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54-583: Opposition (24) Opposition (11) [REDACTED] Member State of the African Union [REDACTED] Member State of the Arab League 30°02′25″N 31°14′12″E  /  30.040196895446748°N 31.236757858462262°E  / 30.040196895446748; 31.236757858462262 The Parliament of Egypt is the bicameral legislature of the Arab Republic of Egypt . It

108-454: A 596-member lower house . Egypt was without a parliament for three years. The parliament was dissolved in June 2012. On 8 July 2012, President Mohamed Morsi said he would override the edict that had dissolved the country's elected lawmakers, but that was followed by his deposition. Elections for parliament were held from 17 October 2015 to 2 December 2015. While parliamentary elections in

162-435: A university degree in institutions of higher education . According to the scholar Andrea Rugh Copts tend to belong to the educated middle and upper-middle class , and according to scholar Lois Farag "The Copts still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20% of the total state capital, 45% of government employment, and 45% of government salaries". According to scholar J. D. Pennington 45% of

216-447: A Bedouin mob of 3,000 Muslims tried to attack the city's Coptic population, with 400 Copts having to barricade themselves in their church while the mob destroyed 18 homes, 23 shops and 16 cars. Journalist John R. Bradley writing around 2008 noted that " ... other longstanding Coptic complaints include the under-representation of Christians in the police, judiciary, armed forces, civil service, government, and education system. There

270-526: A brief period of time. The Egyptian Census of 1897 reported the percentage of Non-Muslims in Urban Provinces as 14.7% (13.2% Christians, 1.4% Jews). The Egyptian Census of 1986 reported the percentage of Non-Muslims in Urban Provinces as 6.1% (5.7% Christians, 0% Jews). The decline in the Jewish representation is interpreted through the creation of the state of Israel, and the subsequent emigration of

324-590: A claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. However, some Western scholars today argue that Pharaonism was a late development shaped primarily by Orientalism , and doubt its validity. Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Coptic Christians, being

378-742: A lack of oppositional mobilization in response to instability. In the Jordan case study, scholars reference opposition increasingly challenge those in power as political and economic instability proliferated wereas the opposition in Morocco did not mobilize on the instability. Furthermore, research on opposition politics in South Asia has helped inform researchers on possibilities of democratic renewal post-backsliding as well as possibilities of political violence.  Despite there being aggressive and powerful regimes in place in various South Asian countries,

432-399: A minute to a half an hour. Candidates are served cigarettes, (non-alcoholic) drinks or sweets; The visits are not confined to a period before the election but often continue even when the parliament is cancelled and elections continually delayed. Because family hierarchies dominate most people's lives, candidates seek the support of clan elders who direct family members, sometimes numbering in

486-582: A particular faction but are in fact working for the faction. One alleged example is the Serbian Party Oathkeepers (SSZ), led under their president Milica Đurđević Stamenkovski , who claim to be opposed to the Serbian Progressive Party (SNS). Controlled opposition can also mean a party or group that stands as a placeholder for the opposition, but who are ultimately completely ineffective and therefore everything

540-502: A stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims. Historically, many Copts were accountants , and in 1961 Coptic Christians owned 51% of the Egyptian banks . A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that around 36% of Egyptian Christians obtain

594-431: A stump speech or field questions about what they will do if elected. Potential voters will however often ask for small favors such as making a call to a government office that issued permits or handled utilities on the voter's behalf if the candidate is elected. Campaigning involves male Muslims, as candidates seldom if ever interact with women (who in the south are sequestered at home and sometimes forbidden from voting by

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648-446: A whole has also heightened the spread of clearer political opposition. Various factors like censorship, selective censoring, polarization, and echo chambers have changed the way that political opposition presents itself. Many Americans also believe that Social Media sites censor political viewpoints especially when they contradict the status quo. Controlled opposition is the use of black propaganda and saboteurs who claim to oppose

702-616: Is "controlled" by the ruling parties, without necessarily a direct conspiracy taking place. Copts in Egypt Copts in Egypt refers to Coptic Christians born in or residing in Egypt . As of 2019, "Copts are generally understood to make up approximately 10 percent of Egypt's population," with an estimated population of 9.5 million (figure cited in the Wall Street Journal , 2017) or 10 million (figure cited in

