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163-721: The position was created after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 ; Mohammed Naguib was the first to hold the position. Before 2005, the Parliament chose a candidate for the presidency and the people voted, in a referendum, whether or not they approved the proposed candidate for president. After the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 , a new presidential election was held 2012 , it was the first free and fair elections in Egypt's political history. The Muslim Brotherhood declared early 18 June 2012, that its candidate, Mohamed Morsi , won

326-593: A condominium in which sovereignty would be shared between Egypt and the United Kingdom . Once established, the condominium witnessed ever-decreasing Egyptian control, and would for most of its existence be governed in practice by the United Kingdom through the Governor-General in Khartoum. For the remainder of his reign, this would be one of the flashpoints between the nationalist Khedive Abbas II and

489-542: A left-of-centre social-democratic party shortly after its formation, drifting to the right and becoming a centrist "catch-all/big tent" party of power for members whose ideologies came from all over the political spectrum. Despite this and its increasingly authoritarian bent, the NDP was a member of the Socialist International up until 31 January 2011, when the embattled party was ousted and expelled from

652-472: A "popular base for the new regime, to mobilize and unite people around the new elite and confront and neutralize former politicians." Liberation Rally was dissolved in 1956 and reorganized as the National Union party to accommodate President Nasser's growing pan-Arab rhetoric. This shift coincided with the establishment of a new constitution and with the union of Syria and Egypt in 1958, which formed

815-410: A "state of emergency" for all but five months since 1967, allowing the president to outlaw demonstrations, hold detainees indefinitely without trial, and issue law by decree. Generally, emergency law provides the government with the authority to control every level of political activity, including that within the confines of the formally defined political arena. The duration of the law is three years, but

978-570: A PPC decision to the Higher Administrative Court for approval. Ten political parties under Mubarak succeeded in gaining legal status through this route. However, that only ten cases in a period of over twenty years have won such court cases indicates that the PPC was a major barrier to obtaining legal status as a political party in Egypt. The National Democratic Party and parliamentary politics rebounded in insignificance in 2000 as

1141-483: A Western-sponsored counter-revolution, domestic religious extremism, potential communist infiltration, and the conflict with the State of Israel were all cited as reasons compelling severe and longstanding restrictions on political opposition, and the prohibition of a multi-party system. These restrictions on political activity would remain in place until the presidency of Anwar Sadat from 1970 onwards, during which many of

1304-582: A civilian government. The first issue was regarding the 1923 constitution. Ali Maher's argument that "immediate return of constitutional procedure" would "leave the country saddled with a defective constitution, an unsuitable electoral system, and an inefficient, party-ridden administration" was understood by the junta. A three-man regency was created to oversee palace affairs consisting of Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim , Wafdist Bahey El Din Barakat Pasha and Colonel Rashad Mehanna . The six principles of

1467-538: A dramatic election in the officers club, opposition candidates were elected to the Officers Club governing board. In mid-July, Farouk responded by annulling the election and appointing his own men to the board. With a crisis brewing, Sirri offered the War Ministry to General Muhammad Naguib , who was elected club president. When he refused, Sirri resigned on July 20, after failing to persuade Farouk to adopt

1630-572: A final agreement with Britain were the pressing issues of the day. A faction known as the 'Wafdist Vanguards', attempted to push reform. A new law limited landowning to 50 feddans , but was not applicable to retroactive land gains and retained ministerial immunity. Wafd politician Fuad Sirageddin Pasha told the U.S. ambassador "I own 8000 feddans. Do you think I want Egypt to go communist ?". The CIA attempted to pressure King Farouk to adopt reforms suitable to American interests, but failed. Reformers in

1793-571: A five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. The Constitution reserves fifty per cent of the House may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the Prime Minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and house from opposing parties, this leads to

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1956-566: A government ban on demonstrations and an overnight curfew imposed. Tens of thousands of protesters took to the streets. During the protests, the NDP headquarters in Cairo was set ablaze and destroyed. On 5 February, it was reported that Mubarak resigned as chairperson of the NDP, but it was later announced that "Al Arabiya television retracts its earlier report that Hosni Mubarak resigned"; however, his son Gamal and other top officials had resigned from its central committee. Hossam Badrawi , seen as

2119-499: A liberal, took over as secretary-general. On 11 February, facing ever-increasing public opposition and strong hints of serious disquiet within the Egyptian military, Hosni Mubarak resigned as President of Egypt . On the same day, Hossam Badrawi resigned from his position as secretary-general and from the party less than a week after taking office. Upon Hosni Mubarak's resignation, several NDP officials and members resigned following

2282-520: A list of nominees to appoint for cabinet positions, which Maher refused. Maher, a landowner himself, instead believed that land redistribution would damage the economy by lowering productivity and discouraging foreign investment. He proposed a revised progressive tax structure on land and a 500 feddan limit, whereby excess land would be taxed at 80%. The landowners suggested a 1,000 feddan limit, with additional exemptions of 100 feddans per wife and son and 50 feddans per daughter. A 2024 study found that in

2445-540: A major cash crop in Egypt. Under Isma'il the Magnificent , Egypt went through massive modernization programmes and campaigns of military expansion in Sudan and East Africa. Isma'il greatly accelerated the enfranchisement of the Egyptian peasantry and middle class, who had been politically and economically marginalized by the wealthy elites of Egyptian society. It was during this time that an Egyptian intelligentsia

2608-407: A mandate to further his reforms. The 'illegal-gains' legislation was to be expanded to root out corruption, and 'purge-committees' were created to 'purify' the parties. Maher refused to recall parliament or announce new elections; instead favoring martial law for at least half a year. However, Maher came into conflict with the officers. The junta was skeptical of traditional politicians, and gave Maher

2771-510: A member of a committee that was revising parliamentary laws (named Mahmoud Fawzy) stated that the law only bans those who are convicted of tax evasion and political corruption. The ruling barring former NDP members from taking part in elections was overturned by the Cairo Court for Urgent Matters on 14 July 2014. The ideology of the NDP was vague, with stated goals of both social justice , and market reform . The party ceased to be even

2934-426: A more conciliatory pose toward the army. al-Hilali returned as prime minister on July 22, with the promise of total freedom to select a cabinet. However, when Farouk nominated his own brother-in-law war minister, al-Hilali resigned the next day. The modern Egyptian army was established as a result of the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty, which allowed the Egyptian army to expand from 398 officers to 982. Nasser applied at

3097-520: A multi-party system. The October Paper also announced Egypt's new economic policy as combining Arab capital, Western technology, and the state's abundant resources in an effort to transform the Egyptian economy. The new economic policy became known as al-Infitah al-Iqtisadi (the Economic Opening, or Open Door policy). President Sadat's October Paper and political reform were motivated by self-preservation, not democratic idealism. Perceiving

3260-617: A multi-party system: he issued the 1974 October Paper; he established manaber (platforms); he formed the Misr Party (EASP) ; and finally in 1978 he formed the National Democratic Party. In the October Paper, Sadat reaffirmed his commitment to establishing a constitutional democratic government, preserving Egypt's socialist character, and rejecting the "theory of the single party" and acknowledged calls for

