147-548: The Levant Egypt North Africa Anatolia & Constantinople Border conflicts Sicily and Southern Italy Naval warfare Byzantine reconquest The Arab conquest of Egypt , led by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As , took place between 639 and 642 AD and was overseen by the Rashidun Caliphate . It ended the seven-century-long Roman period in Egypt that had begun in 30 BC and, more broadly,
294-681: A decisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July. This defeat left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus, Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus, he prepared for its defence, writing to Emperor Heraclius in Emesa for reinforcements. Moreover, Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of
441-570: A cavalry force, caught up to the Romans using an unknown shortcut, and attacked them at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj , 305 kilometres (190 miles) north of Damascus. On 22 August, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appoint Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander-in-chief of the Islamic army . Abu Ubaidah got
588-548: A decade before being forced by the victories of Heraclius to conclude the peace of 628. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans (or Byzantines as modern Western historians conventionally refer to Romans of this period) were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years. Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces: Syria proper stretched from Antioch and Aleppo in
735-544: A decisive battle with the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah agreed, and concentrated them at Jabiya . This maneuver delivered a decisive blow to Heraclius' plan, since the latter did not wish to engage his troops in open battle with the Muslim light cavalry. From Jabiya, again on Khalid's suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim troops to withdraw to the Plain of the Yarmouk River, where the cavalry could be used effectively. While
882-457: A detailed report to Umar recommending ratification. He desired that as soon as the reactions of Heraclius were known, he should be informed so that further necessary instructions could be issued promptly. Upon hearing about this, Heraclius was furious and sent Cyrus a letter full of insults, calling him an abject coward and a heathen and asking whether 100,000 Romans were a match for 12,000 barbarians. The Byzantine commanders, knowing full well that
1029-456: A few days to evacuate so they might celebrate Easter. Many Copts who were imprisoned in Babylon, either for refusing to accept Chalcedon or on suspicion of treachery, were released from prison by the Romans, but Eudocianus, the brother of Domentianus, had them scourged and their hands cut off. The Siege of Babylon had lasted seven months. On 22 December, Cyrus of Alexandria entered a treaty with
1176-647: A full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history , starting with a confrontation with the Persian Empire under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid . After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of Iraq , Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, he also confronted
1323-716: A grand marriage procession which included two thousand horsemen, along with slaves and a long caravan laden with treasures that served both as dowry and tribute. On her way to Constantine, who was in Caesarea , she heard of the Arab army approaching Egypt and dispatched a regiment of her guards to defend Pelusium , a garrison city considered to be the eastern gateway to Egypt at the time, while she herself remained in Belbeis with more of her guards and sent warnings to her father Cyrus. However, Alfred J. Butler dismisses Armenousa's story as
1470-535: A joint survey conducted by the Mandatory government's Government Office of Statistics and Department of Lands for the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry , Rafah had an all-Muslim population of 2,220 people with 40,579 dunams of land. Of these, 275 dunams were plantations and irrigable land, 24,173 dunams were used for growing cereals , while 16,131 dunams were un-cultivable land. After
1617-458: A landing place on the coast (now Tell Rafah), while the main city was inland. In 1226, Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi writes of Rafah's former importance in the early Arab period, saying it was "of old a flourishing town, with a market, and a mosque , and hostelries". However, he goes on to say that in its current state, Rafah was in ruins, but was an Ayyubid postal station on the road to Egypt after nearby Deir al-Balah . Rafah appeared in
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#17327722014611764-416: A large force was positioned in the area between the ditch and the city walls. The Muslims besieged the fort, a massive structure 18 m (59 ft) high with walls more than 2 metres (6.6 feet) thick and studded with numerous towers and bastions and a force of some 4,000 men. Early Muslim sources place the strength of the Byzantine force in Babylon at about six times the strength of the Muslim force. For
1911-460: A little short of the Egyptian frontier. Guessing what might be in the letter, 'Amr ordered the army to quicken its pace. Turning to 'Uqbah, 'Amr said that he would receive the caliph's letter from him when the army had halted after the day's journey. 'Uqbah, unaware of the contents of the letter, agreed and marched along with the army. The army halted for the night at Shajratein, a little valley near
2058-566: A major defeat for the Byzantines. This battle and subsequent clean-up engagements forever ended Byzantine domination of the Levant. Meanwhile, Umar occupied Yazdegerd III in a grand deception. Yazdegerd III lost his army at the Battle of Qadisiyyah in November, three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west of Persia . With the Byzantine army routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured
2205-432: A myth. In December of 639 or early January 640, the Muslim army reached Pelusium. The siege of the town dragged on for two months. In February 640, an assault group, led by the prominent Huzaifah ibn Wala, successfully captured the fort and city. The losses incurred by the Muslim army were ameliorated by the number of Sinai Bedouins , who, taking the initiative, had joined them in conquering Egypt. The Bedouins belonged to
2352-467: A part of Khalid ibn al-Walid 's elite mobile guard , was appointed the supreme commander of the army. 'Umar had also offered Zubayr the chief command and governorship of Egypt, but Zubayr had declined. The column commanders included Miqdad ibn al-Aswad , 'Ubaidah ibn as-Samit and Kharijah ibn Hudhaifah . The reinforcements arrived at Babylon sometime in September 640, bringing the total strength of
2499-511: A relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly thereafter, the Muslims, having just won the Battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. In the meantime, the Byzantine army split in two, one deployed at Maraj al Rome ( Beqaa Valley ) led by Schinos;
2646-644: A semi-autonomous state with their own king under Roman vassalage. The Ghassanid Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassanid king ruling over the Arabs in Jordan and Southern Syria from his capital at Bostra . The last of the Ghassanid kings, who ruled at the time of the Muslim invasion, was Jabalah ibn al-Aiham . The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius , after re-capturing Syria from
