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81-437: The Egtved Girl [ˈektveð] ( c.  1390  – c.  1370 BCE ) was a Nordic Bronze Age girl whose well-preserved remains were discovered outside Egtved , Denmark in 1921. Aged 16–18 at death, she was slim, 160 centimetres (63 in) tall, had short, blond hair and well-trimmed nails. Her burial has been dated by dendrochronology to 1370 BCE. She was discovered together with cremated remains of

162-406: A hair net . Before the coffin was closed, she was covered with a blanket and an ox hide. Flowering yarrow (indicating a summer burial) and a bucket of beer made of wheat, honey, bog-myrtle and cowberries were placed atop. Her distinctive outfit, which caused a sensation when it was unearthed in the 1920s, is the best-preserved example of a style now known to be common in northern Europe during

243-542: A "Homeric burial" due to its close similarity to contemporary elite burials in Greece and Italy. In the Nordic Bronze Age, both agriculture (including cultivation of wheat , millet , and barley ) and animal husbandry (keeping of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep and pigs) were practiced. Fishing and hunting were also sources of food, which included shellfish, deer, elk, and other wild animals. There

324-522: A Minoan/Mycenaean template." During the 15th–14th centuries BC the Nordic Bronze Age and Mycenaean Greece shared the use of similar flange-hilted swords, as well as select elements of shared lifestyle, such as campstools, drinking vessels decorated with solar symbols, and tools for body care including razors and tweezers. This "Mycenaean package", including spiral decoration, was directly adopted in southern Scandinavia after 1500 BC, creating "a specific and selective Nordic variety of Mycenaean high culture" that

405-585: A child in a barrow approximately 30 metres (98 ft) wide and 4 metres (13 ft) high. Only the girl's hair, brain, teeth, nails and a little of her skin remain preserved. The barrow was excavated in 1921, and a coffin was found in an east-west alignment. It was sealed and transported to the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen, where it was opened, revealing the Egtved Girl. In

486-659: A coherent archaeological culture in its later phase. The origin of the "Bell Beaker" artefacts has been traced to the early 3rd millennium, with early examples of the "maritime" Bell Beaker design having been found at the Tagus estuary in Portugal, radiocarbon dated to c.  28th century BC. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around

567-492: A kind of Bell Beaker civilization of continental scale". The Bell Beaker artefacts (at least in their early phase) are not distributed across a contiguous area, as is usual for archaeological cultures, but are found in insular concentrations scattered across Europe. Their presence is not associated with a characteristic type of architecture or of burial customs. However, the Bell Beaker culture does appear to coalesce into

648-609: A migration of people from the north or northeast and the emergence of stone cist burials, leading to the start of the Nordic Bronze Age. The study found that the LNBA phase III cluster forms the predominant source in supervised ancestry modelling for future populations in Iron Age Scandinavia and Viking Age Scandinavia, as well as non-Scandinavian populations with Scandinavian or Germanic association, for example Anglo-Saxons and Goths . These findings are in accordance with

729-646: A period of cultural contact in Atlantic and Western Europe following a prolonged period of relative isolation during the Neolithic . In its mature phase, the Bell Beaker culture is understood as not only a collection of characteristic artefact types, but a complex cultural phenomenon involving metalwork in copper , arsenical bronze and gold , long-distance exchange networks, archery , specific types of ornamentation, and (presumably) shared ideological, cultural and religious ideas, as well as social stratification and

810-670: A prestige cult related to the production and consumption of beer, or trading links such as those demonstrated by finds made along the seaways of Atlantic Europe. Palynological studies including analysis of pollen, associated with the spread of beakers, certainly suggests increased growing of barley, which may be associated with beer brewing. Noting the distribution of Beakers was highest in areas of transport routes, including fording sites, river valleys and mountain passes, Beaker 'folk' were suggested to be originally bronze traders, who subsequently settled within local Neolithic or early Chalcolithic cultures, creating local styles. Close analysis of

