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91-529: There is a large overlap and exchange between the ephemeral forms of effigies. Traditional holiday effigies are often politically charged, for instance, when the generalised figures Año Viejo (the Old Year) or Judas in Latin America are substituted by the effigy of a despised politician. Traditional forms are also borrowed for political protests. In India, for instance, effigies in protests regularly take

182-560: A female straw effigy or drowning it in a river, or both. It is a folk custom in Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, taking place on the day of the vernal equinox . Funeral effigies made from wood, cloth and wax played a role in the royal funeral rituals in early modern France and England. Following the medieval European doctrine of the double body of the king, these effigies represented the immortal and divine kingship. The effigy

273-736: A few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: Both sides agree that this canonical taxis was recognised by all in the era of the undivided Church. Further, they agree that Rome, as the Church that "presides in love" according to

364-468: A funeral effigy, for instance British prime minister Pitt the Elder , the naval hero Horatio Nelson , French emperor Napoleon, and Frances Stewart, Duchess of Richmond , who also had her parrot stuffed and displayed at her own request and expense. From the time of the funeral of Charles II in 1685, effigies were no longer placed on the coffin but were still made for later display. The effigy of Charles II

455-636: A layman as Pope Leo VIII . John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX travelled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage . With his long journey, he restored

546-470: A new year in spiritual purity. Some communities observe this ritual using various effigies, including the biblical Judas (who betrayed Jesus ). This custom, during which the effigy is burned on a stake, is called "Quema del Judas" ("the burning of Judas") in Uruguay and Argentina, and "Quema del Año Viejo" ("the burning of the old year") in other places. The burning of Judas was once widely practiced across

637-479: A passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile! According to the same book, Clement of Rome was ordained by Saint Peter as the bishop of Rome. For this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers: as the church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp

728-578: A political effigy is the figure of Guy Fawkes , one of the conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot who tried to assassinate King James I in 1605 by blowing up the House of Lords . Already a year later, the 5th of November was declared a holiday to celebrate the survival of the king and was celebrated with bonfires. Soon after, effigies of Guy Fawkes were burned. Traditionally, children make effigies from old clothing filled with straw to beg for "a penny for

819-406: A reminder of human mortality. In the field of numismatics , effigy describes the portrait on the obverse of a coin. A practice evident in reference literature of the 19th century, the obverse of a coin was said to depict "the ruler's effigy". The appearance and style of effigy used varies according to the preference of the monarch or ruler being depicted - for example, some, such as George VI of

910-609: A rival attraction for admirers of Nelson. A tomb effigy , in French gisant ("recumbent") is the usually life-size sculpted figure depicting the deceased on a tomb monument . Although these funeary and commemorative reliefs were first developed in Ancient Egyptian and Etruscan cultures, they appear most numerously in Western Europe tombs from the later 11th century, in a style that continued in use through

1001-590: A structure before Rome. In Rome, there were over time at various junctures rival claimants to be the rightful bishop, though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary Pope Victor I and listed them. Some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, but not necessarily monarchical bishops. Documents of

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1092-624: Is a very old and very widespread practice. It is reported that in 1328, the troops of Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV , on their campaign in Italy to unseat Pope John XXII , burned a straw puppet of the pope. Burning effigies in political protests is especially widespread in India and Pakistan. In the Philippines, the practice came up during the successful People Power Revolution against the regime of President Marcos . Since then effigy protests against

1183-469: Is addressed to Pope Cornelius , and affirmed his unique authority in the early Christian Church. Cornelius [the Bishop of Rome] was made bishop by the choice of God and of His Christ, by the favorable witness of almost all the clergy, by the votes of the people who were present, and by the assembly of ancient priests and good men. And he was made bishop when no one else had been made bishop before him when

1274-426: Is also burned in the Philippines. In Mexico, a hard papier-mache figure depicting the devil was used—representing Judas after he betrayed Jesus; and the figure wasn't just burned, but was blown to bits in the course of a fireworks display. The tradition of burning Guy Fawkes has been brought to New England, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and other British colonies. The Indian and Pakistani tradition of burning Ravana

1365-601: Is also practiced in Trinidad and in Edinburgh and Manchester, UK. In the 1970s German students established the burning of Winter in the form of a snowman at Lake Superior State University in Michigan, US. The Marzanna ritual represents the end of the dark days of winter, the victory over death, and the welcoming of the spring rebirth. Marzanna is a Slavic goddess of death, associated with winter. The rite involves burning