2793-440: A siege, sent armies to delay or, if possible, halt Khalid's march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at the Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August near Lake Tiberias , 145 kilometres (90 mi) from Damascus. Another was defeated in the Battle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August. These engagements had the desired effect, delaying Khalid long enough to prepare for a siege. However, by the time Heraclius' reinforcements had reached
2940-743: Is a city in the southern Gaza Strip , Palestine . It is the capital of the Rafah Governorate of the State of Palestine , located 30 kilometers (19 mi) south-west of Gaza City . In 2017, Rafah had a population of 171,889. As a result of massive bombardment and ground assaults in Gaza City and Khan Yunis by Israel during the Israel–Hamas war , about 1.4 million Palestinians are believed to be sheltering in Rafah as of February 2024. After
3087-628: Is best depicted by the ambivalent views held by the Byzantines and the painstakingly slow reaction of the Sasanians. After defeating the Byzantines at Yarmuk (636) and the Persians at Qadisiyah (637), the gaze of the Arab generals turned towards the riches of Byzantine Africa . After the Siege of Jerusalem , it was Amr ibn al-As who suggested an invasion of Egypt to the Caliph, being familiar with
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#17327722014613234-561: Is immediately south of Rafah, while Canada was just across the border in Sinai. Both were named because UN peacekeeping troops from those respective countries had maintained barracks in those locations. After the 1978 Camp David Accords mandated the repatriation of Canada project refugees to the Gaza Strip, the Tel al-Sultan project, northwest of Rafah, was built to accommodate them. During
3381-418: Is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies. When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him; for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is! And when you have won a victory over your enemies, don't kill women or children or the aged and do not slaughter beasts except for eating. And break not
3528-603: The 1948 Arab–Israeli War , Egypt governed the area (see Palestinian Protectorate ) and refugee camps were established. During the Suez Crisis , 111 Palestinians, including 103 refugees, were killed by troops of the Israel Defence Force in the Palestinian refugee camp of Rafah, during the 1956 Rafah massacre . The United Nations was unable to determine the circumstances surrounding the deaths. During
3675-603: The 1948 Palestine war , Egypt governed the area and refugee camps for displaced Palestinians who fled or were expelled from what became Israel were established. During the Suez Crisis , the Israel Defence Forces (IDF) killed 111 Palestinians, including 103 refugees in the Rafah refugee camp, during the 1956 Rafah massacre . During the 1967 Six-Day War , Israeli forces occupied the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip after capturing them from Egypt. In
3822-658: The Assyrians , רפיח Rāphiyaḥ by the ancient Israelites , Ῥαφία Rhaphíā by the Greeks , Raphia by the Romans , and Rafh by the Arab Caliphate . In English, Rafah ( / ˈ r ɑː f ə / (US) or / ˈ r æ f ə / (UK)), derived from the modern Arabic, is most common, but Rafiah / r ə ˈ f iː ə / (from the modern Hebrew) is also used. The form Raphiah / r ə ˈ f aɪ ə / (from
3969-533: The Greco-Roman period that had lasted about a millennium. Shortly before the conquest, Byzantine (Eastern Roman ) rule in the country had been shaken, as Egypt had been conquered and occupied for a decade by the Sasanian Empire in 618–629, before being recovered by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius . The Caliphate took advantage of Byzantines' exhaustion to invade Egypt. During the mid-630s,
4116-534: The IDF southern command ), destroyed approximately 500 houses in the refugee camps of Rafah in order to create patrol roads for Israeli forces. These demolitions displaced nearly 4,000 people. Israel established the Brazil and Canada housing projects to accommodate displaced Palestinians and to provide better conditions in the hopes of integrating the refugees into the general population and its standard of living; Brazil
4263-769: The Levant in 925 BCE. In 720 BCE it was the site of the Assyrian king Sargon II 's victory over the Egyptians . In 217 BCE the Battle of Raphia was fought between the victorious Ptolemy IV and Antiochus III . It is said to be one of the largest battles ever fought in the Levant, with over a hundred thousand soldiers and hundreds of elephants . Antiochus III , willing to make peace with Ptolemy V , had his daughter Cleopatra I marry Ptolemy V. Their marriage took place in 193 BC in Raphia. The town
4410-709: The Negev , Sinai , and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula as Palaestina Salutaris , sometimes called Palaestina III or Palaestina Tertia . Part of the area was ruled by the Arab vassal state of the Ghassanids ' symmachos . During the last of the Roman-Persian Wars , beginning in 603, the Persians under Khosrau II had succeeded in occupying Syria, Palestine and Egypt for over
4557-610: The Rafah Border Crossing , the sole crossing point between Egypt and the Gaza Strip . Gaza's only airport, Yasser Arafat International Airport , was located just south of the city. The airport operated from 1998 to 2001, until it was bombed and bulldozed by the Israeli military (IDF). Over the ages the city has been known as Rpwḥw by the ancient Egyptians , 𒊏𒉿𒄭 Rapiḫi or 𒊏𒉿𒄷 Rapiḫu by
Arab conquest of Egypt - Misplaced Pages Continue
4704-784: The Sassanians , set up new defense lines from Gaza to the south end of the Dead Sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and the bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in Northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. The drawback of this defense line was that it enabled the Muslims , advancing from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Gaza before meeting regular Byzantine troops. The 7th century
4851-566: The Syrian Desert . It is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a predetermined water source at an oasis . Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines on their right flank. According to modern historians, this ingenious strategic maneuver unhinged the Byzantine defences in Syria. Ain Tamer , Quraqir, Suwa, Arak , and
4998-471: The jizya , or fight. They requested three days to reflect and then, according to Al-Tabari , requested two extra days. At the end of the five days, the two monks and the general decided to reject Islam and the jizya and fight the Muslims, thus disobeying Cyrus, who wanted to surrender and pay jizya. Cyrus left for the Babylon Fortress . The battle resulted in a Muslim victory during which Aretion
5145-668: The 1596 Ottoman tax registers as being in the Nahiya of Gaza of the Liwa of Gazza . It had a population of 15 households, all Muslim, who paid taxes on wheat, barley, summer crops, occasional revenues, goats and/or bee hives. In 1799, the French Army of the Orient , led by Napoleon , passed through Rafah during the French campaign in Egypt and Syria . Rafah was the boundary between
5292-508: The 1967 Six-Day War , Israeli forces captured Rafah as part of their invasion of the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip . The population was about 55,000, of whom only 11,000 lived in Rafah itself. On Friday, 9 June 1967, the Israeli military bulldozed & blew up 144 houses in Rafah refugee camp, killing 23 Palestinians. In the summer of 1971, the IDF, under General Ariel Sharon (then head of
5439-423: The 2006 PCBS estimate, Rafah city had a population of 71,003, Rafah camp and Tall as-Sultan form separate localities for census purposes, having populations of 59,983 and 24,418, respectively. Rafah has a history stretching back thousands of years. It was first recorded in an inscription of Egyptian Pharaoh Seti I , from 1303 BCE as Rph , and as the first stop on Pharaoh Shoshenq I 's campaign to