891-733: A sign or symbol akin to the Hittite hieroglyph meaning ‘divine’ found among the rock carvings at Fossum in Sweden, associated with possible images of divinities. According to Kristiansen & Larsson (2005), "From the eighteenth century BC until the beginning of the fifteenth century BC networks were operating between the Hittites, the steppe and the Carpathians, with direct link to northern Europe. During this period basic institutions were transmitted north in exchange for amber and horses, while at

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972-521: A study from 2018 found that it was associated with genetically diverse populations. The Bell Beaker culture was partly preceded by and contemporaneous with the Corded Ware culture , and in north-central Europe preceded by the Funnelbeaker culture . The name Glockenbecher was coined for its distinctive style of beakers by Paul Reinecke in 1900. The term's English translation Bell Beaker

1053-480: A trading post for people from Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea region, as well as a cult centre and seat of a ruling elite. Associated with Nordic Bronze Age settlements are burial cairns, mounds and cemeteries, with interments including oak coffins and urn burials; other settlement associations include rock carvings, or bronze hoards in wetland sites. Some burial mounds are especially large and, with respect to

1134-642: A two-wheeled vehicle with four-spoked wheels is also known from Kültepe in Central Anatolia, dating from c.  1900 BC , concurrent with the appearance of steppe horses in this region. In contrast, chariot wheels from the Sintashta culture and Andronovo cultures near the Urals had more than four spokes. Miniature spoked-wheel models have been found in the Carpathian Basin dating to

1215-571: A wetter, colder climate and a more radical climate change began around 650 BC. A June 2015 study published in Nature found the people of the Nordic Bronze Age to be closely genetically related to the Corded Ware culture , the Beaker culture and the Unetice culture. People of the Nordic Bronze Age and Corded Ware show the highest lactose tolerance among Bronze Age Europeans. The study suggested that

1296-407: Is evidence that oxen were used as draught animals; domesticated dogs were common, but horses were rarer and probably status symbols. Scandinavian Bronze Age sites present a rich and well-preserved legacy of bronze and gold objects. These valuable metals were all imported, primarily from Central Europe, but they were often crafted locally and the craftsmanship and metallurgy of the Nordic Bronze Age

1377-508: Is rather derivative of Corded Ware traditions. British and American archaeology since the 1960s have been sceptical about prehistoric migration in general, so the idea of "Bell Beaker Folk" lost ground. A theory of cultural contact de-emphasizing population movement was presented by Colin Burgess and Stephen Shennan in the mid-1970s. Under the "pots, not people" theory, the Beaker culture

1458-662: Is the size of a megaron in contemporary Mycenean palaces". Larger settlements are also known (such as Hallunda and Apalle in Sweden and Voldtofte in Denmark), as well as fortified sites, specialist workshops for metalwork and ceramic production, and dedicated cult houses. Settlements were geographically located on higher ground, and tended to be concentrated near the sea. Certain settlements functioned as regional centres of power, trade, craft production, and ritual activity. The Bronze Age fortified town of Hünenburg bei Watenstedt in northern Germany (12th c. BC) has been described as

1539-608: The Bell Beaker complex or Bell Beaker phenomenon , is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the very beginning of the European Bronze Age , arising from around 2800 BC. Bell Beaker culture lasted in Britain from c.  2450 BC, with the appearance of single burial graves, until as late as 1800 BC, but in continental Europe only until 2300 BC, when it

1620-657: The Bronze Age . The good preservation of the Egtved Girl is due to the acidic bog conditions of the soil, which is a common condition of this locale. The outfit was reconstructed for the National Museum of Denmark by the Lejre Experimental Centre and is on display there. A reconstructed set of clothes, as well as details of the excavation, are on display in the Egtved Girl's museum at the excavation site. Initial work by Frei et al in 2015, since contradicted, examined chemical isotopes of strontium from