1456-572: Is an Easter -time ritual that originated in European Christian communities where an effigy of Judas Iscariot is burned. Other related mistreatment of Judas effigies include hanging, flogging, and exploding with fireworks. A similar ritual in Jewish tradition would be the hanging and burning an effigy of Haman and his ten sons during Purim , although this is not a widespread contemporary practice. Though not an official part of

1547-399: Is an emphasis on the social and political aspects of the depicted person. Tomb effigies and funeral effigies exhibit attire and office insignia that indicate social status; coin effigies are signs of sovereignty ; formal punishment of an effigy was synonymous to social death; popular punishment was meant to humiliate and ostracise the depicted; effigies in political protests ridicule and attack

1638-622: Is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan , the date of the Jewish Passover , a tradition handed down by John the Evangelist (see Easter controversy ). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the pope, is the system that has prevailed (see computus ). The Edict of Milan in 313 granted freedom to all religions in

1729-597: Is still practiced in a number of villages in the Pardubice Region . The Czech mint issued a gold coin in 2015 to commemorate this folk custom, which was nominated for UNESCO protection as part of that nation's cultural heritage. Judas burnings also took place in the district of Dingle , in Liverpool , England , in the early and mid-twentieth century, but was often stopped by the police. In Liverpool's South End bands of children still practiced this custom in

1820-699: Is the Holy See that is the sovereign entity under international law headquartered in the distinctively independent Vatican City, a city-state which forms a geographical enclave within the conurbation of Rome , established by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 between Fascist Italy and the Holy See to ensure its temporal and spiritual independence. The Holy See is recognized by its adherence at various levels to international organizations and by means of its diplomatic relations and political accords with many independent states. According to Catholic tradition ,

1911-688: The Christian world in England , Greece , Mexico , Brazil , Portugal , Germany , Austria , Czech Republic , Slovakia , Poland , Spain , Uruguay , Venezuela , Chile , Peru , Costa Rica , Cyprus where it is called 'lambratzia', the Philippines , Paraguay —where it is called 'Judas kái', Nigeria , and elsewhere. These folk traditions are still practiced today in many of those countries. The Czech tradition of drowning and burning an effigy of Judas ( vodění Jidáše )

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2002-597: The Edict of Thessalonica declared Nicene Christianity to be the state religion of the empire, with the name "Catholic Christians" reserved for those who accepted that faith. While the civil power in the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the church, and the patriarch of Constantinople , the capital, wielded much power, in the Western Roman Empire , the bishops of Rome were able to consolidate

2093-647: The Middle Ages , popes struggled with monarchs over power. From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon . The Avignon Papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of the Kingdom of France , alienating France's enemies, such as the Kingdom of England . The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the Treasury of Merit built up by

2184-467: The Renaissance and early modern period , and are still sometimes used. They typically represent the deceased in a state of "eternal repose", with hands folded in prayer, lying on a pillow, awaiting resurrection with a dog or lion at their feet. A husband and wife may be depicted lying side by side. A related type of tomb effigy, the cadaver monument , shows the corpse in a state of decomposition as

2275-554: The Tusculan Papacy . The papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, Pope John XII , held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran Palace . Emperor Otto I had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected

2366-578: The United Kingdom have preferred to be shown uncrowned, while others have favoured highly-formal representations. It can also be the case that the monarch's reign becomes long enough to merit issuing a succession of effigies so that their appearance continues to be current. Such has been the case for Queen Victoria (three effigies over 63 years) and Elizabeth II , who was depicted by five different effigies on British coins and three different effigies on British postage stamps between her ascension to

2457-488: The apostolic see of Rome was founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the first century. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in human history . In ancient times, the popes helped spread Christianity and intervened to find resolutions in various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages , they played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs. In addition to

2548-733: The approaching end of the world . Gregory's successors were largely dominated by the exarch of Ravenna , the Byzantine emperor 's representative in the Italian Peninsula . These humiliations, the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in the face of the Muslim conquests , and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the Lombards , made Pope Stephen II turn from Emperor Constantine V . He appealed to

2639-420: The cardinals , who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of Catholic Ecumenical Councils over the pope's. Conciliarism holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century with Jean Gerson as its leading spokesman. The failure of Conciliarism to gain broad acceptance after

2730-517: The primacy of the bishop of Rome is largely derived from his role as the apostolic successor to Saint Peter , to whom primacy was conferred by Jesus, who gave Peter the Keys of Heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing", naming him as the "rock" upon which the Church would be built. While his office is called the papacy , the jurisdiction of the episcopal see is called the Holy See . It