5586-759: The Arab Muslim conquest and had been invaded by the Sassanid Persians on a number of occasions during the 3rd, 6th and 7th centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanids' Arab allies, the Lakhmids . During the Roman period , beginning after the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70 , the entire region ( Judea , Samaria , and the Galilee ) was renamed Palaestina , subdivided into Diocese I and II. The Romans also renamed an area of land including
5733-473: The Arabs and Byzantines on the southern Levantine borders of the Byzantine Empire had occurred during the lifetime of Muhammad , with the Battle of Muʿtah in 629 CE. However, the actual conquest did not begin until 634, two years after Muhammad's death. It was led by the first two Rashidun caliphs who succeeded Muhammad: Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab . During this time, Khalid ibn al-Walid
5880-938: The Blues in Alexandria to his side, to which Menas responded by enlisting the Greens. There also came to Alexandria Philiades, prefect of the province of Faiyum and brother of Patriarch George I of Alexandria . Philiades was Menas' friend, but unlike Menas he was corrupt and unpopular, so much so that he was nearly lynched . Muslim conquest of the Levant Byzantine Empire Sassanid Persia Caucasus Other regions The Levant Egypt North Africa Anatolia & Constantinople Border conflicts Sicily and Southern Italy Naval warfare Byzantine reconquest The Muslim conquest of
6027-467: The Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000. Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in the third week of May 634. Because Abu Ubaida did not have experience as a commander of military forces in such major operations, especially against the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to assume command. According to early Muslim chronicles, Abu Bakr said, "By Allah, I shall destroy
Arab conquest of Egypt - Misplaced Pages Continue
6174-498: The Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to Fahl , which is about 150 metres (500 ft) below sea level, where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of the Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim communications with Arabia. Moreover, with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded. Khalid, commanding
6321-466: The Caliph, so that his soldiers might join additional campaigns being planned elsewhere", however there was a provision in the letter stating that 'Amr's first duty was the protection of his troops, and if he found himself on Egyptian soil by the time he received the letter, the Caliph would leave overall strategic command of movement to him, so as to not unduly burden troops already in the field. The messenger, 'Uqbah ibn 'Amr, caught up with Amr at Rafah ,
6468-546: The Emperor would send reinforcements to Egypt. Constantine had been preparing a fleet to send to Egypt, but died on May 25 after a reign of just 100 days. With Heraclonas as sole emperor, Martina gained complete control over the government. She had Heraclonas give Cyrus express permission to make peace at any price with the Arabs, but also gave him reinforcements and a new general named Constantine to replace John. After Theodore and Cyrus' left for Egypt with reinforcements, Martina
6615-644: The Ghassanids, Arab clients of the Byzantines. Medina soon recruited tribal contingents from all over the Arabian peninsula . Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until 636, when Caliph Umar fell short of manpower for the Battle of Yarmouk and the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah . The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised
6762-401: The IDF to create an evacuation plan to remove civilians before launching an offensive against Rafah which is the last major population center in the Gaza Strip still under Hamas control and the elimination of Hamas was considered to be impossible as long as the four Hamas battalions in Rafah are intact. Prior to the start of the ground invasion, Israel began to intensify its strikes on Rafah from
6909-517: The IDF, Shin Bet, and Israel Police recovered two hostages (Fernando Simon Marman and Louis Har) kidnapped by Hamas from Nir Yitzhak . During this operation, heavy bombardment by the IDF occurred in the area that includes many refugee camps killing 112 people with several bodies still under the rubble. Rafah is the site of the Rafah Border Crossing , the sole crossing between the Gaza Strip and Egypt. Formerly operated by Israeli military forces, control of
7056-592: The Israeli Defence Forces' (IDF) war on Gaza, civilians were told to flee to Rafah and forcibly displaced from their homes . Although the Israeli government declared the southern half of Gaza a safe zone, the IDF proceeded to bomb the region extensively, with a New York Times investigation estimating that 2,000-pound bombs were dropped at least 200 times as of 21 December 2023. By February 2024, roughly two-thirds of Gaza's population, or 1.4 million people, had been forcibly displaced from other parts of
7203-430: The Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah. Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a small Christian Arab force that was retreating after a skirmish with the Muslim advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley of Arabah where it meets the southern end of the Dead Sea . As the main Byzantine defence line started from the coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at
7350-448: The Levant ( Arabic : فَتْحُ الشَّام , romanized : Fatḥ al-šām ; lit. ' Conquest of Syria ' ), or Arab conquest of Syria , was a 634–638 CE invasion of Byzantine Syria by the Rashidun Caliphate . A part of the wider Arab-Byzantine Wars , as well as the larger Muslim colonial project, the Levant was brought under Arab Muslim rule and developed into the provincial region of Bilad al-Sham . Clashes between
7497-409: The Muslim advance to Alexandria was blocked by a Byzantine force about 20,000 strong. The resulting action remained indecisive for ten days. However, on the tenth day, the Muslims launched a vigorous assault, forcing the defeated Byzantines to retreat to Alexandria. With the way to Alexandria clear, the Muslims reached the capital's outskirts in March. Heraclius died in February 641, two months before
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#17327722014617644-417: The Muslim armies were gathering at Yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed the Byzantine advance guard, ensuring a safe path of retreat. The Muslim armies reached the plain in July. A week or two later, around mid-July, the Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander-in-chief, Vahan, sent Ghassanid forces, under their king, Jabala, to gauge the Muslim strength. Khalid's mobile guard defeated and routed them,
7791-403: The Muslim army marched from Shajratein to El Arish , a small town lacking a garrison. The town put up no resistance, and the citizens offered allegiance on the usual terms. According to tradition, Cyrus of Alexandria had a beautiful daughter named Armenousa, who he desired to marry to Heraclius Constantine . Constantine accepted the marriage proposal, so in late 639 Armenousa left Babylon in
7938-465: The Muslim force to 12,000 (and likely far less, given losses incurred), still quite modest. It is said that a Coptic soldier, seeing the size of the Muslim force, expressed amazement that such a small force could stand against the Emperor's army, whereto another soldier replied that Arabs could not yield, and had to either emerge victorious or die to the last man. In another anecdote, some Roman soldiers refused to fight, saying 'We have small chance against