1701-711: The Germanic peoples . The Nordic Bronze Age is a successor of the Corded Ware culture in southern Scandinavia and Northern Germany . It appears to represent a fusion of elements from the Corded Ware culture and the preceding Pitted Ware culture . The decisive factor that triggered the change from the Chalcolithic Battle Axe culture into the Nordic Bronze Age is often believed to have been metallurgical influence as well as general cultural influence from Central Europe , similar in custom to those of

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1782-497: The Hallstatt culture . Copper was imported from Central Europe and Italy. There is no coherent knowledge about the Nordic Bronze Age religion, its pantheon , world view, and how it was practised. Written sources are lacking, but archaeological finds draw a vague and fragmented picture of the religious practices and the nature of the religion in this period. Only some possible sects and only certain possible tribes are known. Some of

1863-525: The Pre-Roman Iron Age . Settlement in the Nordic Bronze Age period consisted mainly of single farmsteads, which usually consisted of a longhouse plus additional four-post built structures ( helms ). Longhouses were initially two aisled, and after c.  1300 BC three aisled structure became normal. Some longhouses were exceptionally large (up to about 500 m in area), and have been described as "chiefly halls", "the sitting area of which

1944-668: The Sintashta culture , and its succeeding Andronovo culture , represented an eastward migration of Corded Ware peoples. In the June 2015 study, the remains of nine individuals of the Northern Bronze Age and earlier Neolithic cultures in Denmark and Sweden from ca. 2850 BC to 500 BC, were analyzed. Among the Neolithic individuals, the three males were found to be carrying haplogroup I1 , R1a1a1 and R1b1a1a2a1a1 . Among

2025-634: The Tagus estuary were maritime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where 'enclaves' were established in south-western Spain and southern France around the Golfe du Lion and into the Po Valley in Italy , probably via ancient western Alpine trade routes used to distribute jadeite axes. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica . The enclave established in southern Brittany

2106-598: The Tumulus culture and Mycenaean Greece . The Nordic Bronze Age exported amber through the Amber Road , and imported metals in return. During the time of the Nordic Bronze Age, metals, such as copper , tin and gold , were imported into Scandinavia on a massive scale. Copper was imported from Sardinia , Iberia and Cyprus . The trade network was briefly disrupted during the Late Bronze Age collapse in

2187-812: The Unetice culture , since they brought customs that were derived from Unetice or from local interpretations of the Unetice culture located in North Western Germany. The metallurgical influences from Central Europe are especially noticeable. The Bronze Age in Scandinavia can be said to begin shortly after 2000 BC with the introduction and use of bronze tools, followed by a more systematic adoption of bronze metalworking technology from 1750 BC. The Nordic Bronze Age maintained close trade links with Mycenaean Greece , with whom it shares several striking similarities. Some cultural similarities between

2268-399: The Unetice culture . Oscar Montelius , who coined the term used for the period, divided it into six distinct sub-periods in his piece Om tidsbestämning inom bronsåldern med särskilt avseende på Skandinavien ("On Bronze Age dating with particular focus on Scandinavia") published in 1885, which is still in wide use. His relative chronology has held up well against radiocarbon dating, with

2349-405: The migrationism vs. diffusionism debate in 20th-century archaeology , variously described as due to migration, possibly of small groups of warriors, craftsmen or traders, or due to the diffusion of ideas and object exchange. Given the unusual form and fabric of Beaker pottery, and its abrupt appearance in the archaeological record , along with a characteristic group of other artefacts, known as

2430-490: The 12th century BC. Evidence for horse-drawn chariots appears in Scandinavia c.  1700 BC , around the same time or earlier than it appears in Greece. In both cases the chariots appear to have come from the region of the Carpathian Basin or the western steppe. Cheek-pieces and whip handles in Denmark dating from this time feature curvilinear 'wave-band' designs that are also found on contemporary artefacts from

2511-573: The 20th–19th centuries BC, and cheek-pieces are known there from c. 2000 BC. According to Maran (2020, 2014) chariots probably originated "in the entire zone between the Carpathian Basin and the Southern Ural", rather than just in the Ural region, and spread southwards from there to Greece and the Near East. In the case of Greece this is given some support by analyses of skeletal material from