3423-443: A new Egypt beyond petty party politics and street violence. The earliest reforms were populist but symbolic of a new era: the elimination of the government's summer recess to Alexandria, ending the subsidization of private automobiles for cabinet ministers, and the abolition of the honorific titles bey and pasha . Others were more economic, such as tax reforms, pay raises for the military and decreases in rent. The pressing issue of

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3586-405: A new one. On August 15, 2015, President al-Sisi enacted a new Counter-Terrorism Law, which Human Rights Watch claims "mimics" language "already contained in Egypt's decades-old Emergency Law". In Article 2, one of many references include terrorism as "any use of intimidation for the purpose of disturbing public order; harms national unity, social peace, or national security". Following to Section 2,

3749-545: A nonpartisan activist and then later in the NDP. President Mubarak announced parliamentary elections in 2000 and pledged to uphold a Supreme Constitutional Court ruling calling for judicial supervision of elections. Although the 2000 elections were the first to be supervised by judges, and by most accounts somewhat cleaner and more credible than the 1990 and 1995 elections, there were still widespread arrests of Muslim Brotherhood candidates and campaign workers, as well as intimidation of voters outside polling stations. Surprisingly,

3912-483: A number of constraining conditions in order to ensure that the arena of the political contest remains under their stringent control. The laws regulating the licensing of opposition parties, for example, always demand a public commitment to the existing political order and the substantive acts of the regime." These were the conditions under which the National Democratic Party in Egypt were formed in 1978, lasting until its dissolution on 16 April 2011 by court order. Prior to

4075-564: A party program. Anyone facing corruption charges was automatically ineligible for membership. The RCC refused to accept the Wafd's certification so long as Nahhas, who had refused to meet with Naguib so long as Sergeddin remained in prison, was listed as party president and founder. The Egyptian lawyer Sulayman Hafez summed up the RCC's feelings on Nahhas when he called him a "tumor in the body politic". The September prisoners were released on December 6,

4238-500: A perception heightened by his repressive policies. Discontent with Tewfik's rule ignited the Urabi Revolt of 1881, led by nationalist soldiers under Ahmed Urabi . Urabi came from a peasant family, and his rise through the ranks of the military in spite of his humble background had been made possible by the reforms of Isma'il—reforms which he saw as being under attack by Tewfik. The prospect of revolutionary instability in Egypt, and

4401-539: A proud nationalist, citing his order to the Ismalia police not to surrender their weapons in 1951. In the end, he received a fifteen-year sentence, but was released in 1956. When political parties were banned, RCC formed the Liberation Rally , a movement that would subsume all of the preexisting political movements. While it was effective at rallies and speeches, it did not have the same institutional power as

4564-508: A republic, end the British occupation of the country, and secure the independence of Sudan (previously governed as a condominium of Egypt and the United Kingdom ). The revolutionary government adopted a staunchly nationalist , anti-imperialist agenda, which came to be expressed chiefly through Arab nationalism , and international non-alignment . The Revolution was faced with immediate threats from Western imperial powers, particularly

4727-410: A result of speculation among Egyptians about presidential succession. Mubarak was then 71 years old and had just begun his fourth six-year term in 1999. It appeared to many that Gamal Mubarak , President Hosni Mubarak's younger son, a banker by profession, was being groomed for the presidency. He began taking an increasingly active role in politics, first as a spokesman for business interests and youth as

4890-599: A result, by the late 1990s, parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant, and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well. The Political Parties Committee continued in form and purpose under Mubarak. Only two parties (the National Accord established in 2000 and the Democratic Front in 2007) were approved by the PPC under the Mubarak presidency. It was possible to appeal

5053-604: A separate court system known as the Mixed Courts . Isma'il also established Egypt's first parliament. This period of intellectualism in Egypt, and the Arab world as a whole, later became known as the Nahda . Coupled with Isma’il's powerful espousal of Egyptian statehood, this contributed to the growth of Egyptian nationalism , particularly within the army. However, the war with Ethiopia ended in disaster, only further exasperating

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5216-462: A small guerrilla war on the canal; 'liberation battalions' battled British forces. The government was rapidly losing control over the situation, as students on the Islamist right and socialist left ignited an inferno of non-violent strikes and violent battles. On January 25, 1952, seven thousand British troops ordered the Egyptian police at Ismalia to surrender their weapons. When the police refused,

5379-475: A step leading to his assassination by Islamists on 6 October 1981. After President Sadat's assassination in 1981, his successor Hosni Mubarak continued to request and obtain the People Assembly's approval to maintain the emergency law under the premise of threats of terrorism and violence. Despite the emergency law, political party life during the 1980s was relatively active, with the re-emergence of

5542-526: A three-man Regency Council was appointed. The former king's departure into exile came on 26 July 1952 and at 6 o'clock that evening he set sail for Italy with protection from the Egyptian army . The Revolution Command Council (RCC), made up of the previous nine-member command committee of the Free Officers in addition to five more members, chaired by Naguib, was formed. Ali Maher was asked to form

5705-477: A unity government with the Wafd, but they denied his offer of several cabinet positions. His dealings with the Wafd, such as advocating a unity government , alienated his allies to the right and motivated Farouk to deal with him as soon as possible. He was pressured to produce a report on the Cairo Fire that implicated the Wafd as responsible, but refused. The king adjourned parliament and two palace loyalists in

5868-449: Is that since most of the NDP's members were originally members of the disbanded ASU, its creation was more the result of presidential instigation than of pressures from an organized constituency. Put differently, the mass conversion from "socialist" to "democratic" ideology implied not only the desire to remain under direct presidential patronage but also that the emergence of the ruling NDP was no more reflective of constituency interests than

6031-627: Is the guardian of success"]. With his British support network now neutralized, King Farouk sought the intervention of the United States, which was unresponsive. By the 25th, the army had occupied Alexandria , where the King was in residence at the Montaza Palace . Terrified, Farouk abandoned Montaza and fled to Ras Al Teen Palace on the waterfront. Naguib ordered the captain of Farouk's yacht, al-Mahrusa , not to sail without orders from

6194-551: The 1952 coup d'état ( Arabic : انقلاب 1952 ) and 23 July Revolution , was a period of profound political, economic, and societal change in Egypt . On 23 July 1952 the revolution began with the toppling of King Farouk in a coup d'état by the Free Officers Movement . This group of army officers was led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser . The Revolution ushered in a wave of revolutionary politics in

6357-594: The Arab World , and contributed to the escalation of decolonisation , and the development of Third World solidarity during the Cold War . Though initially focused on grievances against King Farouk, the movement had more wide-ranging political ambitions. In the first three years of the Revolution, the Free Officers moved to abolish the constitutional monarchy and aristocracy of Egypt and Sudan , establish

6520-609: The Brotherhood for his first two terms, then moved more aggressively to block its influence. Trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned. In 2014, in Upper Egypt, several newspapers reported that the region of Upper Egypt wants to secede from Egypt to try to improve living standards. The permanent headquarters for the League of Arab States (The Arab League) is located in Cairo. The Secretary-General of

6683-561: The Camp David Accords . Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab nations, and in the Israeli–Palestinian dispute. Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited. Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of