8085-424: The Muslims' next target was Alexandria, set out to repel the Muslims through continued sallies from the fort or, at least, to exhaust them and erode their morale in a campaign of attrition. In February 641, 'Amr set off for Alexandria from Babylon with his army, encountering defending regiments all along the route. On the third day of their march the Muslims' advance guard encountered a Byzantine detachment at Tarnut on
8232-407: The Muslims' victory at Heliopolis reached Fayoum, its governor, Domentianus, and his troops fled without informing the people of Fayoum and Abuit that they were abandoning their cities to the enemy. When news reached 'Amr, he sent troops across the Nile to invade Fayoum and Abuit, capturing the entire province of Fayoum with practically no resistance. Fayoum's population was enslaved , and the city
8379-439: The Muslims, but Theodore fought 'Amr there and defeated him, inflicting many casualties on the Muslims. Unable to damage any cities in the Nile Delta , they retreated back to Babylon. However, Theodore was unable to follow up this victory by recapturing Babylon. The final assault of the Muslims was on Good Friday , April 6 641, and by Easter Monday the Roman troops had evacuated and began marching to Nikiû . The Romans were given
8526-441: The Muslims, recognizing Muslim sovereignty over the whole of Egypt and effectively over Thebaid , and agreeing to pay Jizya at the rate of 2 diners per male adult. The treaty was subject to the approval of the emperor Heraclius, but Cyrus stipulated that even if the emperor repudiated the treaty, he and the Egyptians , would honour its terms. Cyrus asked Heraclius to ratify the treaty and offered an argument in support. 'Amr submitted
8673-420: The Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid." Khalid immediately set out for Syria from Al-Hirah , in Iraq , in early June, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq: one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing through Raqqa . The Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided
8820-412: The Romans had already lost the Levant and its Ghassanid allies in Arabia to the Caliphate. The loss of the prosperous province of Egypt and the defeat of the Byzantine armies severely weakened the empire, resulting in further territorial losses in the centuries to come. In 640, Heraclius was the Byzantine emperor , Cyrus of Alexandria was both the governor of Egypt ( praefectus Aegypti ) and
8967-401: The Sun Temple of the Pharaohs and grandiose monuments and learning institutions. There was the danger that forces from Heliopolis could attack the Muslims from the flank while they were engaged with the Roman army at Babylon. There was a cavalry clash near the current neighbourhood of Abbaseya . The engagement was not decisive, but it resulted in the occupation of the fortress located between
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#17327722014619114-428: The Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached Elat . The two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, were easily defeated by them, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached
9261-421: The advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, sallied out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; however, Khalid reached the arena with his cavalry and saved Shurhabil. The combined forces of Khalid, Shurhabil, and Abu Ubaidah then resumed the siege of Bosra , which surrendered some time in mid-July 634 CE, effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty. Here Khalid took over
9408-460: The advance guard, reached Fahl first and found that the Byzantines had flooded the plains by blocking the River Jordan . The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635. Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine. Bet She'an surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of Tiberias in February. Umar, after having learned of
9555-425: The air. More than 44 people were killed in airstrikes on Rafah on 11 February, with many likely still under the rubble. Netanyahu continued to push for a ground invasion, claiming that "We're going to do it....Victory is within reach". On 11 February, The Wall Street Journal reported that Egypt had warned Hamas to release hostages within two weeks or face an IDF invasion of Rafah. A joint operation in Rafah by
9702-419: The ancient Hebrew) is used as well, especially in historical contexts such as the Battle of Raphiah . The Ottoman–British agreement of 1 October 1906 established a boundary between Ottoman-ruled Palestine and British-ruled Egypt , from Taba to Rafah. After World War I , Palestine was also under British control, but the Egypt-Palestine Boundary was maintained to control movement of the local Bedouin . During
9849-439: The army as a state department. Abu Bakr organised the army into four corps, each with its own commander and objective. Not knowing the precise position of the Byzantine army , Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could render assistance if the Byzantines were able to concentrate their army in any operational sector. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah
9996-411: The body of John, which had been thrown in the Nile, to be found. It was retrieved with a net, embalmed with honour and sent back to Heraclius . As Theodore was commander-in-chief, Heraclius blamed him for John's death. Feeling that he was blamed due to negative reports from Theodosius and Anastasius, Theodore formed an enmity with them. In July, 'Amr wrote to 'Umar requesting reinforcements, but before
10143-521: The capital of the Ghassanids. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border, at Bosra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army in a quick battle, called the Battle of Marj-al-Rahit . Meanwhile, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of the Muslim armies in Syria, had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Bosra. The latter laid siege to Bosra with his small army of 4000. The Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, realizing that this might be
10290-421: The captain of the ship claimed the wind was contrary to him, and Theodore was stuck with Cyrus. They returned to Alexandria on September 14, 641, the Feast of the Cross . Meanwhile in Egypt, Anastasius had been appointed temporary prefect of Egypt , and during his time the Muslims captured both Babylon and Nikiu . Domentianus and his soldiers were guarding Nikiu. When he saw the enemy approaching cravenly fled
10437-442: The cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign. Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern day Ablah , near Zahlé 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled
10584-552: The city Khalid had begun his siege, having reached Damascus on 20 August. To isolate the city from the rest of the region Khalid placed detachments south on the road to Palestine and in the north at the Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraclius' reinforcements were intercepted and routed at the Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab , 30 kilometres (20 mi) from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break
10731-400: The city in a small boat, leaving his soldiers to their fate. They attempted to follow him, but in the panic the boatmen fled to their home provinces, leaving many of the soldiers stranded. When the Arabs arrived, the soldiers threw their weapons into the water before their enemies, hoping to be spared, but instead they were all massacred. According to John of Nikiu, the only man who lived to tell
