, the train's batteries are charged. The Liverpool City Region Combined Authority announced in July 2021 that trials of a BEMU (IPEMU, independent power electric multiple unit) version their new Class 777 on

5208-474: The United Kingdom claim their trains have a range of 100 miles (160 km) on only battery power, with a 10-minute charging time. These sorts of ranges and battery recharging times greatly widens the scope of use of battery or battery-electric trains. Despite higher purchase, on certain railway lines battery trains are economically viable as the very high cost and maintenance of full line electrification

5301-535: The branch terminals of the line. The line is diesel train operated unable to progress into the electric 3rd rail underground Birkenhead and Liverpool Merseyrail tunnels & stations. If battery trains are introduced that capable of operating in the tunnels, the Borderlands line will be incorporated into the Wirral Line becoming an urban metro line between Liverpool and Wrexham. The diesel operated trains on

5394-576: The currently-operating DR1A trains on these routes, while the operator remains to be decided by a future procurement. Historically, a number of battery electric trains have been used on British railways. The British Rail BEMU was taken out of service because the line from Aberdeen to Ballater in Scotland was closed in 1966. The trains have been renovated being ready for reuse on the Royal Deeside Railway . The British Rail Class 419 ,

5487-764: The end). Both models can run either on a third rail with 300 V DC or batteries with 240V DC being used for short unelectrified sections at switches without a third rail, and also at passenger stations where the third rail has no voltage for safety reasons. Between 1932 and 1949, two battery electric trains ran successfully between Dublin and Bray. Two additional trains were built and placed into service in 1939, also running until 1949. The train's batteries were charged at each terminus via an overhead pickup. The train could reach 65 mph or 105 km/h, though service speeds were typically limited to 41 mph or 66 km/h. In 2019, Iarnród Éireann announced they would purchase 250 new carriages, with an option of up to 600, over

5580-430: The evolution of the first trees . But bacteria and fungi did not immediately evolve the ability to decompose lignin, so the wood did not fully decay but became buried under sediment, eventually turning into coal. About 300 million years ago, mushrooms and other fungi developed this ability, ending the main coal-formation period of earth's history. Although some authors pointed at some evidence of lignin degradation during

5673-519: The factors involved in coalification, temperature is much more important than either pressure or time of burial. Subbituminous coal can form at temperatures as low as 35 to 80 °C (95 to 176 °F) while anthracite requires a temperature of at least 180 to 245 °C (356 to 473 °F). Although coal is known from most geologic periods , 90% of all coal beds were deposited in the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Paradoxically, this

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5766-498: The form of iron pyrite (FeS 2 ). Being a dense mineral, it can be removed from coal by mechanical means, e.g. by froth flotation . Some sulfate occurs in coal, especially weathered samples. It is not volatilized and can be removed by washing. Minor components include: As minerals, Hg, As, and Se are not problematic to the environment, especially since they are only trace components. They become however mobile (volatile or water-soluble) when these minerals are combusted. Most coal

5859-475: The heat and pressure of deep burial caused the loss of water, methane and carbon dioxide and increased the proportion of carbon. The grade of coal produced depended on the maximum pressure and temperature reached, with lignite (also called "brown coal") produced under relatively mild conditions, and sub-bituminous coal , bituminous coal , or anthracite coal (also called "hard coal" or "black coal") produced in turn with increasing temperature and pressure. Of

5952-431: The increasing tendency of the anthracite to break with a conchoidal fracture , similar to the way thick glass breaks. As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under suitable conditions, its metamorphic grade or rank increases successively into: There are several international standards for coal. The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles . However

6045-504: The line) via their pantographs , using a rigid conductor bar placed where the overhead wires would be, connected to the local electric grid. At the other end, at Hōshakuji , the Karasuyama Line meets the electrified Tohoku Main Line . The trains then continue over the electrified Tohoku Main Line to Utsunomiya , where passengers can change to Shinkansen high-speed trains. From April 2016, JR Kyushu started trial operation of

6138-453: The morphology and some properties of the original plant. In many coals, individual macerals can be identified visually. Some macerals include: In coalification huminite is replaced by vitreous (shiny) vitrinite . Maturation of bituminous coal is characterized by bitumenization , in which part of the coal is converted to bitumen , a hydrocarbon-rich gel. Maturation to anthracite is characterized by debitumenization (from demethanation) and

6231-405: The most important distinction is between thermal coal (also known as steam coal), which is burnt to generate electricity via steam; and metallurgical coal (also known as coking coal), which is burnt at high temperature to make steel . Hilt's law is a geological observation that (within a small area) the deeper the coal is found, the higher its rank (or grade). It applies if the thermal gradient