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6846-1003: The Free Egyptians Party , New Wafd Party , Conference Party , and the Egyptian Social Democratic Party . In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watn ( Nation's Future ) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules. Egyptians had lived under emergency law from 1967 until 31 May 2012 (with one 18-month break starting in 1980). Emergency laws have been extended every three years since 1981. These laws sharply circumscribed any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and unregistered financial donations were formally banned. However, since 2000, these restrictions have been violated in practice. In 2003,

7009-540: The Freedom House , the political system was designed to ensure solid majorities for the ruling NDP at all levels of government. In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the NDP, described Egypt as a " pharaonic " political system, and democracy as a long-term goal. Although former President Hosni Mubarak himself boasted shortly before his deposition from power that Egypt enjoys "all kinds of democracy," substantive democracy and civil liberties within

7172-567: The Naqab desert , a successful Israeli counter-offensive left Egypt with just the Gaza Strip . During the Faluja pocket , a young Egyptian officer called Gamal Abdel-Nasser made a name for himself as a hero for holding out until the 1949 armistice agreement . Anger over corruption in the war, such as rumors of gun-smuggling leading to Egyptian troops being underequipped for battle. Returning from

7335-476: The National Party (Arabic: الحزب الوطني , romanized:  El-Ḥizb el-Waṭanī ), was the ruling political party in Egypt from 1978 to 2011. It was founded by President Anwar Sadat in 1978. The NDP wielded uncontested power in state politics, usually considered a de facto single party , with authoritarian characteristics, inside an officially multi-party system , from its creation until

7498-474: The October War , and the later years of Anwar El-Sadat's presidency, which were characterized by significant political, economic, and social upheaval and discontent. In total, the state of emergency declared during the 1967 war lasted for 13 years. After Sadat's assassination on 6 October 1981, his Vice-President and successor, Hosni Mubarak , declared another state of emergency, which he kept in place for

7661-685: The Oriental Crisis . As a result of these wars, Egypt was expelled from the Levant , but allowed to keep its Sudanese territory. After Muhammad Ali's death, his successors Abbas I and Sa'id attempted to modernize Egypt, such as starting construction of the Suez Canal . Due to conscription, taxes were raised on nobles in exchange for more land and peasants ( fellahin in Arabic). Peasants continued to lose access to their land as cotton became

7824-749: The Ottoman Sultan . Within a matter of decades, Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt from a neglected Ottoman province to a virtually independent state that temporarily rivalled the Ottoman Empire itself for dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean, and the Mashreq . Muhammad Ali conquered the Sudan , invaded East Africa , and led Egypt during both the First Egyptian–Ottoman War and Second Egyptian-Ottoman War , triggering

7987-687: The United Arab Republic (UAR). Between 1949 and 1955, Syria had witnessed five changes of leadership, and by the late summer of 1957, the country was on the verge of complete collapse. The communists were among the most organized political actors in Syria in the late 1950s, leading to increased fears of a communist takeover. To prevent this outcome, the Syrian Government under the Ba'ath Party requested full unification with Egypt. Nasser

8150-533: The United Kingdom , which had occupied Egypt since 1882, and France , both of whom were wary of rising nationalist sentiment in territories under their control throughout Africa , and the Arab World . The ongoing state of war with Israel also posed a serious challenge, as the Free Officers increased Egypt's already strong support of the Palestinians . These two issues converged in the fifth year of

8313-833: The Wafd Party , and the participation of the Muslim Brotherhood via alliances and Muslim Brotherhood candidates running as independents. Elections in 1984 and 1987 produced parliaments with opposition representation of about 20 percent. Unfortunately, the combination of increasing Islamist opposition groups and violence by extremist organizations during the 1990s spurred legislation that hurt all Egyptians' ability to express themselves politically via formal institutions or more informal means. The 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations. As

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8476-752: The parliamentary elections that followed the revolution, some former members established new parties, popularly termed felool or "remnants" of the old regime. Former members of the party founded the Coalition of the People's Representatives , which was going to run for seats in the next parliamentary election ; the members of the coalition instead formed a party called the We Are the People Party . The Cairo Court for Urgent Matters banned former NDP members from taking part in elections on 6 May 2014, though

8639-505: The 1971 Constitution, the president was able to have his proposals bypass the People's Assembly and have them endorsed directly through a referendum. Consequently, it is impossible for the Assembly to consider or reject the policy once approved in this manner. The President of Egypt, however, rarely needed to resort to referendums except in circumstances where it is a formal requirement, such as initiating constitutional changes. Article 152

8802-503: The 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the Parliament continues to lack the powers to balance the extensive powers of the President. The House of Representatives is the principal legislative body. It consists of a maximum 596 representatives with 448 are directly elected through FPTP and another 120 elected through proportional representation in 4 nationwide districts while the President can appoint up to 28. The House sits for

8965-522: The 19th and early 20th centuries was defined by the vastly different reigns of successive members of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the gradually increasing intrusion into Egyptian affairs of the Great Powers , particularly the United Kingdom . From 1805, Egypt underwent a period of rapid modernisation under Muhammad Ali Pasha , who declared himself Khedive in defiance of his nominal suzerain,

9128-593: The 200 feddan limit. At first the Egyptian legal scholar Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri was considered to fill in Maher's shoes, but American concerns over Sanhuri's signature in the Stockholm appeal of 1951 led to Naguib's appointment as prime minister. Rashad al-Barawi was also considered, but the American ambassador Jefferson Caffery rejected this idea, calling al-Barawi a 'commie'. The junta pressed for party reform,

9291-790: The ASU was under Nasser's party system. The left wing of the ASU would become the National Progressive Unionist Party , while the right wing would become the Liberal Socialists Party . The Committee for the Affairs of Political Parties, commonly known as the Political Parties Committee (PPC), was created after the implementation of the multi-party system to both regulate party activities in addition to license new parties within

9454-472: The Arab Socialist Union as a potential threat to his Presidency, Sadat divided the ASU into three ideological platforms. He then disbanded the ASU entirely in 1977 and endowed these bodies the official status of political parties in preparation for upcoming parliamentary elections . On 9 July 1978, Sadat announced the formation of his own political party drawing from the centre wing of the ASU,

9617-423: The British and the local Egyptian feudal system. As a result, revolutionary leaders were wary of continuing this system. President Nasser in 1957 said publicly: Can I ask you a question: what is democracy? We were supposed to have a democratic system during the period 1923 to 1953. But what good was this democracy to our people? I will tell you. Landowners and Pasha... used this kind of democracy as an easy tool for

9780-439: The British high representative in Cairo exercising more power than the Khedive himself. In 1888, at the Convention of Constantinople, the United Kingdom won the right to protect the Suez Canal with military force, giving Britain a permanent base from which to dominate Egyptian politics. In 1899, the United Kingdom forced Tewfik's successor as Khedive, the nationalist Abbas II , to transform Sudan from an integral part of Egypt into

9943-447: The Brotherhood, Wafd or DMNL. The rally remained as a tool for the officers, because of lack of enrollment of the other power brokers in Egypt's political arena. National Democratic Party (Egypt) من أجلك أنت "A new vision... for the future of our country " The National Democratic Party ( Arabic : الحزب الوطني الديمقراطي , romanized :  El-Ḥizb el-Waṭanī ed-Dīmuqrāṭī ), often referred to in Egypt as simply