2821-473: The unification of Italy . In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See established Vatican City as an independent city-state , guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule. In 1950, Pope Pius XII defined the Assumption of Mary as dogma, the only time a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared. The Primacy of St. Peter ,

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2912-463: The visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church . He is also known as the supreme pontiff , Roman pontiff , or sovereign pontiff . From the eighth century until 1870, the pope was the sovereign or head of state of the Papal States , and since 1929 of the much smaller Vatican City state. The reigning pope is Francis , who was elected on 13 March 2013 . From a Catholic viewpoint,

3003-585: The "Old St. Peter's Basilica" on the location of St. Peter's tomb, as held and given to him by Rome's Christian community, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero , although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine. Although open to historical debate, first-century Christian communities may have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as guides of their local churches. Gradually, episcopal sees were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such

3094-732: The 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation . Various Antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378–1417). It came to a close when the Council of Constance , at the high point of Concilliarism, decided among the papal claimants. The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern emperor tried to force

3185-420: The 1st century and early second century indicate that the bishop of Rome had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, as even a letter from the bishop, or patriarch, of Antioch acknowledged the bishop of Rome as "a first among equals", though the detail of what this meant is unclear. Sources suggest that at first, the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, with

3276-727: The British colonies in New England, effigy performances gained prominence as an effective tool in the protests against the 1765 Stamp Act , leading to the American Revolution and the founding of the United States of America. Afterwards, it became an established form of political expression in US politics, and almost every US President has been burned in effigy at some point in his career. The best known British example of

3367-465: The Catholic faith, and because he heads the world's largest non-government provider of education and health care , with a vast network of charities. The word pope derives from Ancient Greek πάππας (páppas)  'father'. In the early centuries of Christianity, this title was applied, especially in the East, to all bishops and other senior clergy, and later became reserved in

3458-465: The Christian community, the bishops as a body have succeeded to the body of the apostles ( apostolic succession ) and the bishop of Rome has succeeded to Saint Peter. Scriptural texts proposed in support of Peter's special position in relation to the church include: I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you

3549-684: The Church between the years 900 and 1050, centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform, the most important being the Abbey of Cluny , which spread its ideals throughout Europe. This reform movement gained strength with the election of Pope Gregory VII in 1073, who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the Gregorian Reform , in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline, including clerical celibacy . This conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as

3640-458: The Church's ordination. Irenaeus of Lyons ( c.  130 – c. 202 AD), a prominent Christian theologian of the second century, provided a list of early popes in his work Against Heresies III . The list covers the period from Saint Peter to Pope Eleutherius who served from 174 to 189 AD. The blessed apostles [Peter and Paul], then, having founded and built up the Church [in Rome], committed into

3731-516: The Donatists (367 A.D) . In the book, Optatus wrote about the position of the bishop of Rome in maintaining the unity of the Church. You cannot deny that you are aware that in the city of Rome the episcopal chair was given first to Peter; the chair in which Peter sat, the same who was head—that is why he is also called Cephas [‘Rock’]—of all the apostles; the one chair in which unity is maintained by all. The Catholic Church teaches that, within

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3822-661: The Easter liturgical cycle, the custom is typically a part of the reenactment of the story of the Passion that is practiced by the faithful during Easter. Customs vary, but the effigy of Judas is typically hanged (reenacting Matthew 27:5 ) on Good Friday , then burned on the night of Easter Sunday. In many parts of Latin America this practice occurs on the eve of the New Year as a symbol of ridding one's self of evil and beginning

3913-729: The Eastern Church to reunify with the West. First in the Second Council of Lyon (1272–1274) and secondly in the Council of Florence (1431–1449). Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire. Protestant Reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and characterized

4004-533: The First World War, when demonstrators burned an effigy of British High Commissioner for Egypt Lord Allenby during a protest against the presence of British troops in the city. In the second half of the 20th century it became custom to portray contemporary enemies of Egypt as the al-Limby. During the Arab Spring , effigies of President Mubarak and other Egyptian politicians were exhibited and burned as

4095-676: The Franks to protect his lands. Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the papacy. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne (800) as emperor, he established the precedent that, in Western Europe, no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope. The low point of the papacy was 867–1049. This period includes the Saeculum obscurum , the Crescentii era, and

4186-597: The Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and King Henry I of England , known as the Investiture controversy , was only resolved in 1122, by the Concordat of Worms , in which Pope Callixtus II decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders, and temporal rulers by lay investiture. Soon after, Pope Alexander III began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law . Since