6324-407: The nature of Carboniferous forests, which included lycophyte trees whose determinate growth meant that carbon was not tied up in heartwood of living trees for long periods. One theory suggested that about 360 million years ago, some plants evolved the ability to produce lignin , a complex polymer that made their cellulose stems much harder and more woody. The ability to produce lignin led to

6417-459: The new Ep-563 train was built in 2014. Since 2014, this has been the only train in use. The first Ep train is based at Anakopea station for doubling the Ep 563 train in case of malfunction. Another Ep train is based at the depot. Each train consists of 6 cars, including 1 power car with driver's cab, motors and power equipment and 5 trailer cars for passengers (4 intermediate cars and 1 observation car in

6510-455: The number of double bonds between carbon). As carbonization proceeds, aliphatic compounds convert to aromatic compounds . Similarly, aromatic rings fuse into polyaromatic compounds (linked rings of carbon atoms). The structure increasingly resembles graphene , the structural element of graphite. Chemical changes are accompanied by physical changes, such as decrease in average pore size. The macerals are coalified plant parts that retain

6603-541: The option. From March 2014, passenger battery trains have been in operation in Japan on a number of lines. Austria has overhead wire/battery trains which became operational in 2019. Britain successfully trialled fare paying passenger hybrid overhead wire/lithium battery trains in January and February 2015. According to a 2019 analysis by VDE e.V. , on a line run more frequently than approximately every 24 to 30 minutes, BEMU

6696-456: The pre-combustion treatment, turbine technology (e.g. supercritical steam generator ) and the age of the plant. A few integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants have been built, which burn coal more efficiently. Instead of pulverizing the coal and burning it directly as fuel in the steam-generating boiler, the coal is gasified to create syngas , which is burned in a gas turbine to produce electricity (just like natural gas

6789-427: The reacting groups are attached. Dehydration and decarboxylation take place early in coalification, while demethanation begins only after the coal has already reached bituminous rank. The effect of decarboxylation is to reduce the percentage of oxygen, while demethanation reduces the percentage of hydrogen. Dehydration does both, and (together with demethanation) reduces the saturation of the carbon backbone (increasing

6882-482: The section of track from Kirkby to Headbolt Lane trains operate only on energy from onboard batteries. Vivarail have produced the Class 230 train which is converted from redundant London Underground D-Stock trains . A demonstrator unit, the two-car 230002, was fitted for diesel-electric- battery power. Vivarail developed a fast charger giving a 100 mi (160 km) range with a 10 minutes recharging time. Power

6975-556: The slow Borderlands line terminate at Bidston railway station in Birkenhead, with passengers having to change trains onto the Merseyrail electric network to proceed into Liverpool's centre. Network Rail proposed using dual battery powered/3rd rail pickup rolling stock without full electrification of the line, providing a cheaper method of incorporating the line in the Wirral Line. The trains will only terminate at Wrexham, while at

7068-399: The sulfur and most of the nitrogen is incorporated into the organic fraction in the form of organosulfur compounds and organonitrogen compounds . This sulfur and nitrogen are strongly bound within the hydrocarbon matrix. These elements are released as SO 2 and NO x upon combustion. They cannot be removed, economically at least, otherwise. Some coals contain inorganic sulfur, mainly in

7161-702: The tracks of the British rail network, in March 2017 stated: "The idea that you need to electrify an entire route is no longer necessarily the case. I think that where we have got hybrid trains, that opens up quite a lot of interesting opportunities for partial electrification." Carne also stated: "technology was advancing at such a pace that better reliability could be achieved without the construction of unsightly overhead cables." He added that developments in batteries are such that it might soon be cost-effective to swap diesel engines for battery or hybrid devices, therefore saving

7254-404: The trial in March 2015, the introduction of battery-powered trains was proposed by Network Rail for consideration for the fifteen station 27 miles (43 km) long diesel operated Wrexham to Bidston , Borderlands Line . [1] The aim is to merge the line into the electric 3rd rail Merseyrail Wirral Line extending into the underground section of Liverpool 's city centre, making Wrexham one of

7347-477: The vast cost of installing power lines above every section of track. Companies such as UK based Hitachi , Vivarail and Bombardier have committed to or are producing battery-electric trains. These trains will be either new units or conversion of existing units, to fulfil the aims of Network Rail's introduction of battery powered trains. In January 2015 a one-month trial of a single Class 379 Electrostar fitted with lithium batteries began passenger operations on

7440-415: The world's coal-generated electricity. Efforts around the world to reduce the use of coal have led some regions to switch to natural gas and renewable energy . In 2018 coal-fired power station capacity factor averaged 51%, that is they operated for about half their available operating hours. Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue that is used in manufacturing steel and other iron-containing products. Coke