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10106-474: The Carnegie Endowment's Arab Reform Bulletin , wrote in 2006: Drawing on largely the model of the British Labour Party , Gamal Mubarak designed and led a new Policy Secretariat that began to produce policy papers on a wide range of economic, political, and foreign affairs topics. He recruited a circle of young, reform-minded businesspeople and technocrats, some of whom were later placed in cabinet or party leadership positions. By 2004, Gamal Mubarak's imprint on

10269-462: The Egyptian state apparatus. The Egyptian union with Syria unravelled on the morning of 28 September 1961, following a military coup. The coup leaders also expelled all Egyptians from the country. Nasser believed that one of the reasons why the UAR failed was because the degree of social reform necessary for such an ambitious project had not matriculated. Therefore, he increased the socialist nature of his government's policies. In 1962, Nasser disbanded

10432-447: The Egyptian treasury. The Caisse de la Dette Publique (Public Debt Commission) was founded as a way for Egypt to pay its debts. Isma'il's grand policies were ruinously expensive, and financial pressure eventually compelled him to sell Egypt's shares in the Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez , the company that owned the 99-year lease to manage the Suez Canal . The sale of the Canal mere years after it had been constructed at

10595-418: The League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Abu El Ghet is the present Secretary-General of the Arab League. The Arab League moved out of Egypt to Tunis in 1978 as a protest at the peace treaty with Israel but returned in 1989. Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty at

10758-421: The Middle East, talks about participation, cultural authenticity, freedom and even democracy. No doubt, the defining flavor of the 1990s is participation. Elections and apparent multi-party political systems offer authoritarian governments this opportunity for "democracy by decree." However, regimes that adopt these (electoral) systems, called competitive authoritarianism or illiberal democracy , "tend to impose

10921-402: The Ministry of Interior under the emergency law. Thus, when a candidate plans to hold a public meeting, he must submit an application to the local police station stating details such as the date, location, and estimated size of the gathering. The application is then sent to the Ministry of Interior for consideration, and can be rejected. The People's Assembly , which is usually characterized as

11084-423: The Muslim Brotherhood and the Wafd Party withdrew from the second round of voting and boycotted them, citing fraud and voter intimidation. Egyptian rights groups called for the results to be annulled, and Amnesty International said that at least eight people had died in election-related violence. Major protests erupted against the ruling government of Egypt on 25 January 2011 (alongside the wider Arab Spring ), at

11247-460: The Muslim Brotherhood bloc used the People's Assembly in Egypt as a soapbox for criticizing the regime and as an engine for promoting its ideas. They also took their positions as MPs seriously, and through this effort, generated more legitimacy for the People's Assembly as an institution, as opposed to the 1990s when legislative politics were shallow and stagnant. Despite speculation on Gamal Mubarak succeeding his father as president, Ali Eldin Hilal,

11410-459: The NDP developed into a moderate centrist party. The NDP was a member of the Socialist International from 1989 until it was expelled in 2011 in response to the revolution. The party was dissolved on 16 April 2011 by court order, and its assets were transferred to the state. The electoral system in Egypt, under which the National Democratic Party operated, did not meet internationally recognized standards of electoral democracies. According to

11573-475: The NDP held no less than three-quarters of the seats in the People's Assembly. The ideology of the party remained purposefully vague and open to interpretation. As a result, the President and his government could pass any legislation without appearing to compromise the Party's "official" standing. Opposition to Sadat increased from 1977 onward in the wake of his economic reforms and peace initiative with Israel. Sadat reacted with repression and open hostility toward

11736-418: The NDP suffered an embarrassing defeat at the hands of independent candidates, who secured more than half of the 444 seats up for election versus the NDP's 39 percent. However, 181 of the independents were "NDP independents" – members who had run in the elections despite not having received the party's nomination. These 181 independents and an additional 35 actual independents joined the NDP after winning, giving

11899-514: The NDP was apparent, with the appointment of a cabinet full of his proteges (among them Prime Minister Ahmad Nazif) in July and the holding of a slickly package, media-friendly party conference in September showcasing the NDP's new image. Hosni Mubarak's presidential campaign in summer 2005 – which featured Western-style stumping, clear promises for policy changes, and an attempt to show that the party

12062-518: The National Democratic Party. It was formally approved on 2 October 1978. Soon thereafter, some 250 MPs of the People's Assembly hurried to join the President's new party. Dr. Maye Kassem of the American University in Cairo summarizes the transition from the ASU to the NDP thusly: This move was undoubtedly related to the fact that the President's party would ensure for its members' direct access to state resources. The main point, however,

12225-404: The National Union and replaced it with the Arab Socialist Union to reflect this change in direction. The names of these organizations – Liberation Rally, National Union, and the Arab Socialist Union – were significant. In each case, the word 'party' was scrupulously avoided, given its powerful connotations within Egypt of division and lack of national purpose. Therefore, the single party in Egypt

12388-629: The Obassia Military College, Egypt's leading cadet school, in 1937. Anwar Sadat graduated from the Egyptian Military Academy in 1938. Sadat had been trying to form an anti-British uprising since the 1940s, but was arrested after meeting with two Nazi spies in 1942. The humiliating 1942 British coup and the disaster in Palestine motivated the creation of a secret cell of revolutionary Egyptian officers. After

12551-690: The Ottoman Empire in 1517, was re-established with Hussein Kamal as Sultan . Despite the restoration of the nominal sultanate, British power in Egypt and Sudan was undiminished, as the United Kingdom declared Egypt to be a formal protectorate of the United Kingdom. Whilst Egypt was not annexed to the British Empire, with the British King never becoming sovereign of Egypt, Egypt's status as a protectorate precluded any actual independence for

12714-402: The People's Assembly retained the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses. The Shura Council was abolished in the 2014 constitution . Political parties in Egypt are numerous and exceeds 100 parties. The formation of political parties based on religion, race or gender is prohibited by the Constitution. Before the revolution in 2011, power was concentrated in the hands of

12877-545: The People's Assembly, 2005 was a watershed moment for Egyptian politics, as opposition candidates were overwhelmingly elected from the Muslim Brotherhood rather than secular parties. The Muslim Brotherhood-affiliated candidates won a historic 88 seats in the legislature. The Muslim Brotherhood was officially banned in Egypt but continued to run brotherhood-affiliated candidates as independents in local and parliamentary elections since 1984. Since its victory in 2005,

13040-454: The President "may issue a decree to take appropriate measures to maintain security and public order", addressed in Article 53. This includes "the power to order six-month curfews or evacuations in defined areas, subject to a majority vote in parliament within seven days, or cabinet approval if parliament is not in session." Before the revolution, Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by

13203-595: The President of the Republic and the National Democratic Party which retained a super-majority in the People's Assembly. Many new political parties that mostly were fragile formed in anticipation of running candidates in the 2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election that was considered the first free one since the 1952 revolution. However the elected Parliament was dissolved by the constitutional court and new elections were held in 2015 . Below

13366-414: The RCC as dedicated to "the struggle against imperialism and the Egyptian traitors who served it cause". Traitors were spreading rumors intending to destabilize the economy and cause hatred towards the army, especially through the universities. While he did not name anyone directly, a mocking imitation of a party leader kissing the King's hand was unmistakably evoking al-Nahhas. Salim's speech best exemplifies