756-619: Is a Copt who lived in Egypt during that era. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday. However, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion. Copts are unrepresented and marginalized in Egyptian politics, bureaucracy, and society. Minorities at Risk reports that there are no Christian governors, university presidents, or deans in

810-682: Is also a virtual ban on access to state-controlled radio and television. One oft-cited example of official discrimination is a law that, until recently, required personal presidential approval to carry out even simple church repairs, such as fixing a toilet and which was blamed for delays of more than a decade in the issuing of permits to build churches. Mubarak eased the law in 2005, delegating such responsibility to local governors." Members of U.S. Congress have expressed concern about "human trafficking" of Coptic women and girls who are victims of abductions, forced conversion to Islam, sexual exploitation and forced marriage to Muslim men. Boutros Boutros-Ghali

864-708: Is composed of an upper house (the Senate ) and a lower house (the House of Representatives ). The Parliament is located in New Administrative Capital , Egypt's capital. Under the country's 2014 constitution, as the legislative branch of the Egyptian state the Parliament enacted laws, approved the general policy of the State, the general plan for economic and social development and the general budget of

918-541: Is responsible for looking into the violations committed by House members towards the Egyptian society's code of behavior towards religion, social standards, etc. The ad hoc committees are formed by the suggestion of the Speaker or the request of the government to study, debate on a new bill or law, voting on the ratification of a new law or bill or a special issue of concern. The Speaker is responsible on choosing members for this committee. The Combined committees are formed by

972-587: Is responsible for organization of the house' and its committees' agendas, the enforcement of the House' orders and is the link between the House and different agencies, ministries and other authorities. The staff consists of the HR speaker and his two deputies. This committee is formed in the beginning of the House' annual season, headed by the Speaker. Its membership includes the Deputy Speakers, representatives of

1026-591: The Associated Press , 2019). Smaller or larger figures have also been cited, in the range of "somewhere between 6% and 18% of the population," with the Egyptian government estimating lower numbers and the Coptic Orthodox Church estimating much higher numbers. A lack of definite, reliable demographic data renders all estimates uncertain. In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment , relatively higher wealth index, and

1080-513: The Ministry of Interior . In May 2010, The Wall Street Journal reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against Copts. Despite frantic calls for help, the police typically arrived after the violence was over. The police also coerced the Copts to accept "reconciliation" with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, with no Muslims convicted for any of the attacks. In Marsa Matrouh ,

1134-525: The Pact of Umar covenant, thus assigned to Dhimmi status. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Copts to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV , 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha , in power from 1863–79, further promoted

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1188-603: The Prime Minister of Egypt and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the House. When the president and house come from opposing parties (a situation which did arise historically, but not since the 1970s), this would lead to the situation known as cohabitation . The House of Representatives has various competences stated in Chapter Five of the Constitution. According to article 86

1242-572: The Wafd Party Makram Ebeid . In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup d'état against King Farouk , which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser 's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10–20% of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined

1296-813: The medical doctors , 60% of the pharmacists of Egypt were Christians. A number of Coptic business and land-owning families became very wealthy and influential such as the Egyptian Coptic Christian Sawiris family that owns the Orascom conglomerate , spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, industries and technology. In 2008, Forbes estimated the family's net worth at $ 36 billion. According to scholars Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein argue that Copts have relatively higher educational attainment and relatively higher wealth index, due to Coptic Christianity emphasis on literacy and that Coptic Christianity encouraged

1350-668: The Coptic Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims" and that "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary." On August 15, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying, In December … Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to

1404-400: The Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed. Many Coptic intellectuals hold to "Pharaonism," which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic Egyptian culture. It gives the Copts

1458-656: The Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs. Some Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa , Louis Awad and Secretary General of

1512-613: The Egyptian Jews. There is no explanation for a 55% decline in the percentage of Christians in Egypt. It has been suggested that Egyptian censuses held after 1952 have been politicized to under-represent the Christian population. In August 2013, following the 3 July 2013 Coup and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were widespread attacks on Coptic churches and institutions in Egypt by Morsi supports. According to at least one Egyptian scholar (Samuel Tadros),