10878-502: The city of El Arish , which 'Amr knew to be beyond the Egyptian border. 'Amr then received and read 'Umar's letter and went on to consult his companions as to the course of action to be adopted. The unanimous view was that as they had received the letter on Egyptian soil, they had permission to proceed. When 'Umar received the reply, he decided to watch further developments and to start concentrating fresh forces at Madinah that could be dispatched to Egypt as reinforcements. On Eid al-Adha ,
11025-537: The city. In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandatory authorities , Rafah had a population of 599 inhabitants, all of which Muslim. Nine years later, the Mandatory authorities conducted the 1931 census of Palestine , by which time Rafah's population had increased to 1,423 residents living in 228 houses, all of which were still Muslim. In the Village Statistics, 1945 ,
11172-491: The command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources claim the Byzantine strength to have been 90,000, although most modern historians doubt the figures, yet consider this battle to be the key to breaking Byzantine power in Syria. On Khalid's instructions, all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they won
11319-417: The conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil moved against the coastal towns of Acre and Tyre . Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of Sidon , Arqa , Byblos and Beirut . By 635 CE , Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of Jerusalem , Caesarea and Ashkelon , were in Muslim hands. On the orders of Umar, Yazid next besieged Caesarea, which, barring a suspension around
11466-467: The conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided the Mesopotamian route because of the presence of Roman garrisons there and in Northern Syria. To engage them at a time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing through
11613-482: The country's prosperity both from visiting it as a merchant and from leading the expedition to Gaza in 637. Appealing to the Caliph, he said "the conquest of Egypt will give great power to the Muslims and will be a great aid to them, for it is the wealthiest land and the weakest in fighting and war power." After being convinced by Amr to proceed with the invasion, the caliph Umar is said to have had "an eleventh-hour change of heart", but too late to stop it. This element of
11760-611: The crossing was transferred to the Palestinian Authority in September 2005 as part of the larger Israeli withdrawal from the Gaza Strip. A European Union commission began monitoring the crossing in November 2005 amid Israeli security concerns, and in April 2006, Palestinian Authority chairman Mahmoud Abbas 's Presidential Guard assumed responsibility for the site on the Palestinian Authority side. On
11907-531: The current neighborhoods of Abdyn and Azbakeya . The defeated Byzantine soldiers retreated to either the Babylon Fortress or the fortress of Nikiû. Zubayr and some of his handpicked soldiers scaled the Heliopolis city wall at an unguarded point and, after overpowering the guards, opened the gates for the army to enter the city. After the capture of Heliopolis, 'Amr returned to Babylon. When news of
12054-459: The early months of First Intifada on 25 April 1989 Rafah resident Khaled Musa Armilat, aged 22, was shot dead by Israeli soldiers in Khan Yunis . In a letter to a Member of Knesset , March 1990, Defence Minister Yitzhak Rabin stated that the dead man's brother had been interrogated and stated that he had been killed by Border Police but four months later he blamed the army . Rabin added
12201-517: The exhaustion of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offensive, frustrating the plan. Five massive armies were launched in June to recapture Syria. Khalid, having grasped Heraclius' plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then destroyed piecemeal. He thus suggested to Abu Ubaidah in a council of war that he consolidate all the Muslim armies at one place to force
12348-468: The fall of the Babylon Fortress , and was succeeded by his two sons Constantine III and Heraclonas as co-emperors. Heraclonas' mother, Martina , ruled through Heraclonas because of his young age and consistently opposed Constantine. Constantine, following his father's wishes, summoned Cyrus and Theodore to Constantinople to discuss the invasion. Cyrus was in favour of surrendering to the Muslims, whereas Theodore wanted to continue fighting them and hoped
12495-432: The family of Theodorus there, killed all of them. Now 30 km (19 miles) from Tarnut, the Byzantine detachment that had withdrawn from Tarnut the day before joined another that was already at Shareek, and both attacked and routed the Muslim cavalry. The next day, before the Byzantines could annihilate the Muslim advance guard completely, the main Muslim army arrived, prompting the Byzantines to withdraw. The following day,
12642-578: The following morning with tactics similar to those that had been used by Khalid ibn Walid at Damascus. However, Theodore and his army managed to slip away to the island of Rauda during the night, whence they continued to fight the Muslims. During this time, Theodore assembled an army in the Nile Delta and put two generals in charge of defending Samannud . Hearing of this, 'Amr went north to destroy this army. The two generals in Samannud refused to fight
12789-513: The government-appointed Patriarch of Alexandria , and Theodore was the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army in the province. Following the death of Muhammad in 632 AD, the Arab armies of the Rashidun Caliphate began expanding toward both Sasanian Persia and the Byzantine Empire . Neither of the two former powers was prepared for the aggressive expansion of the Arabs, as both largely underestimated Islam and its growing support; this
12936-621: The great Temple of Jupiter stood. In May 636, Heliopolis surrendered to the Muslims after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards Emesa . Emesa and Chalcis offered a peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah accepted the offer and, rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured Hamah , and Maarrat al-Nu'man . Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch, Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. The Byzantine reinforcement of Emesa violated
13083-417: The historical city of Tadmur were first to fall to Khalid. Sukhnah , al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were captured after the Battle of al-Qaryatayn and the Battle of Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus through a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab Pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Bosra ,
13230-406: The last action before the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile, Muslim reinforcements arrived from Umar. Abu Ubaidah, in another council of war, transferred field command of the Muslim army to Khalid. Finally, on 15 August, the Battle of Yarmouk was fought, lasting six days and ending in
13377-667: The latter's daughter (or granddaughter, according to tradition) Manyanh. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was supposed to mount a well-coordinated counterattack on his front in Iraq , while Heraclius attacked in the Levant. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and started peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III , apparently inviting him to join Islam . When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to
13524-420: The leading elements of Muslim army before the main body could join them at Hazir 5 kilometres (3 mi) east of Chalcis. The resulting Battle of Hazir even reportedly forced Umar to praise Khalid's military genius, saying, "Khalid is truly the commander. May Allah have mercy upon Abu Bakr. He was a better judge of men than I have been." Rafah Rafah ( Arabic : رفح Rafaḥ [rafaħ] )