13529-405: The RCC were: The officers did not want to simply remove the king and then retreat into a civilian government. The RCC believed that the entire Egyptian system needed to be overhauled, to remove 'reactionary' elements and restore stability. The RCC were not Marxists, but were receptive to the socialist critique of the traditional system. The officers moved to purge their opponents in Egypt to create

13692-638: The RCC's mentality that student protesters and workers strikes were a part of a counter-revolutionary conspiracy. Within a week of the speech, the government arrested eleven politicians, and placed Nahhas and his wife under house arrest. The trial of former prime minister and Sa'adist leader Ibrahim Abdel Hady over corruption and the murder of Hasan al-Banna lasted only a week before the court sentenced him to death, later commuted to life imprisonment three day later. Most defendants either received 10–15 year sentences, were stripped of property, or were fined. The most severe sentences were for British collaborators in

13855-552: The Revolution when Egypt was invaded by the United Kingdom, France, and Israel in the Suez Crisis of 1956 (known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression ). Despite enormous military losses, the war was seen as a political victory for Egypt, especially as it left the Suez Canal in uncontested Egyptian control for the first time since 1875, erasing what was seen as a mark of national humiliation. This strengthened

14018-486: The Suez insurgency – of the thirteen tried, eleven were convicted, four were hanged, one got a life sentence and the others were sentenced to 10–15 years. The trial of Fouad Serageddin was more than just the charges – a £EP 5,000 bribe, arms racketeering during the 1948 war, allowing the king to transfer funds outside the country, illegally benefiting from road paving as transport minister in 1945, and conspiring to monopolize

14181-556: The United Kingdom to recognise Egyptian independence in 1922 as the Kingdom of Egypt . However, Britain still retained the rights over the Sudan, its empire in Egypt and foreigners: The leading party after the revolution was the Wafd Party , led by Sa'ad Zaghoul and his successor Mostafa al-Nahhas . The resulting 1923 Egyptian constitution created a proper – albeit flawed – constitutional monarchy. Universal male suffrage allowed Egyptians to vote in parliamentary elections, however

14344-549: The United Kingdom, with Abbas seeking to arrest and reverse the process of increasing British control in Egypt and Sudan. Egyptians nationalism was brewing under the harsh economic policies of the British. Nationalist activists such as Mostafa Kamil Pasha , Abdullah an-Nadeem and Yaqub Sanu fought for greater autonomy for Egypt. The phrase "Egypt for the Egyptians" was a popular rallying cry among nationalists in protest to

14507-617: The United Nations from 1991 to 1996. A territorial dispute with Sudan over an area known as the Hala'ib Triangle has meant that diplomatic relations between the two remain strained. General government sites Egyptian Revolution of 1952 Coup successful President (1956–1970) Prime Minister (1954–(March)1954,(April)1954–1962,1967–1970) Deputy prime minister (1953–1954) [REDACTED] The Egyptian revolution of 1952 (Arabic: ثورة 23 يوليو ), also known as

14670-406: The aftermath of the coup, officials that were senior and had connections with the deposed monarch were more likely to be purged, while experienced bureaucrats and those with university education were more likely to be retained as part of the government. On September 7, Ali Maher was dismissed, and 64 other politicians, including Foaud Sergeddin, were arrested. The following day the government decreed

14833-578: The agenda shifted heavily towards local democratic reforms, opposition to the succession of Gamal Mubarak as president, and rejection of violence by state security forces. Groups involved in the latest wave include PCSPI, the Egyptian Movement for Change ( Kefaya ), and the Association for Egyptian Mothers. Substantial peasant activism exists on a variety of issues, especially related to land rights and land reform . A major turning point

14996-406: The appeal of the revolution in other Arab countries. Wholesale agrarian reform , and huge industrialisation programmes were initiated in the first decade and half of the Revolution, leading to an unprecedented period of infrastructure building, and urbanisation . By the 1960s, Arab socialism had become a dominant theme, transforming Egypt into a centrally planned economy . Official fear of

15159-434: The army, we will not deal harshly with them, but will release them at the appropriate time. I assure the Egyptian people that the entire army today has become capable of operating in the national interest and under the rule of the constitution apart from any interests of its own. I take this opportunity to request that the people never permit any traitors to take refuge in deeds of destruction or violence because these are not in

15322-420: The army. Debate broke out among the Free Officers concerning the fate of the deposed king. While some (including Gen. Naguib and Nasser) thought that the best course of action was to send him into exile , others argued that he should be put on trial or executed. Finally, the order came for Farouk to abdicate in favour of his son, Crown Prince Ahmed Fuad – who was acceded to the throne as King Fuad II – and

15485-489: The army. They appointed a commander who is either ignorant or corrupt. Egypt has reached the point, therefore, of having no army to defend it. Accordingly, we have undertaken to clean ourselves up and have appointed to command us men from within the army whom we trust in their ability, their character, and their patriotism. It is certain that all Egypt will meet this news with enthusiasm and will welcome it. As for those whose arrest we saw fit from among men formerly associated with

15648-401: The benefit of a feudal system... the peasants would cast their votes according to the instructions of their masters... I want to liberate the peasants and workers both socially and economically... I want the peasants and workers to say "yes" and "no" without any of this affecting their livelihood or their daily bread. This, in my view, is the basis of freedom and democracy. The Liberation Rally

15811-537: The cabinet resigned. The British ambassador refused to meet with Maher, forcing his resignation. Nagib al-Hilali succeeded Maher, taking a much more active approach. He decreed new anti-corruption laws and created 'purge-committees' to overhaul the bureaucracy. Hilai ordered Fuad Sirageddin under house arrest. A week later, he dissolved parliament, announcing new elections in May. By April, they were postponed indefinitely. The Egyptian journalist Ihsan Abdel Quddous criticized

15974-559: The closing weeks of the war, however, its territory became a battlefield between the Allies and Axis Powers. In 1942, the refusal of Egypt's young King Farouk to appoint al-Nahhas prime minister led by the Abdeen Palace Incident , where the British military surrounded Farouk's palace, and ordered him at gunpoint to appoint al-Nahhas. Though nationalist army officers, including Mohamed Naguib , appealed to Farouk to resist,

16137-404: The cost of some 80,000 Egyptian lives was seen as a national humiliation, particularly as it effectively granted the purchaser, the United Kingdom , a basis for interfering in Egyptian affairs. Shortly thereafter, the United Kingdom, along with the other Great Powers, deposed Isma'il in favour of his son, Tewfik Pasha . Tewfik was seen as a puppet of the foreign powers who had deposed his father,

16300-610: The cotton industry – the entire Wafd institution was effectively on trial. The prosecution focused mostly on Serageddin's rise to power within the Wafd and his personal failings in the 1950 government. Serageddin's rivals, the who's who of Egypt's liberal government, took the stand to air out personal grievances. Witnesses included former prime ministers ( Naguib al-Hilali , Hussein Sirri , Ali Maher ), Mohammed Hussein Heikal , and Makram Ebeid . In his defence, Serageddin positioned himself as

16463-449: The country remained elusive. In the 2000s, it was stated that "The truth of the matter is that participation and pluralism are now at lower levels than at any time since Mubarak assumed the presidency in the wake of Anwar Sadat's assassination." In 2010, Freedom House ranked Egypt's Political Rights Score 6 and Civil Liberties Score 5, with 1 being the freest and 7 being the least free. Until Mubarak's deposition, Egypt had operated under