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2592-523: The Amber Road and other trade routes that were important for the continuous prosperity of their society. Many of the stone carvings from the Nordic Bronze Age depict boats in great numbers as well as groups of armed men manning the boats. Finds such as the Hjortspring boat , among others, give further credence to the theory that Bronze Age people in Scandinavia relied heavily on naval dominance of

2673-412: The Bell Beaker "package", the explanation for the Beaker culture until the last decades of the 20th century was to interpret it as the migration of one group of people across Europe. Gordon Childe interpreted the presence of its characteristic artefact as the intrusion of "missionaries" expanding from Iberia along the Atlantic coast, spreading knowledge of copper metallurgy. Stephen Shennan interpreted

2754-534: The Bell Beaker culture was intrusive to southern Germany, and existed contemporarily with the local Corded Ware culture . The burial ritual which typified Bell Beaker sites appears to be intrusive to Western Europe, from Central Europe. Individual inhumations, often under tumuli with the inclusion of weapons contrast markedly to the preceding Neolithic traditions of often collective, weaponless burials in Atlantic/Western Europe. Such an arrangement

2835-724: The Bell Beaker zone. This overturns a previous conviction that single burial was unknown in the early or southern Bell Beaker zone, and so must have been adopted from Corded Ware in the contact zone of the Lower Rhine, and transmitted westwards along the exchange networks from the Rhine to the Loire, and northwards across the English Channel to Britain. The earliest copper production in Ireland, identified at Ross Island in

2916-556: The Carpathian Basin and Greece, including in the elite shaft graves at Mycenae. These designs subsequently appear on Nordic Bronze Age metalwork, including on the gold disc of the Trundholm Sun Chariot . Engraved depictions of chariots appear in Scandinavian rock art from c.  1700 BC onwards, as they do on engraved stone stelae from Mycenae. The introduction of the chariot in Scandinavia coincided with

2997-567: The Carpathian Basin, the Bell Beaker culture came in contact with communities such as the Vučedol culture ( c.  3000 –2200 BC), which had evolved partly from the Yamnaya culture (c. 3300–2600 BC). In contrast to the early Bell Beaker preference for the dagger and bow, the favourite weapon in the Carpathian Basin during the first half of the third millennium was the shaft-hole axe. Here, Bell Beaker people assimilated local pottery forms such as

3078-488: The Egtved Girl's teeth, fingernails, hair and clothing, and based on these, proposed that she had likely come from the Black Forest region of Germany, but married and moved to Denmark, subsequently traveling back and forth between the two areas. However, Thomsen and Andreasen demonstrated in 2019 that the strontium isotopic data obtained from the area surrounding the grave and used by Frei et al for comparison against

3159-666: The Egtved Girl. Nordic Bronze Age Chronological history The Nordic Bronze Age (also Northern Bronze Age , or Scandinavian Bronze Age ) is a period of Scandinavian prehistory from c.  2000/1750–500 BC . The Nordic Bronze Age culture emerged about 1750 BC as a continuation of the Battle Axe culture (the Scandinavian Corded Ware variant) and Bell Beaker culture , as well as from influence that came from Central Europe . This influence most likely came from people similar to those of

3240-552: The Egtved area, and did not come far abroad, as proposed by Frei et al. Thomsen and Andreasen's results show that the girl did live about half the year in one area – likely the river valley in Egtved – and the other half of the year in another place – likely the local plateau, perhaps in the practice of transhumance farming and seasonal pastoral movement within a small area. In a 2019 article based on strontium isotope analysis, Sophie Bergerbrant suggests an origin of Sweden or Norway for

3321-572: The LNBA phase I cluster belonged to haplogroup R1a. LNBA phase II - Dated to 4,300–3,700 cal. bp and archaeologically associated with the Flint Dagger period (c. 2300-2000 BC). The males in the LNBA phase II cluster belonged to haplogroup R1b. LNBA phase III - A final stage from around 4,000 cal. bp onwards, in which a distinct cluster of Scandinavian individuals dominated by males with I1 Y-haplogroups appears. Archaeologically associated with