13671-508: The letter memorializing this during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city had been conquered. Later on, Khalid pledged his loyalty to the new Caliph and continued to serve as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said, "If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we listen and obey." Abu Ubaidah moved more slowly and steadily, which had a concomitant effect on military operations in Syria. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of
13818-463: The letter reached him, the caliph had already dispatched 4,000 men, mostly veterans of the Syrian campaigns , to bolster Amr's strength. Even with the reinforcements, 'Amr was unsuccessful and so, by August, 'Umar had assembled another 4,000-strong force, consisting of four columns, each of 1,000 elite men. Zubayr ibn al-Awwam , a renowned warrior and commander, veteran of the Battle of Yarmouk and once
13965-598: The matter was being investigated by the Israeli Police . Three and a half weeks after Armilat's killing, 19 May, five civilians including a 50-year-old woman and a 13-year-old boy, were killed in Rafah by Israeli soldiers using plastic bullets . Two of the 12 other casualties later died of their wounds. In May 2004, the Israeli Government led by, then Prime Minister, Ariel Sharon approved another mass demolition of homes in Rafah. Therefore, he obtained
14112-584: The men who have conquered Chosroes and Caesar in Syria.' When Zubayr arrived, he pointed out to ‘Amr that the Roman-garrisoned city of Heliopolis was a short distance away, and that troops from there could relieve the Siege of Babylon. To remove this threat, ‘Amr went with about half of his men there. The Muslim army reached Heliopolis, 15 km (10 mi) from Babylon, in July 640. The city boasted
14259-659: The mid-1930s, the British enhanced the border control and Rafah evolved as a small boundary town that functioned as a trade and services centre for the semi-settled Beduin population. During World War II , it became an important British base. Following the Armistice Agreement of 24 February 1949, Rafah was located in Egypt-occupied Gaza and consequently, a Gaza–Egypt border did no longer exist. Rafah could grow without any consideration being taken of
14406-612: The military commander of the garrison and exiled him from the city, replacing him with Menas, who was a non-Chalcedonian Copt and popular with the army. Menas held a grudge against Domentianus' brother Eudocianus for Eudocianus' torture of the Coptic prisoners in Babylon . Theodore was angry with Domentianus for his cowardly flight from Nikiu and took Menas' side in their quarrel. Despite being brothers-in-law, Domentianus also disrespected Cyrus and showed him unreasonable hatred. He enlisted
14553-402: The next two months, fighting remained inconclusive, with the Byzantines repulsing every Muslim assault. Realising that Babylon was too strong to take, 'Amr sent a detachment to raid the city of Faiyum . The Byzantines had anticipated that and so had strongly guarded the roads that led to the city and had fortified their garrison in the nearby town of Lahun . At this time, the governor of Faiyum
14700-459: The nickname "the bulldozer". In September 2005, Israel withdrew from the Gaza strip but Rafah remained divided, with part of it on the Egyptian side of the border under Egyptian rule. It has been claimed that it was in order to cope with the division of the town, that smugglers have made tunnels under the border, connecting the two parts and permitting the smuggling of goods and persons. During
14847-485: The north to the top of the Dead Sea . To the west and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of Palestine . Syria was mostly made up of Aramaic and Greek speakers with a partly Arab population, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The Arabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful Ghassanid tribe from Yemen to Syria, who converted to Christianity and thereafter ruled
14994-525: The old 1906 international boundary. In the 1967 Six-Day War , Israel conquered the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt and all of the city was now under Israeli occupation. In 1979, Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty that returned the Sinai , which borders the Gaza Strip, to Egyptian control. In the Peace Treaty, the re-created Gaza–Egypt border was drawn across the city of Rafah. Rafah
15141-614: The other, commanded by Theodras, stationed to the west of Damascus ( Al-Sabboura region). During the night, Theodras advanced to Damascus to launch a surprise attack. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his mobile guard . While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Marj ar-Rum , Khalid moved to Damascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras there. A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards Heliopolis , where
15288-425: The outposts of Pelusium and Belbeis, the Muslims had met stiff resistance, with sieges of two and one months, respectively. As Babylon, near what is now Cairo, was a larger and more important city, resistance on a larger scale was expected. The Muslims arrived at Babylon some time in May 640. Babylon was a fortified city, and Theodore had indeed prepared it for a siege. Outside the city, a ditch had been dug, and
15435-456: The pacts which you make. You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay
15582-400: The panic the boatmen fled to their home provinces, leaving many of the soldiers stranded. When the Arabs arrived, the soldiers threw their weapons into the water before their enemies, hoping to be spared, but instead they were all massacred. According to John of Nikiu , the only man who lived to tell the tale was a “gallant warrior” named Zacharias. The Muslims then passed by Sais and, finding
15729-622: The position and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to his corps commanders there and ordered Yazid to capture the Mediterranean coast. Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison and defeated them in the Second Battle of Ajnadyn. The two corps then separated, with Amr moving to capture Nablus , Amawas , Jaffa , Haifa , Gaza and Yubna in order to complete
15876-433: The provinces of Egypt and Syria. In 1832, the area came under Egyptian occupation of Muhammad Ali , which lasted until 1840. French explorer Victor Guérin , who visited Rafah in May 1863, noted two pillars of granite which the locals called Bab el Medinet, meaning "The Gate of the town". In 1881, Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria wrote: "Fragments of gray granite pillars, still standing, are here to be met with about
16023-499: The raid. After his past experiences, Heraclius now avoided pitched battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities, isolate the Muslim corps from each other, and then separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies. Part of his plan was to coordinate his attacks with those of Yazdgerd III , the Sassanid emperor . In 635 Yazdgerd III had sought an alliance with Heraclius, marrying
16170-522: The region between Bosra and Jabiya . The Emperor Heraclius, having received intelligence of the movements of the Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraclius' orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the north started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of the rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of
16317-641: The region of Balqa in the Byzantine Empire . This expedition was known as the Expedition of Usama bin Zayd and its stated aim was to avenge the Muslim losses at the Battle of Mu'tah , in which Usama's father and Muhammad's former adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah , had been killed. Usama's expedition in May/June 632 was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade and raid Byzantine territory. Muhammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr
16464-535: The road, the fields, and the sand, and we saw one lying on the ground half buried... The pillars are the remains of an ancient temple, Raphia, and are of special importance in the eyes of the Arabs, who call them Rafah, as they mark the boundary between Egypt and Syria." On 9 January 1917, British forces captured Rafah , and subsequently used it as a staging post for their first attempt to capture Gaza . The presence of British military bases in Rafah served an economic draw which led to an influx of internal migration to
16611-409: The same year, IDF troops bulldozed and demolished 144 houses in the Rafah refugee camp, killing 23 Palestinians. When Israel withdrew from the Sinai in 1982, Rafah was split into a Gazan part and an Egyptian part , dividing families, separated by barbed-wire barriers. The core of the city was destroyed by Israel, as well as Egypt, in order to create a large buffer zone . Rafah is the site of
16758-443: The siege. Khalid finally attacked and conquered Damascus on 18 September after 30 days, although, according to some sources, the siege had in fact lasted for four or six months. Heraclius, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left for Antioch from Emesa . The citizens were granted peace on the promise of annual tribute and the Byzantine army was given three days to go as far as they could. After three days, Khalid took
16905-404: The small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of the Muslim army. Abu Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison on 15 October and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners. By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to
17052-400: The soldiers belonged to the Arab tribe of Ghafik. The Arab soldiers were also joined by some Roman and Persian converts to Islam. However, ' Umar , the Muslim caliph , reconsidered his orders to Amr and considered it unwise to expect to conquer such a large country as Egypt with a mere 4,000 soldiers. Accordingly, he wrote a letter to 'Amr ordering him to "return with all haste to the court of
17199-412: The story, which conveys the caliph's wariness at allowing a general to seize such an asset, may have been a later embellishment in light of Amr's subsequent reputation as a stubbornly independent governor. According to Arab sources, In December 639, 'Amr ibn al-'As left for Egypt with a force of 4,000 troops. Most of the soldiers belonged to the Arab tribe of 'Ak, but Al-Kindi mentioned that one third of
17346-576: The tale was a "gallant warrior" named Zacharias. The Muslims then passed by Sais and, finding relatives of Theodore there, killed them. John of Nikiu also says that "Egypt also had become enslaved to Satan. A great strife had broken out between the inhabitants of Lower Egypt , and these were divided into two parties. Of these, one sided with Theodore, but the other wished to join the Moslem." The Muslims had also begun their Siege of Alexandria . When Theodore returned to Alexandria, he dismissed Domentianus as
17493-523: The territory into Rafah, with the IDF declaring its intent to enter the city. Critics have warned about the potential for mass civilian casualties in the event of a ground invasion , with the UN secretary general António Guterres arguing that "Such an action would exponentially increase what is already a humanitarian nightmare with untold regional consequences." On 9 February, Benjamin Netanyahu ordered
17640-405: The territory they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high commanders, including Khalid, and decided to conquer Jerusalem . The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Umar personally. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent to impersonate the caliph , due to his very strong resemblance. However, Khalid
17787-574: The time of the Battle of Yarmouk , lasted until the port fell in 640. According to lexicographer David ben Abraham al-Fasi (died before 1026 CE), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the Temple Mount . After the battle, which proved to be the key to Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with
17934-404: The total population was approximately 10,800. In the 1997 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) census, Rafah and its adjacent camp had a combined population of 91,181, Tall as-Sultan was listed with a further 17,141. Refugees made up 80.3% of the entire population. In the 1997 census, Rafah's (together with Rafah camp ) gender distribution was 50.5% male and 49.5% female. In
18081-668: The treaty, and Abu Ubaidah and Khalid accordingly marched there. A Byzantine army that halted Khalid's advance guard was defeated. The Muslims besieged Emesa which was finally conquered in March 636 CE after two months. After capturing Emesa, Khalid moved north to capture Northern Syria, using his cavalry as an advance guard and raiding force. At Shaizar, Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius' ambitious plan to take back Syria with an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong. Khalid immediately ended
18228-537: The tribes of Rashidah and Lakhm. The ease with which Pelusium fell to the Muslims and the lack of Roman reinforcements during the month-long siege is often attributed to the treachery of Cyrus, who was also the Greek Patriarch of Alexandria (not the one recognised by most of the population, who was Pope Benjamin I ). After the fall of Pelusium, the Muslims marched to Belbeis , 65 km (40 mi) from Memphis via desert roads, and besieged it. Belbeis
18375-554: The village of Mu'tah , east of the Jordan River and Karak in Karak Governorate , between the forces of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the forces of the Byzantine Empire and their Arab Christian Ghassanid vassals. In Islamic historical sources, the battle is usually described as the Muslims ' attempt to take retribution against the Ghassanids after a Ghassanid official executed Muhammad's emissary who
18522-498: The west bank of the Nile . The Byzantines failed to inflict heavy losses but were able to delay the advance by a full day. The Muslim commanders decided to halt the main army at Tarnut and send an advance guard of cavalry forward to clear the path. The Muslims came to Kebrias of Abadja, where Domentianus and his soldiers were. He cravenly fled the city in a small boat, leaving his soldiers to their fate. They attempted to follow him, but in
18669-433: The whole army marched forward without an advance guard. The Muslims reached Sulteis, where they encountered another Byzantine detachment. Hard fighting followed, but the Byzantine resistance soon broke down and they withdrew to Alexandria. The Muslims halted at Sulteis for a day, still two days' march from Alexandria. After another day's march, the Muslim forces arrived at Kirayun, 20 km (12 miles) from Alexandria. There,
18816-441: Was "obese in person, quite without energy and unacquainted with warlike affairs". When he arrived, he found Theodore and his troops there already making sorties every day against the Arab base at Bahnasa. Judging that Amr would soon be defeated, Leontius left only half of his men there, going back to Babylon with the other half. The Arabs eventually gave up on attempting to take Faiyum and returned northwards. Theodore gave orders for
18963-567: Was Domentianus, while Anastasius was the prefect of its province, Arcadia Aegypti , and Theodosius was the prefect of Alexandria . The defence of Arcadia Aegypti was entrusted to a certain John, who Hermann Zotenberg identifies with the John, Duke of Barca or Barcaina mentioned by Nicephorus . He had brought the Ecthesis and a portion of the True Cross from Patriarch Sergius to Cyrus, and