4277-680: The Roman Empire, beginning the Peace of the Church . In 325, the First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism , declaring trinitarianism dogmatic, and in its sixth canon recognized the special role of the Sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Great defenders of Trinitarian faith included the popes, especially Liberius , who was exiled to Berea by Constantius II for his Trinitarian faith, Damasus I , and several other bishops. In 380,

4368-558: The Romans , and according to tradition Paul was martyred there. During the 1st century of the Church ( c.  30–130 ), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. The church there, at the end of the century, wrote an epistle to the Church in Corinth intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier. There are

4459-560: The West to the bishop of Rome during the reign of Pope Leo I (440–461), a reservation made official only in the 11th century. The earliest record of the use of the title of 'pope' was in regard to the by-then-deceased patriarch of Alexandria , Heraclas (232–248). The earliest recorded use of the title "pope" in English dates to the mid-10th century, when it was used in reference to the 7th century Roman Pope Vitalian in an Old English translation of Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . The Catholic Church teaches that

4550-458: The acknowledgement of the bishop of Rome as an influential figure within the Church, with some emphasizing the importance of adherence to Rome's teachings and decisions. Such references served to establish the concept of papal primacy and have continued to inform Catholic theology and practice. In his letters, Cyprian of Carthage ( c. 210 – 258 AD) recognized the bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter in his Letter 55 (c. 251 AD), which

4641-431: The al-Limby. Burning effigies is part of many rituals to mark the change of the seasons, performed all over Europe in locally distinct traditions. The figures usually personify adverse forces of life (winter, the old year, the witch, Judas Iscariot ) and their burning marks and celebrates the annual cycle of life—death and rebirth, the defeat of winter and the return of spring. Most traditions are staged around New Year, at

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4732-435: The authority of the church in Rome. In this work, Tertullian said that the Church in Rome has the authority of the Apostles because of its apostolic foundation. Since, moreover, you are close upon Italy, you have Rome, from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority (of apostles themselves). How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures

4823-407: The beginning of the 7th century, Islamic conquests had succeeded in controlling much of the southern Mediterranean , and represented a threat to Christianity. In 1095, the Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos , asked for military aid from Pope Urban II in the ongoing Byzantine–Seljuq wars . Urban, at the council of Clermont , called the First Crusade to assist the Byzantine Empire to regain

4914-428: The consensus among scholars being that by the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters, whose duties of office overlapped or were indistinguishable from one another. Some say that there was probably "no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later." In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on

5005-418: The controversial doctrinal basis of the pope's authority, continues to divide the eastern and western churches and to separate Protestants from Rome. The writings of several Early Church fathers contain references to the authority and unique position held by the bishops of Rome, providing valuable insight into the recognition and significance of the papacy during the early Christian era. These sources attest to

5096-407: The end of Carnival or in the week before Easter. Many of these traditions have been exported as people migrated to other countries. European settlers brought their traditions to the colonies, where they might have merged with local traditions. In countries of Latin America, the Spanish tradition of burning Año Viejo (the Old Year) on New Year Eve and Judas on Good Friday is widely practiced. Judas

5187-455: The episcopal see in Rome can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century. The writings of Irenaeus , a Church Father who wrote around 180 AD, reflect a belief that Peter "founded and organized" the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. The Church of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians (which is traditionally attributed to Clement of Rome c.  96 ) about

5278-520: The established church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. Pope Gregory I ( c.  540–604 ) administered the church with strict reform. From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook; his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles , potent relics , demons , angels , ghosts, and

5369-549: The expansion of Christian faith and doctrine , modern popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue , charitable work , and the defence of human rights. Over time, the papacy accrued broad secular and political influence , eventually rivalling those of territorial rulers. In recent centuries, the temporal authority of the papacy has declined and the office is now largely focused on religious matters. By contrast, papal claims of spiritual authority have been increasingly firmly expressed over time, culminating in 1870 with

5460-412: The festivities. The tradition is featured in the 1974 Venezuelan homonymous film La quema de Judas (English: The burning of Judas ). Stoning of the Devil - a similar ritual performed by Muslim pilgrims during Hajj. Pope The pope ( Latin : papa , from Ancient Greek : πάππας , romanized :  páppas , lit.   'father') is the bishop of Rome and