7533-590: Was 8.3 billion tonnes in 2022, and is set to remain at record levels in 2023. To meet the Paris Agreement target of keeping global warming below 2 °C (3.6 °F) coal use needs to halve from 2020 to 2030, and "phasing down" coal was agreed upon in the Glasgow Climate Pact . The largest consumer and importer of coal in 2020 was China , which accounts for almost half the world's annual coal production, followed by India with about

7626-412: Was a success, but decommissioned as the line was closed. A BEMU has been restored operating as a shunting train until proper battery charging facilities are built. In Germany between 1955 and 1995 Deutsche Bahn railways successfully operated 232 DB Class ETA 150 railcars utilising lead-acid batteries . A number of tramway manufacturers are offering battery tramcars that combine the traction battery with

7719-574: Was based on the trading of this commodity. Coal continues to arrive on beaches around the world from both natural erosion of exposed coal seams and windswept spills from cargo ships. Many homes in such areas gather this coal as a significant, and sometimes primary, source of home heating fuel. Coal consists mainly of a black mixture of diverse organic compounds and polymers. Of course, several kinds of coals exist, with variable dark colors and variable compositions. Young coals (brown coal, lignite) are not black. The two main black coals are bituminous, which

7812-510: Was carried to London by sea. In 1257–1259, coal from Newcastle upon Tyne was shipped to London for the smiths and lime -burners building Westminster Abbey . Seacoal Lane and Newcastle Lane, where coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet , still exist. These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground extraction by shaft mining or adits

7905-574: Was converted to a battery electric multiple unit and branded as cityjet eco . The battery-electric version of the Siemens train is equipped to operate with batteries and overhead wires, with a battery only range of 80 km (50 mi) reaching a maximum speed of 100 km/h (62 mph) in battery mode. The trains are to be tested on regional and suburban rail lines on electrified and unelectrified track. The test services began in September 2019 on

7998-822: Was developed by Thomas Edison and Ralph H. Beach. The latter headed the Railway Storage Battery Car Company and the Electric Car & Locomotive Corp . Car No. 105 of the Alaska Railroad was an Edison-Beach car, and examples operated on the Central Vermont Railway running between Millers Falls, Northfield and West Townshend. A notable feature of the Edison-Beach cars was the Beach drive system. Each wheel

8091-612: Was developed in the Soviet Union , or in an MHD topping cycle . However these are not widely used due to lack of profit. In 2017 38% of the world's electricity came from coal, the same percentage as 30 years previously. In 2018 global installed capacity was 2 TW (of which 1TW is in China) which was 30% of total electricity generation capacity. The most dependent major country is South Africa, with over 80% of its electricity generated by coal; but China alone generates more than half of

8184-408: Was developed. The alternative name was "pitcoal", because it came from mines. Cooking and home heating with coal (in addition to firewood or instead of it) has been done in various times and places throughout human history, especially in times and places where ground-surface coal was available and firewood was scarce, but a widespread reliance on coal for home hearths probably never existed until such

8277-497: Was during the Late Paleozoic icehouse , a time of global glaciation . However, the drop in global sea level accompanying the glaciation exposed continental shelves that had previously been submerged, and to these were added wide river deltas produced by increased erosion due to the drop in base level . These widespread areas of wetlands provided ideal conditions for coal formation. The rapid formation of coal ended with

8370-707: Was introduced on the 26.6 km (16.5 mi) long non-electrified Oga Line in Akita Prefecture in March 2017. It shares some characteristics with the BEC819 trains: it uses a 360 kWh battery and is recharged from a 20 kV 50 Hz AC overhead supply instead of a 1,500 V DC overhead supply used by the earlier EV-E301 trains. In 2022, the Road Transport Administration (ATD), which organizes passenger carrier services in Latvia, announced

8463-403: Was mounted on ball bearings on a dead axle and was driven by an individual traction motor through gearing . In August 2023, Caltrain exercised an option order with Stadler, its rolling stock manufacturer, which included a single four-car BEMU trainset. This trainset will serve the line's southernmost stations once electrification of the central and northern stations has been completed. It

8556-564: Was once known as "steam coal" as it was widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives . In this specialized use, it is sometimes known as "sea coal" in the United States. Small "steam coal", also called dry small steam nuts (DSSN), was used as a fuel for domestic water heating . Coal played an important role in industry in the 19th and 20th century. The predecessor of the European Union , the European Coal and Steel Community ,

8649-430: Was used for electricity generation. Coal burnt in coal power stations to generate electricity is called thermal coal . It is usually pulverized and then burned in a furnace with a boiler . The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam , which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process varies between about 25% and 50% depending on

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