19110-487: Was a time of rapid military change in the Byzantine Empire. The empire was certainly not in a state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from Arabia after being exhausted by recent Roman–Persian Wars , but utterly failed to tackle the challenge effectively. Military confrontations with the Byzantine Empire began during the lifetime of Muhammad . The Battle of Mu'tah was fought in September 629 near
19257-638: Was appointed Caliph and political successor at Medina . Soon after Abu Bakr 's succession, several Arab tribes revolted against him in the Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina. Whether Abu Bakr intended
19404-623: Was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army. In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Medina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other. Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words which he repeated to each of the corps commanders, were as follows: In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which
19551-472: Was captured. According to John of Nikiû , "they compelled the city to open its gates, and they put to the sword all that surrendered, and they spared none, whether old men, babe, or woman." The Arabs then noticed that John, with a small group of 50 men, had been following them. John and his men ran retreated to their base at Abûît , but their hiding place was betrayed by a Bedouin chief and they were all killed. When news of John's death reached Theodore , who
19698-490: Was commanding the garrison at Babylon , 'his lamentations were more grievous than the lamentations of David over Saul when he said: "How are the mighty fallen, and the weapons of war perished!"' as John of Nikiu puts it. Theodore hurried his troops up the Nile while Anastasius and Theodosius rushed from Nikiû to Babylon to strengthen it, while a further force was sent from Babylon to Abûît to strengthen it under Leontius, who
19845-692: Was conquered by Alexander Yannai and held by the Hasmoneans until it was rebuilt in the time of Pompey and Gabinius ; the latter seems to have done the actual work of restoration for the era of the town dates from 57 BCE. Rafah is mentioned in Strabo (16, 2, 31), the Antonine Itinerary , and is depicted on the Map of Madaba . During the Byzantine period, it was a diocese , and Byzantine ceramics and coins have been found there. It
19992-414: Was deposed by Valentine , who sent envoys to Rhodes with a message to Cyrus' troops, telling them to return to Constantinople and not to side with Cyrus. He also sent a letter to Alexandria telling the defenders not to obey Martina, and to keep fighting. Theodore was pleased to hear this, and without telling Cyrus or anyone but the captain, he secretly attempted to sail from Rhodes to Pentapolis . However,
20139-514: Was divided into an Egyptian and a Palestinian part, splitting up families, separated by barbed-wire barriers. Families were separated, property was divided and many houses and orchards were cut across and destroyed by the new boundary, bulldozed, allegedly for security reasons. Rafah became one of the three border points between Egypt and Israel. In 1922 , Rafah's population was 599, which increased to 1,423 in 1931, increasing again to 1,635 in 1938, and further increased to 2,220 in 1945. In 1982,
20286-536: Was en route to Bosra . During the battle the Muslim army was routed. After three Muslim leaders were killed, the command was given to Khalid ibn al-Walid and he succeeded in saving the rest of the forces. The surviving Muslim forces retreated to Medina . After the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632, the Muhammad appointed Usama ibn Zayd as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade
20433-476: Was killed and Armenousa was captured, but sent back to Cyrus. 'Amr ibn al-'As subsequently attempted to convince the native Egyptians to aid the Arabs and surrender the city, based on the kinship between Egyptians and Arabs via Hajar . When the Egyptians refused, the siege resumed until the city fell around the end of March 640. Amr had assumed that Egypt would be a pushover but was quickly proven wrong. Even at
20580-523: Was likely on a direct commission from Emperor Heraclius . When the Muslims realised that Faiyum was also too strong for them to take, they headed towards the Western Desert , where they looted as many cattle and animals as they could. They subsequently headed to a town in the Faiyum district named Bahnasa (not to be confused with Oxyrhynchus 50 miles further south), which was defeated and the city
20727-406: Was looted (the traditional fate of cities that had resisted). Emissaries were exchanged between Theodore and 'Amr, leading to 'Amr meeting Theodore in person. Then, with negotiations stalled, during the night of 20 December, a company of handpicked warriors, led by Zubayr, managed to scale the wall, kill the guards, and open the gates for the Muslim army to enter. The city was captured by the Muslims
20874-539: Was recognized and Umar had to come himself to accept the surrender of Jerusalem in April 637. Umar appointed his close advisor Ali to hold the lieutenancy of Medina. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and then captured Beirut . Amr and Shurhabil's corps left to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000-strong army, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards Chalcis , which
21021-705: Was represented at the Council of Ephesus 431 CE by Bishop Romanus, but today remains a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church but a small Greek Orthodox presence exists. Rafah was one of the towns captured by the Rashidun army under general 'Amr ibn al-'As in 635 CE, and subsequently was an important trading city during the Early Muslim period. Under the Umayyads and Abbasids , Rafah
21168-474: Was strategically the most significant Byzantine fort. Through Chalcis the Byzantines would be able to guard Anatolia , Heraclius' homeland of Armenia , and the regional capital, Antioch . Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his mobile guard towards Chalcis. The virtually impregnable fort was guarded by Greek troops under Menas, reportedly second in prestige only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy
21315-403: Was the first place in Egypt that the Byzantines showed some measure of resistance towards the Arabs. Two Christian monks, accompanied by Cyrus of Alexandria and the famous Roman general Aretion, came out to negotiate with 'Amr ibn al-'As. Aretion had been the Byzantine governor of Jerusalem and had fled to Egypt when the city fell to the Muslims. 'Amr gave them three options: convert to Islam, pay
21462-544: Was the most important leader of the Rashidun army . It was the first time since the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, that the region was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid Empire ), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian Empire , the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire ) ruling periods. Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to
21609-571: Was the southernmost border of Jund Filastin ("District of Palestine"). According to Arab geographer al-Ya'qubi , it was the last town in the Province of Syria and on the road from Ramla to Egypt . A Jewish community settled in the city in the 9th and 10th centuries and again in the 12th, although in the 11th century, it suffered a decline and in 1080 they migrated to Ashkelon . A Samaritan community also lived there during this period. Like most cities of southern Palestine , ancient Rafah had
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