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3402-662: The Late Bronze Age which she calls the Lady of the Battle and of the Horse. Sacrifices , including of animals, weapons, jewellery, and humans, often had a strong connection to bodies of water. Water bodies such as bogs, ponds, streams, and lakes were often used as ceremonial and holy places for sacrifices and many artifacts have been found in such locations. Ritual instruments such as bronze lurs have been uncovered, especially in

3483-410: The Mediterranean, using sea routes that had long been in operation, was directly associated with the quest for copper and other rare raw materials. While Bell Beaker ( Glockenbecher ) was introduced as a term for the artefact type at the beginning of the 20th century, recognition of an archaeological Bell Beaker culture has long been controversial. Its spread has been one of the central questions of

3564-523: The Nordic Bronze Age, the Sintashta / Andronovo culture and peoples of the Rigveda have also been detected. The Nordic Bronze Age region included part of northern Germany, and some scholars also include sites in what is now Estonia , Finland and Pomerania as part of its cultural sphere . The people of the Nordic Bronze Age were actively engaged in the export of amber , and imported metals in return, becoming expert metalworkers. With respect to

3645-668: The Tagus estuary in Portugal. Turek sees late Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of seaborne contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the first half of the third millennium BC. More recent analyses of the "Beaker phenomenon", published since the 2000s, have persisted in describing the origin of the "Beaker phenomenon" as arising from a synthesis of elements, representing "an idea and style uniting different regions with different cultural traditions and background." The initial moves from

3726-607: The amount of gold and bronze in them, extraordinarily rich for this time period. Examples of prominent burial mounds include the Håga mound and Kivik King's Grave in Sweden, and the Lusehøj in Denmark. A minimum of 50,000 burial mounds were constructed between 1500 and 1150 BC in Denmark alone. Oak coffin burials dating from the 14th–13th centuries BC contained well-preserved mummified bodies, along with their clothing and burial goods. The bodies were intentionally mummified by watering

3807-1100: The archaeological and linguistic associations of the Nordic Bronze Age with early Germanic speakers. Bell Beaker culture Vučedol culture , Nagyrév culture , Ottomány culture , Wietenberg culture , Vatya culture Bell Beaker culture , Únětice culture , Nordic Bronze Age , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture Bronze Age Britain , Bronze Age France , Armorican Tumulus culture , Bronze Age Iberia , Argaric culture , Hilversum culture , Atlantic Bronze Age Nuragic civilization , Polada culture , Terramare culture , Proto-Villanovan culture , Apennine culture , Canegrate culture , Golasecca culture Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Bell Beaker culture , also known as

3888-424: The artefacts as belonging to a mobile cultural elite imposing itself over the indigenous substrate populations. Similarly, Sangmeister (1972) interpreted the "Beaker folk" ( Glockenbecherleute ) as small groups of highly mobile traders and artisans. Christian Strahm (1995) used the term "Bell Beaker phenomenon" ( Glockenbecher-Phänomen ) as a compromise in order to avoid the term "culture". Heyd (1998) concluded that

3969-560: The best clues come from tumuli , elaborate artifacts , votive offerings , and rock carvings scattered across Northern Europe. There are many rock carving sites from this period. The rock carvings have been dated through comparison with depicted artifacts, for example bronze axes and swords. Many rock carvings are uncanny in resemblance to those found in the Corded Ware culture . There are also numerous Nordic Stone Age rock carvings, those of northern Scandinavia mostly portray elk . Many finds, especially rock carvings, indicate sun worship

4050-654: The burial mounds to create a bog-like, oxygen-free environment within the graves. This practice may have been stimulated by cultural influence from Egypt, as it coincided with the appearance of Egyptian artefacts in Scandinavia and the appearance of Baltic amber in Egypt (e.g. in the tomb of Tutankhamun ). However, intentional mummification within oak coffin burials has also been noted in Britain at an earlier date (c. 2300 BC). The Late Bronze Age King's Grave of Seddin in northern Germany (9th century BC) has been described as