5551-427: The form of the ten-headed demon king Ravana , as they figure in the traditional Ramlila . In Mexico and the United States piñatas depicting a politician are sometimes taken to protests and beaten to a pulp. Procedures of formal and popular justice are appropriated when the effigy of a politician in a protest figures in a mock trial, mock execution and mock funeral. In all cases, except the traditional effigies, there

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5642-425: The gates of hell shall not prevail against it! Matthew 16:18. The successor of Peter was Linus, and his successors in unbroken continuity were these:— Clement, Anacletus, Evaristus... Eusebius ( c. 260/265 – 339) mentions Linus as Saint Peter's successor and Clement as the third bishop of Rome in his book Church History . As recorded by Eusebius, Clement worked with Saint Paul as his "co-laborer". As to

5733-449: The guy", and communities build their own bonfires. Currently, Lewes , on the south coast of England has the most elaborate celebrations of Guy Fawkes Night . Competing bonfire societies make effigies of important and unpopular figures in current affairs and burn them alongside effigies of Guy Fawkes and the Pope . In Port Said , Egypt, the al-Limby (formerly known as Allenby) is burned during Spring Festival. The tradition started after

5824-405: The hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy. To him succeeded Anacletus ; and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric.   ... To this Clement there succeeded Eviristus . Alexander followed Evaristus; then, sixth from the apostles, Sixtus was appointed; after him, Telephorus , who

5915-416: The honour of the targeted politician. The word efigy is first documented in English in 1539 and comes, perhaps via French , from the Latin singular form effigies , meaning "copy, image, likeness, portrait, and statue". This spelling was originally used in English for singular senses: even a single image was "the effigies of ...". (This spelling seems to have been later reanalyzed as a plural, creating

6006-411: The increasingly assertive European nation states , the popes focused on spiritual issues. In 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for the most solemn occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a definition of faith or morals. Later the same year, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed

6097-417: The influence and power they already possessed. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , barbarian tribes were converted to Arian Christianity or Nicene Christianity; Clovis I , king of the Franks , was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to the mainstream church rather than Arianism, allying himself with the papacy. Other tribes, such as the Visigoths , later abandoned Arianism in favour of

6188-520: The late twentieth century. The last burning of the Judas was in 1971 and was conducted by local legend Alan Rietdyk on waste ground between Prophet Street and Northumberland Street in the Liverpool 8 area. The burning of Judas is not traditional to England, although a very similar custom of burning Catholic rebel Guy Fawkes in effigy exists. The practice of burning an effigy of the Pope Paul V also continues to exist in England, where as many as 50,000 Protestants gather on Bonfire Night in Lewes to observe

6279-405: The leadership of worldwide Church. James the Just , known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honoured as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his Epistle to

6370-419: The name of Jesus Christ, the Son of the Father: to those who are united, both according to the flesh and spirit, to every one of His commandments; Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 AD), in his Letter 53, wrote a list of 38 popes from Saint Peter to Siricius. The order of this list differs from the lists of Irenaeus and the Annuario Pontificio . Augustine's list claims that Linus was succeeded by Clement and Clement

6461-444: The old Christian territories, especially Jerusalem. With the East–West Schism , the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed . Popes had galled the Byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the Exarchate of Ravenna , and driving into Greek Italy. In

6552-400: The pastoral office, the office of shepherding the Church, that was held by the apostles, as a group or "college" with Saint Peter as their head, is now held by their successors, the bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) as their head. Thus is derived another title by which the pope is known, that of "supreme pontiff". The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as

6643-490: The persecution of Christians in Rome as the "struggles in our time" and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, "first, the greatest and most just columns", the "good apostles" Peter and Paul. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement; in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans, he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, such as Emperor Constantine's erection of

6734-440: The phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium. In AD 195, Pope Victor I, in what

6825-545: The pope as the antichrist . Popes instituted a Catholic Reformation (1560–1648), which addressed the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III initiated the Council of Trent (1545–1563), whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed papal claims. Gradually forced to give up secular power to

6916-412: The position of Fabian , that is to say, the position of Peter and the office of the bishop's chair, was vacant. But the position once has been filled by the will of God and that appointment has been ratified by the consent of us all, if anyone wants to be made bishop after that, it has to be done outside the church; if a man does not uphold the unity of the Church's unity, it is not possible for him to have

7007-538: The prestige of the papacy in Northern Europe. From the 7th century, it became common for European monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms, their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy. This practice had become common because often the prelates and secular rulers were also participants in public life. To combat this and other practices that had been seen as corrupting