1566-547: The House of Representatives shall undertake: In practice, the People's Assembly had very little power prior to the 2011 Egyptian revolution . It was dominated by the National Democratic Party , and there was little substantive opposition to executive decisions. The House of Representatives Speaker (HR Speaker) presides over the House and is elected from the House membership, along with two deputies during

1620-467: The House' annual season, headed by one of the HR speaker deputies. The membership includes the heads of the following committees: Constitutional Affairs and Legislation; Religious, Social and Awkaf Affairs; and Suggestions and Grievances; five members of the General Committee (of whom at least two are from the opposition parties); and five members chosen randomly from the House. This committee

1674-508: The Speaker serves as acting president until the presidential elections are held (Which must be within 60 days). This has happened once, when president Anwar Sadat was assassinated in office, and then People's Assembly Speaker, Sufi Abu Taleb served as acting president. The last PA Speaker was Saad Al Katatny , who briefly presided the Assembly for only 5 months from 23 January 2012 to the dissolution of parliament on 18 June 2012. The Staff

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1728-483: The State, supervised the work of the government, and had the power to vote to impeach the president of the Republic, or replace the government and its prime minister by a vote of no-confidence. The parliament is made up of 596 seats, with 448 seats elected through the individual candidacy system, 120 elected through winner-take-all party lists (with quotas for youth, women, Christians, and workers) and 28 selected by

1782-554: The accumulation of human capital. The early church historian, Eusebius, states in his Chronicle that Mark arrived in Egypt in the third year of Emperor Claudius (43 A.D.), marking the beginning of Christianity in Egypt. By 641 C.E., the Arab forces take over Egypt, marking the beginning of the Arab-Muslim period in Egypt. Under Muslim rule, the Copts were cut off from the mainstream of Christianity, and were compelled to adhere to

1836-503: The attacks are the worst violence against the Coptic Church since the 14th century. USA Today reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". The Facebook page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts", according to journalist Kirsten Powers. The Party's page claimed that

1890-461: The clan elder), and the ten percent Coptic Christian minority is "basically ignored" by "most" candidates. The 2014 constitution that was passed in the 2014 constitutional referendum has put into place the following rules: the House that is elected following the ratification of the constitution must have at least 450 members. In addition, prospective members must be Egyptian, must be at least 25 years old and must hold an education certificate. Also,

1944-667: The country. Official and unofficial discrimination against Copts occurs in forms such as disadvantages in education and the judicial system, violence from Islamic militants, and restrictions on religious activity and expression. While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights Watch , "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents." The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to

1998-469: The demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi … morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by … the continued anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage … throughout the sit-in. An Egyptian court on February 25, 2016, convicted four Coptic Christian teenagers for contempt of Islam, after they appeared in a video mocking Muslim prayers. Nearly all Egyptian Christians today are Copts, adherents of either

2052-416: The ease with which Christians can often become Muslim. Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining

2106-550: The entire membership of the House, and headed by the Speaker. The executive committee of this chapter of the Speaker staff office, three members chosen from the Assembly membership of whom at least one is a member of the opposition parties. The Assembly meets in its chapter form every January. Emergency sessions are held by the request of the executive committee to look into any of additionally outlined issues of concern. Opposition (politics) Scholarship focusing on opposition politics did not become popular or sophisticated until

2160-402: The first session of the season. The Speaker's role in session is to keep the peace and order to the parliamentary session, take part in discussion provided that he gives up his presidency to one of his deputies and doesn't return to his presidency until the discussion is finished as well as ordering an emergency session for one of the House' committees. In case of vacancy in the president's office,

2214-441: The history of the Egyptian people's struggle to establish a society based on democracy and freedom. For more than 135 years of parliamentary history, Egypt witnessed 32 Parliaments whose members ranged between 75 and 458 who contributed to writing Egypt's modern political social, economic, and cultural history. According to the present-day constitution, the Parliament consists only of the House of Representatives ("Maǧlis an-Nowwab"),