4131-413: The coffin, the girl was wrapped in an ox hide. She wore a loose, short tunic with sleeves reaching the elbow. She had a bare waist and wore a short string skirt. She had bronze bracelets, and a woollen belt with a large disc decorated with spirals and a spike. At her feet were the cremated remains of a child aged 5 to 6. By her head, there was a small birch bark box that contained an awl , bronze pins, and

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4212-409: The emergence of regional elites. A wide range of regional diversity persists within the widespread late Beaker culture, particularly in local burial styles (including incidences of cremation rather than burial), housing styles, economic profile, and local ceramic wares ( Begleitkeramik ). Nonetheless, according to Lemercier (2018) the mature phase of the Beaker culture represents "the appearance of

4293-482: The exception that the period's start is closer to 1700 BC than 1800 BC, as Montelius suggested. For Central Europe a different system developed by Paul Reinecke is commonly used, as each area has its own artifact types and archaeological periods. A broader subdivision is the Early Bronze Age, between 1700 BC and 1100 BC, and the Late Bronze Age, 1100 BC to 550 BC. These divisions and periods are followed by

4374-468: The helmets. Despite the importance of weapons in their society, archaeological discoveries suggest that intrasocietal violence was not particularly common in the Nordic Bronze Age, especially not when compared to contemporary European Bronze Age cultures. The people of the Nordic Bronze Age seem to instead have been directing their military efforts outwards, likely against people of neighbouring cultures, and are believed to have participated in battles along

4455-449: The individuals from the Nordic Bronze Age, two males carried I1 , while two carried R1b1a1a2 . A 2024 study published in Nature analyzed around 40 individuals from Late Neolithic and Bronze Age Southern Scandinavia. The study found evidence for three distinct genetic clusters: LNBA phase I - Dated to 4,600 and 4,300 cal. bp and archaeologically associated with the Battle Axe culture and early Single Grave culture. The males in

4536-585: The introduction of socketed spearheads, whose ultimate origin Vandkilde (2014) ascribes to the Seima-Turbino culture. Cheek-pieces and belt hooks adorned with horse heads are suggested to have originated from the Carpathian Basin, making their way into Scandinavia. Chariot wheels in Scandinavia are depicted with four spokes, as in Mycenaean Greece and the Carpathian Basin. A depiction of

4617-580: The large stone burial monuments known as stone ships . Those sites suggest that ships and seafaring played an important role in the culture at large. The depicted ships, most likely represents sewn plank built canoes used for warfare, fishing and trade. These ship types may have their origin as far back as the neolithic period and they continue into the Pre-Roman Iron Age, as exemplified by the Hjortspring boat . 3,600-year-old bronze axes and other tools made from Cypriot copper have been found in

4698-497: The largest number of Bronze Age rock carvings in Europe . The west coast of Sweden is home to around 1,500 recorded rock engraving sites, with more being discovered every year. When the rock carvings were made, the area was the coastline; but it is now 25 meters above sea level . The engravings in the region depict everyday life, weapons, human figures, fishing nets, ships, chariots, plows, the sun, deer, bulls, horses, and birds. By far,

4779-473: The most dominant theme is human figures and ships, especially ships — 10,000 of which have recorded. The typical ship depicts a crew of six to thirteen. Rock carvings in the late Bronze Age, and even the early Iron Age, often depict conflict, power, and mobility. The culture of the Nordic Bronze Age was that of a warrior culture, with a strong emphasis on weapons and status. Helle Vandkilde of Aarhus University, in her publications from 1995, describes most men of

4860-524: The number and density of metal deposits, the Nordic Bronze Age became the richest culture in Europe during its existence. Iron metallurgy began to be practised in Scandinavia during the later Bronze Age, from at least the 9th century BC. Around the 5th century BC, the Nordic Bronze Age was succeeded by the Pre-Roman Iron Age and the Jastorf culture . The Nordic Bronze Age is often considered ancestral to