16626-412: The day was land reform . A ceiling on landholding of 200 feddans was agreed, to lower the price of land and therefore decrease rents. However, the junta butted heads with Ali Maher. Maher believed, like most in the political climate of Egypt, that a complete overhaul of the state was needed. By this time, many Egyptians believed that the 1923 system needed to be completely rebuilt. Maher assumed office with

16789-476: The deployment of British tanks and artillery outside the Royal palace forced the King to concede. This incident permanently damaged the prestige of both King Farouk's conservative clique and al-Nahhas' Wafd. The surrender to British convinced many Egyptian nationalists that only the removal of the entire 1923 system could bring an end to the United Kingdom's occupation of Egypt. The historian Selma Botman describes

16952-457: The election. After a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi ; the beginning of July 2013 marked the onset of the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, following the decision of General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi , to remove Morsi from office and suspend the constitution of 2012. El-Sisi was then elected head of state in the 2014 presidential election . On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi

17115-487: The elections as fraudulent. The United States and the European Union also criticized the poll. The regime widely viewed the elections as a tightening of power in preparation for the following year's presidential elections. In the first round of voting, the NDP won 209 of 211 seats. The Wafd Party won the other two seats, down from five in the prior parliament. After the near sweep of the first round of voting, both

17278-435: The entire duration of his three decades in office. President Mubarak argued in his Presidential Public Address in 1998 that the emergency law is required "in order to confront terrorism [and] protect democracy and stability." In practice, however, the law was used to not only control and contain terrorism, but to limit legitimate oppositional political activities. For example, campaign gatherings require prior permission from

17441-410: The filing of a number of lawsuits calling for the party's dissolution. On 12 April, in what was considered a surprise move, Talaat Sadat , nephew of former Egyptian President Anwar Sadat , who was not a party member and who had been long considered an opposition member, was selected as the new party chairman. Following his appointment, Sadat issued multiple statements declaring his intent on "cleaning"

17604-450: The first communiqué of the coup d'état in the name of Gen. Naguib to the Egyptian people. It attempted to justify the coup , which was also known as the "Blessed Movement". The person reading the message was Free Officer and future president of Egypt Anwar Sadat . The coup was conducted by less than a hundred officers   —   almost all of which were drawn from junior ranks   —   and prompted scenes of celebration in

17767-594: The framework of an official representative body. This body was known as the Liberation Rally (LR) from 1952–1956, the National Union (NU) from 1956–1962, and the Arab Socialist Union (ASU) from 1962–1976. President Nasser's weariness of the multi-party system instituted by the colonial powers is rooted in his experience of British-dominated Egypt, where Britain manipulated the political parties and voting mechanisms to secure policies favourable to

17930-411: The governing board of the Officers Club dissolved, causing the officers to fear their arrest was imminent. On the 23rd, infantry united seized general headquarters and blocked roads leading to Cairo. Nasser and Abdel Hakim Amr , as the higher level leaders, took a car ride to visit every unit in Cairo. After arresting his commanding officer, Muhammad Abu al-Fadl al-Gizawi answered several phone calls as

18093-459: The government, writing "Corruption does not mean corruption of the Wafd government alone". Rumors that the King Farouk was going to sack al-Hilali led him to resign on July 2. Huseinn Sirri moved as prime minister to lift Sirageddin's house arrest, though he did not promise new elections or to lift martial law. However, events in the military soon were spiraling out of control. In January, in

18256-498: The guidelines of Law 40. Law 40 empowered a committee chaired by the NDP – the speaker of the Shura Council – to suspend other parties' activities "in the national interest." It was composed of six regime-linked individuals: the minister of interior, the minister of justice, the state minister for the affairs of the People's Assembly, and three judicial figures appointed by the president's ministers. Since its creation in 1978,

18419-467: The head of media for the NDP, said in an interview with the American Arab channel al-Hurra , "The candidate [in 2011] of the National Democratic Party will be President Mohammed Hosni Mubarak... This is the will of the leadership of the party." Hilal stated that the announcement would only be officially made a month or two before the elections in the autumn of 2011. President Mubarak would be 83 at

18582-563: The inferred danger to the Suez Canal, prompted the United Kingdom to intervene militarily in support of Tewfik. After the Anglo-Egyptian War , the United Kingdom was left in de facto control over the country, a state of affairs that became known as the veiled protectorate . In the years that followed, the United Kingdom would cement its political and military position in Egypt, and subsequently in Egypt's domains in Sudan, with

18745-474: The interest of Egypt. Should anyone behave in such ways, he will be dealt with forcefully in a manner such as has not been seen before and his deeds will meet immediately the reward for treason. The army will take charge with the assistance of the police. I assure our foreign brothers that their interests, their personal safety [lit. "their souls"], and their property are safe, and that the army considers itself responsible for them. May God grant us success [lit. "God

18908-448: The introduction of a multi-party political system in Egypt, there was single-party rule (Although there was political party life before 1953 during the Kingdom of Egypt ). Gamel Abdel Nasser rejected the idea of establishing alternative political parties at the establishment of the Republic of Egypt in 1953, instead opting to establish a single-party system in which interest groups were organized along functional lines and co-opted within

19071-412: The king had the power to dismiss cabinets, dissolve parliament and appoint prime ministers. Politics in Egypt were divided between the liberal Wafdists versus the conservative monarchical establishment. The Wafd had little to offer outside of defending the liberal framework and negotiating for greater autonomy; Wafdist elites were still wealthy land-owning capitalists who did not offer a radical program in

19234-479: The last day they could be held without charge. The case over the recertification of the Wafd went to the State Council on January 10, 1953. On the 17th, the junta announced the abolition of all political parties, where Naguib would rule in a three-year transitional period. The junta justified its decree because of the resistance to 'purification' and the opposition to land reform. The officers had underestimated

19397-442: The lower house of Egypt's quasi-bicameral legislature, is constitutionally empowered to question and even challenge presidential authority. However, that it chose not to do so cannot be attributed to the unanimous approval of presidential policies. In actuality, the People's Assembly was restricted to the role of rubber-stamping presidential authority because it is confined by presidential powers beyond its control. Under Article 152 of

19560-507: The man he just arrested to assure high command that everything was calm. By 3:00   a.m, Muhammad Naguib arrived at headquarters in Cairo. By 7:00   p.m, Sadat   —   who was at the movies during the coup   —   announced on the radio that the Free Officers had taken over; Egypt was now governed by the Revolutionary Command Council . At 7:30 a.m., a broadcasting station issued

19723-480: The mess and chaos in Egypt. The three governments of Ali Maher (January 27 – March 1), Ahmad Nagib al-Hilali (March 2 – July 2) and Hussein Sirri Pasha (July 2 – July 20) each failed to solve the situation. Maher moved quickly to restore order and calm the economic situation. He created a ministry of rural affairs to study proposals for land reform and lifted curfew restrictions by February. He tried to create

19886-474: The national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils. According to the Egyptian Constitution , political parties are allowed to exist. Religious political parties are not allowed as it would not respect the principle of non-interference of religion in politics and that religion has to remain in