7098-414: The proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for rare occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra —literally "from the chair (of Saint Peter) "—to issue a formal definition of faith or morals. The pope is considered one of the world's most powerful people due to the extensive diplomatic, cultural, and spiritual influence of his position on both 1.3   billion Catholics and those outside

7189-547: The rest of his followers, Paul testifies that Crescens was sent to Gaul; but Linus, whom he mentions in the Second Epistle to Timothy as his companion at Rome, was Peter’s successor in the episcopate of the church there, as has already been shown. Clement also, who was appointed third bishop of the church at Rome, was, as Paul testifies, his co-laborer and fellow-soldier. Tertullian ( c. 155 – c. 220 AD) wrote in his work " The Prescription Against Heretics " about

7280-456: The saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences , reducing one's time in purgatory . The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. The popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences. Popes also contended with

7371-617: The shape of an animal or human. In the past, criminals sentenced to death in absentia might be officially executed "in effigy" as a symbolic act. In southern India, effigies of the demon-king Ravana from the epic poem the Ramayana are traditionally burnt during the festival of Navrati . A wicker man was a large human-shaped wicker statue allegedly used in Celtic paganism for human sacrifice by burning it, when loaded with captives. Burning of Judas The burning of Judas

7462-522: The singular effigy .) In effigie was probably understood as a Latin phrase until the 18th century. The word occurs in Shakespeare 's As You Like It of 1600 (II, vii, 193), where scansion suggests that the second syllable is to be emphasized, as in the Latin pronunciation (but unlike the modern English pronunciation). Hanging or burning the effigy of a political enemy to ridicule and dishonour them

7553-484: The successive presidents developed into elaborate spectacles. US President George W. Bush and President Barack Obama have been burned in effigy numerous times in protests against military operations and occupations of Afghanistan and Iraq in the countries in the region as well as elsewhere. During the Arab Spring of 2011 and onward, effigies of the countries' leaders have been hanged in Egypt, Libya, Yemen and Syria. In

7644-416: The throne in 1953 and her death in 2022. Effigy mound is a term used in the archaeology of (mainly) Pre-Columbian America for a large earthwork in the shape of a stylized animal, symbol, human, or other figure and generally containing one or more human burials. Effigy vessel is a term used in the archeology of (mainly) Pre-Columbian America for ceramic or stone containers, pots, vases, cups, etc., in

7735-478: The visible head of the Church, and the Catholic Church's dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the pope as successor of Peter, in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles. Some historians argue against the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, noting that

7826-456: The will of Him that wills all things which are according to the love of Jesus Christ our God, which also presides in the place of the region of the Romans, worthy of God, worthy of honour, worthy of the highest happiness, worthy of praise, worthy of obtaining her every desire, worthy of being deemed holy, and which presides over love, is named from Christ, and from the Father, which I also salute in

7917-528: Was displayed over his tomb until the early 19th century, when all effigies were removed from the abbey. Nelson's effigy was a tourist attraction, commissioned the year after his death and his burial in St Paul's Cathedral in 1805. The government had decided that major public figures with State funerals should in future be buried at St Paul's. Concerned for their revenue from visitors, the Abbey decided it needed

8008-415: Was dressed in the royal regalia and waited upon as if alive, while the monarch's physical remains remained hidden in the coffin. After the coronation of the new king, these effigies were stored away. The museum of Westminster Abbey has a collection of English royal wax effigies reaching back to Edward III of England , who died in 1377. In the 18th century also other important personalities were honoured with

8099-426: Was gloriously martyred; then Hyginus ; after him, Pius ; then after him, Anicetus . Soter having succeeded Anicetus, Eleutherius does now, in the twelfth place from the apostles, hold the inheritance of the episcopate. Ignatius of Antioch (died c. 108/140 AD) wrote in his " Epistle to the Romans" that the church in Rome is "the church that presides over love". ...the Church which is beloved and enlightened by

8190-513: Was placed therein by John; as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner by Peter. Optatus the bishop of Milevis in Numidia (today's Algeria) and a contemporary of the Donatist schism , presents a detailed analysis of the origins, beliefs, and practices of the Donatists, as well as the events and debates surrounding the schism, in his book The Schism of

8281-462: Was succeeded by Anacletus as in the list of Eusebius , while the other two lists switch the positions of Clement and Anacletus. For if the lineal succession of bishops is to be taken into account, with how much more certainty and benefit to the Church do we reckon back till we reach Peter himself, to whom, as bearing in a figure the whole Church, the Lord said: Upon this rock will I build my Church, and

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