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2268-520: The homes of 35 Christians, and that in April 2001 a 14-year-old Egyptian Christian girl was kidnapped because her parents were believed to be harboring a person who had converted from Islam to Christianity. In 2006, one person attacked three churches in Alexandria , killing one person and injuring 5–16. The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as "psychologically disturbed" by

2322-518: The hundreds, how to vote. Candidates may successfully campaign without the "support of any party or other institution" because there are no party networks. They do campaign with family members and when defeated candidates lose face because elections are a matter of family pride. Candidates often have no platform, do not talk "about issues, policies, or potential legislation", or make any "public campaign promises". Candidates often sit in silence on their visits rather than formally introduce themselves, give

2376-619: The largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser . Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and restrictions in building new churches. These restrictions do not apply for building mosques. The Coptic community has been targeted with hate crimes by Islamic extremists. The most significant

2430-661: The major cities are often fixed by the ruling party, elections in Upper Egypt —the poorest and most underdeveloped part of the country where approximately 40% of Egypt's population live—are more free, with the ruling party "recruiting whoever happened to win." According to journalist Peter Hessler, neglect of Upper Egypt has also allowed the region to "devise indigenous campaign traditions". Without parties or local media to promote issues or policies, campaigns consist primarily of evening house calls to potential voters by candidates with their entourage. Visits may last anywhere from only

2484-475: The mid-20th century. Recent studies have found that popular unrest regarding the economy and quality of life can be used by political opposition to mobilize and to demand change. Scholars have debated whether political opposition can benefit from political instability and economic crises, while some conclude the opposite. Case studies in Jordan align with mainstream thought in that political opposition can benefit from instability, while case studies in Morocco display

2538-505: The opposition still poses a powerful counter-party. For example, members of opposition have made their way into office in Nepal and Sri Lanka has been hosting elections in regions known to previously not hold them. In these cases, the presence of opposition has brought about positive democratic change. As social media has become a larger part of society and culture around the world, so too has online political opposition. Online communication as

2592-409: The political parties' parliamentary committees, and five House members (of whom one is an independent, if there are more than ten independents). The Speaker is responsible for outlining the committee's agenda. The committee is responsible for discussing the general issues put forward by the president, the prime minister or the speaker. These committees are: This committee is formed in the beginning of

2646-409: The president can appoint, at the most, five percent of the members in the chamber. The House sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the president. All seats are voted on in each election. The House of Representatives members are elected by absolute majority of legitimate votes cast. The House may demand the resignation of the cabinet by adopting a motion of censure. For this reason,

2700-530: The president. It is the seventh-largest legislative chamber in the world behind China 's National People's Congress and the largest parliamentary body in the Arab world . Parliamentary life began in Egypt as early as 1866, and since then several forms of national assemblies have been formed, dismantled, and amended to reach the present-day form. Since 1866, Egypt witnessed seven parliamentary systems whose legislative and oversight competencies varied and reflected

2754-552: The request of the Speaker, the government, members of two or more of the specialized committees, with the aim of studying a particular issue of concern. These combined committees are headed by one of the Speaker's deputies. The orders of these committees are issued when a majority vote is achieved. The Egyptian House of Representatives is the Egyptian representative of the international parliamentary conventions. This chapter aims at developing of mutual relations with international parliaments. The General Assembly of this chapter consists of

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2808-651: The subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening. In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam. However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards, but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for

2862-464: Was a Copt who served as Egypt 's foreign minister under President Anwar Sadat . During Mubarak regime, there were two Copts serving on Egypt 's governmental cabinet: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Environment Minister Magued George. There was also one Coptic governor out of 25, that of the upper Egyptian governorate of Qena , and the first Coptic governor in a few decades. In addition, Naguib Sawiris , an extremely successful businessman,

2916-419: Was the 2000–01 El Kosheh attacks, in which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody inter-religious clashes following a dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. "Twenty Christians and one Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh, 440 kilometres (270 mi) south of Cairo". International Christian Concern reported that in February 2001, Muslims burned a new Egyptian church and

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