20049-550: The need for politicians to negotiate full independence. These protests very quickly took an antisemitic turn, evolving into a prolonged pogrom of Alexandria's and Cairo's Jewish communities , often accompanied with chants of " death to the Jews " and antisemitic conspiracy theories that Jews were receiving beneficial treatment over " real Egyptians ." Prime Minister Ismail Sidky and British secretary of foreign affairs Ernest Bevin entered negotiations. However, issues over

20212-416: The officers at this time, though the historian Said Aburish argues that America did not know about the coup until two days beforehand but did not move to stop it after verifying it was not communist. By the spring of 1952, the Free Officers began plotting their coup. They had planned to overthrow the monarchy in early August, but events soon made them accelerate their plans. On July 16, King Farouk ordered

20375-511: The opposition. In response to the 1977 bread riots , Sadat said that people should "understand that democracy has its own teeth. The next time I'm going to be ten times as ruthless." In 1980 he declared Law 95, known as the Law of Shame, which criminalized many forms of expression. In September 1981, he arrested more than 1,000 of his critics from across the political spectrum. This crackdown is often cited in conjunction with Egypt's peace with Israel as

20538-434: The party a combined 88 percent parliamentary majority. The poor performance of the NDP in the 2000 parliamentary elections afforded Gamal Mubarak an opportunity to assert himself in party politics. He proposed overhauling the NDP in an effort to make it look and function more like a modern political party rather than a tool for recruiting support for the regime in exchange for government patronage . Michele Dunne, editor of

20701-412: The party of its corrupt officials and party members and that the party name would be changed to the " New National Party " to reflect the party's new age. The party even declared that it would adopt the ideals and goals of the recent Egyptian revolution in its party platform. However, on 16 April 2011, the NDP was dissolved by court order and its assets were ordered to be handed over to the government. In

20864-599: The party passed reformist legislation between 1942 and 1944 or 1950 and 1952, it could no longer convince the majority of the population that it held the country's best interests in mind. Instead, in these years of growing politicization of the people, many believed that the Wafd harbored the fear that the nationalist movement would become too radical and go beyond the existing framework of acceptable political and economic discourse. After decades of pseudo-independence, elitist infighting and deteriorating economic conditions, more radical politics consumed Egypt. The Muslim Brotherhood

21027-455: The party were not strong enough of pass the legislation needed to avoid a total revolution. Stubbornness and corruption made the Wafd incapable of delivering to the Egyptian people. The strategic value of the Suez Canal was too valuable for Britain in the Cold War to completely surrender. In a dramatic move, the Wafd abrogated the 1936 treaty in 1951. Anti-British demonstrations morphed into

21190-514: The policies of the Revolution were scaled back or reversed. The early successes of the Revolution encouraged numerous other nationalist movements in other countries, such as Algeria , where there were anti-imperialist and anti-colonial rebellions against European empires. It also inspired the toppling of existing pro-Western monarchies and governments in the MENA region. The Revolution is commemorated each year on 23 July. The history of Egypt during

21353-566: The pre-existing opposition. Members took a vow of secrecy with one hand on the Koran and the other on a revolver, and published anonymous leaflets and articles criticizing the higher command and the government as a whole for corruption. By 1952, it grew so large that few members knew the identities of the leaders of the conspiracy: Colonel Nasser and General Naguib. The founder of the CIA , Miles Copeland Jr. , claimed to have established contacts with

21516-435: The presidency." The re-imaging of the NDP had little effect on its mass appeal among Egyptians. Parliamentary elections of 2005 produced similarly disappointing results for the regime. NDP candidates won only 34 percent of the vote and again, it was only after co-opting "NDP Independents" and actual independents that the party was able to secure its two-thirds majority. Although opposition candidates only secured 28 percent of

21679-816: The president to be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. However, to declare war or to send armed forces outside state territory, the president must consult the National Defense Council and have the approval of the majority of the MPs. In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. A constitutional referendum was held in Egypt from 20 to 22 April 2019, with overseas voting taking place between 19 and 21 April. The proposed changes allowed President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi to remain in power until 2030; under

21842-419: The previous version of the constitution, he would have been barred from contesting the next elections, set to take place in 2022. The changes were approved by 88.83% of voters who voted, with a 44% turnout. Parliament meets for one eight-month session each year; under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session. Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since

22005-399: The private sphere to respect all beliefs. Also forbidden are political parties supporting militia formations or having an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution and its principles, or threatening the country's stability such as national unity between Muslim Egyptians and Christian Egyptians . As of 2015, there are more than 100 registered political parties in Egypt. The largest were

22168-618: The privileges of foreigners. It was during this time that the five major points of contentions among nationalists were crystallized: Following the Ottoman Empire's entry in to the First World War as a member of the Central Powers in 1914, the United Kingdom deposed Abbas II in favour of his pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamal . The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty was terminated, and the Sultanate of Egypt , destroyed by

22331-451: The removal of traditional corrupt elements within establishment parties. The Wafd hastily formed a "purge committee", expelling fourteen members, only one of which had any significant power. Old-guard Wafdists resisted the call for purification, while the younger elements supported the removal of the old-guard. On September 9, all parties were dissolved and had to apply for recertification with a list of founding members, financial statements and

22494-473: The resignation of Sadat's successor Hosni Mubarak in response to the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 . The National Democratic Party was an authoritarian centrist party. From its inception, it was by far the most powerful of the parties to emerge from the Arab Socialist Union (ASU), the former ruling sole party since 1962, and was as such seen as its organic successor. In contrast to ASU's strong emphasis on Arab nationalism and Arab socialism ( Nasserism ),

22657-412: The resistance by the liberal establishment, and sought to end the 'reactionary mentality' of the old system. On February 21, Naguib created the constitutional committee of fifty. Ali Maher served as president, who then divided the committee into five subcommittees and appointed a five-man executive committee. By March they had approved the creation of a Republic, ending the regency. However, the committee

22820-399: The resulting Battle of Ismalia left 56 Egyptians and 13 British dead. The next day, a series of riots engulfed Cairo. The Egyptian masses torched 750 foreign-owned stores, causing around 40-50 million Egyptian Pounds worth of damage. Black Saturday was the end for the Wafd; al-Nahhas was dismissed on the next day. After al-Nahhas, three independent politicians were appointed to clean up

22983-481: The situation known as cohabitation . The recent elections were held in 2015 and most recently in 2020 . The Shura Council was the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. In the Shura Council, 176 members were directly elected and 88 members were appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms. One half of the Shura Council was renewed every three years. The Shura Council's legislative powers were limited. On most matters of legislation,

23146-405: The state of the late Wafd: In contrast to the ideologically defined programs of the nonestablishment parties, the Wafd never developed a comprehensive plan to remedy the deep social and economic problems that troubled the country. As this became increasingly apparent, the population began to lose faith in the party, especially as conditions for consumers deteriorated during wartime. Thus, even when

23309-426: The status of Sudan and British troops ended hopes for a successful discussion. The ire of the nationalists concentrated on two issues, Sudan and the Suez. By flaming the fires of nationalism, the Egyptian elites forced themselves to intervene in the civil war in Palestine . During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war , Egyptian troops fought in the southern front against Israel . Though Egypt quickly gained controlled over