4941-447: The number and density of metal deposits, the Nordic Bronze Age became the richest culture in Europe. More Bronze Age swords have also been found in Denmark than anywhere else in Europe. Uniform crucibles found at metal workshop sites further indicate the mass production of certain metal artefacts. The west coast of Sweden , namely Bohuslän , has the largest concentration of Bronze Age rock carvings in Scandinavia; and Scandinavia has

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5022-882: The opposite, that snakes were the enemy of the Sun. During the day, the Sun is thought to be transported by horse or by boat, then at night embarks a night ship to be transported in at night, switching for a day ship or horse afterwards, repeating this process every night and day in its journey. A pair of male twin gods are believed to have been worshiped in close conjunction with the sun goddess and were associated with objects such as lurs, horned helmets, and weapons, particularly axes and swords. Where sacrificial artifacts have been buried, they are often found in pairs and paired objects, like boats, are very common on rock carvings. The horned helmets found in sacrificial deposits are thought to be purely ceremonial and to have no practical function, i.e. in actual warfare. The Divine Twins are thought to be

5103-405: The period 2400–2200 BC, was associated with early Beaker pottery. Here, the local sulpharsenide ores were smelted to produce the first copper axes used in Britain and Ireland. The same technologies were used in the Tagus region and in the west and south of France. The evidence is sufficient to support the suggestion that the initial spread of Maritime Bell Beakers along the Atlantic and into

5184-502: The period as having followed a warrior ethos. More than 70% of burials dating to the Nordic Bronze Age contain metal objects of various kinds, the most common objects being swords and daggers. It is noted that the people of the Nordic Bronze Age also placed great importance on helmets of intricate design, which they put much effort into making. However, not all of the weapons and armour of the Nordic Bronze Age were used for warfare. Some of them are believed to have been ceremonial, especially

5265-594: The polypod cup. These "common ware" types of pottery then spread in association with the classic bell beaker. The Rhine was on the western edge of the vast Corded Ware zone ( c.  3100  – c.  2350 BC ), forming a contact zone with the Bell Beaker culture. From there, the Bell Beaker culture spread further into Eastern Europe, replacing the Corded Ware culture up to the Vistula (Poland). A review in 2014 revealed that single burial, communal burial, and reuse of Neolithic burial sites are found throughout

5346-402: The protectors of the sun, ensuring its safe passage through the night so it can rise again in the morning and make its usual path across the daylit sky, repeating this every night and day. Jeanette Varberg has proposed, in light of archaeological evidence pairing horse gear with women's ornaments (and wagons), that there may have been a goddess associated with war and horses that was worshiped in

5427-419: The region of Denmark and western Sweden. Lurs are also depicted in several rock carvings and are believed to have been used in ceremonies. Nordic Bronze Age religion and mythology is believed to be mostly Indo-European in character and to itself be the ancestor to Norse mythology and religion and wider Germanic mythology and religion. Thousands of rock carvings from the Nordic Bronze Age depict ships, and

5508-469: The region. Researchers note that there is great continuity in the way that ships continuously had a strong importance in Scandinavian society. The boat building and seafaring traditions that were established during the Nordic Bronze Age lasted throughout the ages and were further developed upon during the Iron Age . Some archaeologists and historians believe that the culmination of this sea-focused culture

5589-437: The remains had been contaminated by additional strontium contained in the agricultural lime used in modern farming in the Egtved area. When Thomsen and Andreasen analyzed samples locally from places uncontaminated by modern farming, they found that the range of strontium isotopic values in the surrounding natural environment matched those in the girl. Thus, it is most plausible that she originated from and spent her entire life in

5670-409: The same time the institution of chariotry was transmitted south from the steppe". Trade and cultural contacts have also been noted between the Nordic Bronze Age and New Kingdom Egypt . The contacts during the Late Bronze Age (period IV–VI) were more intensive with Central Europe and Italy. A lot of similarities are seen in art and iconography between different continental Urnfield cultures and

5751-648: The shaft graves at Mycenae, which also indicate connections to the north. Chechushkov & Epimakhov (2018) suggest that chariot technology developed before 2000 BC in the Don - Volga interfluve , in the context of pre-Sintashta cultures (such as the Abashevo culture ). According to Kristiansen and Larsson (2005), "foreign origins were most consciously demonstrated in the formation of the Nordic Bronze Age Culture from 1500 BC onwards, basing itself on

5832-488: The waters surrounding their region in order to secure trade and safety. Ancient DNA and archaeological evidence indicates that people from the Nordic Bronze Age sphere were involved in the conflict at the Tollense valley battlefield in northern Germany (13th century BC), "the largest excavated and archaeologically verifiable battle site of this age in the world". The Nordic Bronze Age maintained intimate trade links with

5913-494: Was apparently replicated in the Nordic Bronze Age. However this dual organization may have also been part of a shared Indo-European tradition. Other similarities have been noted in artistic iconography from both regions and its associated cosmology. Some of the contacts between Scandinavia and Greece were probably conveyed through Central Europe. Cultural connections with the Hittites have also been suggested. These include

5994-422: Was central to the religion. The Sun , when personified, was conceived of as female and associated with various objects, like the swastika , sun cross , and boats, and animals such as horses, birds, snakes, and fish (see also Sól ), though snakes may only have been associated with the Sun by one group of religious specialists, as seen on their razors; otherwise the myths depicted on rock carvings seem to indicate

6075-405: Was introduced by John Abercromby in 1904. In its early phase, the Bell Beaker culture can be seen as the western contemporary of the Corded Ware culture of Central Europe. From about 2400 BC the Beaker folk culture expanded eastwards, into the Corded Ware horizon. In parts of Central and Eastern Europe, as far east as Poland , a sequence occurs from Corded Ware to Bell Beaker. This period marks

6156-731: Was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire , and across the Gâtinais Valley to the Seine Valley, and thence to the lower Rhine . This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions, and via this network, Maritime Bell Beakers first reached the Lower Rhine in c.  2600  BC. Another expansion brought Bell Beaker to Csepel Island in Hungary by about 2500 BC. In

6237-445: Was not adopted in the intermediate region of Central Europe. These similarities can not have come about without intimate contacts, probably through the travels of warriors and mercenaries. Archaeological evidence further indicates the existence in both regions of shared institutions linked to warriors. Specifically, the dual organisation of leadership between a Wanax (ritual chief) and a Lawagetas (warrior chief) in Mycenaean Greece

6318-467: Was of a high standard. The lost-wax casting method was used to produce artefacts such as the Trundholm Sun Chariot and the Langstrup belt plate . The archaeological legacy also encompasses locally crafted wool and wooden objects. During the 15th and 14th centuries BC, southern Scandinavia produced and deposited more elaborate bronzes in graves and hoards than any other region of Europe. As regards

6399-430: Was seen as a 'package' of knowledge (including religious beliefs, as well as methods of copper , bronze , and gold working) and artefacts (including copper daggers, v-perforated buttons, and stone wrist-guards ) adopted and adapted by the indigenous peoples of Europe to varying degrees. This new knowledge may have come about by any combination of population movements and cultural contact. An example might be as part of

6480-491: Was succeeded by the Únětice culture . The culture was widely dispersed throughout Western Europe, being present in many regions of Iberia and stretching eastward to the Danubian plains , and northward to the islands of Great Britain and Ireland , and was also present in the islands of Sardinia and Sicily and some coastal areas in north-western Africa . The Bell Beaker phenomenon shows substantial regional variation, and

6561-497: Was the Viking Age . The Nordic Bronze Age was initially characterized by a warm climate that began with a climate change around 2700 BC. The climate was comparable to that of present-day central Germany and northern France and permitted a fairly dense population and good opportunities for farming; for example, grapes were grown in Scandinavia at this time. A minor change in climate occurred between 850 BC and 760 BC, introducing

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