23472-536: The streets by cheering mobs. Egypt has passed through a critical period in her recent history characterized by bribery, mischief, and the absence of governmental stability. All of these were factors that had a large influence on the army. Those who accepted bribes and were thus influenced caused our defeat in the Palestine War [1948]. As for the period following the war, the mischief-making elements have been assisting one another, and traitors have been commanding

23635-430: The substance needed to open the way for meaningful democratic change. Dr Augustus Richard Norton of Boston University wrote in 2005 that: Certainly, the discovery of a democratic vocabulary does not stem from idealistic conversion, but from pragmatic conclusions about the need to relieve pressure and vent political steam, as well as the shrew recognition that democratization wins favour. ... The new language of politics in

23798-559: The sultanate. For all intents and purposes, the Sultanate of Egypt was as much controlled by the United Kingdom as the Khedivate of Egypt had been. After World War I , Egyptian nationalists tried to send a delegation (Arabic: Wafd) to the Paris Peace Conference to renegotiate for Egyptian independence. When Britain refused, nationalist anger at British control erupted into the Egyptian revolution of 1919 , prompting

23961-573: The time dubbed the Day of Rage, led largely by the country's youth through social media websites such as Facebook and Twitter . Another day of rage was planned soon thereafter for Friday, 28 January. Traditional opposition, including the country's Muslim Brotherhood , asked their supporters to join in protest after Friday prayers . In preparation for potentially massive protests, the ruling party attempted to cut off internet and phone access (mobile and land-line). Protests continued as planned, despite

24124-453: The time of the election and 89 at the end of another six-year term. The National Democratic Party of Egypt secured 420 of the 508 seats in the country's December 2010 elections for the lower house of parliament, the Majlis al-Shaab. The Muslim Brotherhood, which held roughly a fifth (88 seats) of parliament seats before the elections, won only one seat. Many human rights groups and NGOs decried

24287-437: The traditional economic structure of peasants and landlords. While the Wafd enjoyed genuine popularity among the masses, the degrading economic conditions of Egypt beginning the 1930s combined with the failure of the 1923 regime to adequately address these issues sparked the rise of socialist and labor movements. The Wafd believed that through gradual negotiations, it would be able to secure complete Egyptian independence. Egypt

24450-420: The war, an Egyptian commander commented: "The real battle is in Egypt." In 1950, the Wafd formed a government for the last time. After years of martial law and political chaos, the Wafd decisively won the 1950 elections on a mandate of continuing its historic political fight against Britain. al-Nahhas, who was now 70 years old, was no longer the national hero he was in 1919. Genuine economic reforms as well as

24613-466: The witnessing the 1949 Syrian coup , when Syrian military overthrew the government, whispers of a revolt spread throughout the corps. While an exact date is not known, by 1949 meetings and discussions in the homes of the officers started the beginning of the 'Free Officers' movement. While officers met with communists in the DMNL and Islamists in the Muslim Brotherhood , it was an organization independent of

24776-566: Was formed; a social class of educated Egyptians well-read in politics and culture known as the Effendi . Under the education minister Ali Pasha Mubarak , the public education system in Egypt grew the field of educated nationalist effendiyya. It was during this time that Italians , Greeks , French, Armenians , Jews , and other groups immigrated to Egypt, establishing a small but wealthy and politically powerful cosmopolitan community. Foreigners were not subject to Egyptian laws, but went through

24939-582: Was founded in 1928, pushing for an Islamic-revival against colonialism and modernity. Leftist movements like the Egyptian Communist Party , Iskra , and the Democratic Movement for National Liberation rallied growing numbers of striking workers, especially as King Farouk's extravagant lifestyle continued to insult the millions of Egyptians living in poverty. The 1945 riots in Egypt and the 1946 student protests demonstrated

25102-433: Was never conceived of as being an active institution with decision-making powers; rather, it was considered a civic association to mobilize the people. "Indeed, it was viewed more as a means of mobilizing political participation than as a vehicle for popular participation." Gamel Nasser died while holding office in 1970, and his Vice-President and successor, President Anwar Sadat , began a four-phased approach to introducing

25265-582: Was not a substitute for parliament; it was not taken seriously by the officers, who announced Egypt was a republic and Naguib was selected as president on June 18, without approval from the committee. By September, the Revolutionary Tribunal was formed, composed solely of three officers as judges, Abdel Baghdadi , Anwar Sadat and Hasan Ibrahim . In a speech in at Tahrir Square , Salah Salim described how colonialism in Egypt did not rule with soldiers or arms, but "traitors". Salim described

25428-417: Was not intended to serve as a political party, although it functioned as a party for all intents and purposes. In fact, the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), and in particular President Nasser, stressed the contrary. The new regime's perspective was to harness all leaders' energy and not dissipate it through parliamentary debates. The Liberation Rally's motto was "United, Order, and Work," intended to create

25591-452: Was not using government resources in the campaign – showed the touch of Gamal and his circle. Gamal Mubarak also used the NDP annual conferences as an opportunity to woo established political elites of Egypt. One analyst wrote that the real story of the 19–21 September NDP conference of 2006 was not the carefully packaged briefings offered by party members but "Gamal Mubarak's increasing political weight and seemingly unstoppable ascent towards

25754-481: Was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president. Article 133 of Egypt's constitution of 2012 determines a 4-year period of presidential mandate, to which the candidate can only be re-elected once. According to the document, to be eligible the candidate “must be Egyptian born to Egyptian parents, must have carried no other citizenship, must have civil and political right, cannot be married to a non-Egyptian,” and not be younger than 40 Gregorian years. Article 146 declares

25917-579: Was reluctant to enter a rushed union, but given the severity of the concerns regarding the Syrian communists, agreed to the establishment of a federation between Egypt and Syria, with its capital in Cairo, administered by the same institutions that governed Egypt. The agreement to establish the United Arab Republic was made on 1 February 1958. The National Union party was designed and used by Nasser to include and co-opt Syrian political actors into

26080-579: Was routinely renewed. The trend began when President Gamel Abdel Nasser succeeded in establishing a state of emergency in 1956, following the invasion of Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel , and continued until 1963 on the basis of the continuing threat of an offensive against Egypt. Nasser declared another state of emergency in June 1967 because of the Six-Day War , which lasted through the War of Attrition ,

26243-479: Was seldom used because there was no reason to do so. The majority of legislation passed through the People's Assembly was initiated by the President, and almost all of the President's proposals were passed by the mandated two-thirds' majority with little to no deliberation at all. Academics and analysts observed that talk of democracy and liberal reforms from Egypt's leaders was spurred by a desire to garner internal and external legitimacy; however, these reforms lacked

26406-763: Was successful in abolishing the Mixed courts in 1937, repealing the Public Debt Commission in 1940 , and negotiating the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty . This treaty limited the extent of British troops in Egypt (except with regards to the Suez canal and the Sudan), and the creation of a proper Egyptian military. During the Second World War , Egypt was a major Allied base for the North African campaign . Egypt remained officially neutral under

26569-581: Was the 1997 repeal of Nasser-era land reform policies under pressure for structural adjustment . A pole for this activity is the Land Center for Human Rights. The Egyptian Revolution of 2011 , inspired by the recent revolution in Tunisia , forced the resignation of President Mubarak and the Military Junta that succeeded him abrogated the Constitution and promised free and fair elections under

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